UNITS IN THIS COURSE

Unit No. 4 - Turbines

UNIT 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS AND TURBINES

UNIT 2 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Unit No. 4 - Turbines

UNIT 3 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

UNIT 4 TURBINES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Para
Page

3.0 COURSE OBJECTIVES 3

3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 4

3.1.1 How a Centrifugal Compressor Works 6

3.2 CAPACITY CONTROL 10

3.2.1 Speed Control 10

3.2.2 Recycle Loop 11

3.2.3 Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes 12

3.3 SURGE CONTROL 13

3.3.1 What Causes Surge? 13

& Turbines

3.3.2 What Does Surge Do? 13

3.3.3 Controlling Surge 13

3.4 AUTOMATIC SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS 15

Compressors
Turbines

3.0 COURSE OBJECTIVES

No. 6 : &

This course describes the different types of compressors and turbines found
Compressors

in process plants. The course progresses in Units from basic terminology to

the principles of operation of reciprocating and centrifugal compressors and
steam and gas turbines. On completion of the course the student will be able
Module No. 6 :Module

to:

• Explain the basic terminology used in describing compressor and turbine

operations.

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 • Explain the functions and classifications of compressors and turbines in
process plants, and identify the different types of prime movers used to
power compressors.

• Identify suction scrubbers and explain how they work.

• Explain the basic principles of operation of reciprocating compressors

including capacity control methods, control of suction pressure, and
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automatic shutdown systems.

• Explain the basic principles of operation of centrifugal compressors

including capacity control methods, surge control, and automatic
shutdown systems.

• Explain the basic principles of operation of gas turbines, steam turbines,

and turbo-expanders.

3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

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Unit No. 4 - Turbines
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 3-1 Centrifugal Compressors

The main working part of a centrifugal compressor is called the impeller. If

there is only one impeller in the compressor, the compressor is classed as a
single stage compressor. If there is more than one impeller in the
compressor, the compressor is classed as a multi-stage compressor.

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 In a multi-stage compressor each of the impellers adds pressure to the gas. A
multi-stage compressor can be thought of as several single stage
compressors joined together inside the same casing.

A centrifugal compressor contains only three main parts. These are the
casing, the impeller (impellers if it is a multi-stage compressor), and the
shaft.

The casing provides somewhere for gas to enter the compressor. This is the
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compressor suction, which is sometimes called the suction port. The casing
also provides somewhere for the gas to leave the compressor. This is the
compressor discharge, which is sometimes called the discharge port.

The shape of the compressor casing is important because it must be in the

form of a volute. A volute is like part of a spiral. It increases in diameter (and
therefore in volume) in the direction of flow. The importance of this will be
explained later in this Unit.

There are several different designs of impeller, three of which are shown in
Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2 Impellers

Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

The open impeller is used where a high discharge pressure is required. It can
handle small to large flows but is used only in single stage compressors.

The semi-enclosed impeller is used for large flows. This type of impeller is usually
found in single stage machines although it may be used as the first stage of a
multistage compressor.

The enclosed impeller is mainly used in multi-stage compressors although it may

also be found in single stage machines.

The shaft connects the impellers of a multi-stage compressor together and connects
either a single stage or a multi-stage compressor to its prime mover.

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 3.1.1 How a Centrifugal Compressor Works

To understand how a centrifugal compressor works you must first understand

something about centrifugal force and about energy.

As explained in Unit 1 of this course, when something is turning about a central

point, a force pushes outwards from the central point. The faster the thing is
turning, the greater the force. This force is known as centrifugal force.
Unit No. 4 - Turbines

In a centrifugal compressor the impeller (impellers if it is a multi-stage compressor)

is the thing that is turning. How centrifugal force is used in the compressor will be
explained later.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form of
energy to another.

Think of a hammer which is being used to hit a nail into a piece of wood. The
hammer is raised over the head of the nail ready to hit it. At this point the hammer
is not moving but it has a form of energy called potential energy. Something has
potential energy because of its position.

As the hammer moves down to hit the nail, all of the potential energy changes to
kinetic energy. Something has kinetic energy because it is moving.

As the hammer hits the nail all of the kinetic energy is converted into work, and work
is yet another form of energy. The work drives the nail further into the wood.

Hammers and nails have nothing to do with centrifugal compressors but they do
show how energy changes its form.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 3-3 What an Impeller Does

Gas enters the casing of a Centrifugal compressor through the suction port. Inside
the casing the gas passes to the inlet of the impeller. This is called the eye of the
impeller.

The impeller is spinning round very fast. The gas is forced outwards to the outer rim
of the impeller by centrifugal force. As the gas moves towards the outer rim of the

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 impeller its velocity is increased.

How does an object which is spinning (the impeller) increase the speed of
something which is passing through it? Look at Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4 shows a circular object which can rotate round its centre point. In other
words, it can spin. The object could be anything, including the impeller of a
compressor, but we will simply call it a wheel.
Unit No. 4 - Turbines

Two points, Point A and Point B, have been marked on the wheel.

For our purposes the wheel does not need to turn a full circle It will move only from
Position 1 to Position 2. The wheel makes this move in a certain amount of time.
The amount of time does not really matter. What is important is that Point A and
Point B both move from Position 1 to Position 2 in the same amount of time.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 3-4 Velocity Increase

Now look at how far Point A and Point B travel. You can see from Figure 3-4 that
Point A travels about two times as far as Point B. Use a ruler to measure the
dotted lines on the drawing. You will find that Point A moves about 5 centimetres
and Point B moves about 2.5 centimetres. Remember that this movement has

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 taken place in the same amount of time for each of the points.

Let us say that the wheel has moved from Position 1 to Position 2 in 1 second. Point
B has moved at a velocity of 2.5 centimetres per second (2.5 cm/s) while Point A
has moved at a velocity of 5.0 cm/s.

Imagine now that instead of Points A and B there is a solid object on the wheel. As
the wheel spins centrifugal force makes the object move out from the centre of the
wheel to the outer edge. As already shown, when this happens the velocity of the
Unit No. 4 - Turbines

object is increased. Even a molecule of gas is a solid object.

Inside the compressor the gas has passed through the impeller and its velocity has
been increased. Because the gas is moving, its kinetic energy has been increased
also.

As the gas leaves the impeller it passes into a passageway called the diffuser.
When the gas enters the diffuser the impeller is no longer acting directly on the
gas.

The diffuser has a larger diameter than the impeller. Because the flow path of. the
gas is now longer, and there is no direct action on the gas by the impeller, the
velocity of the gas decreases. As the velocity of the gas decreases so does its
kinetic energy. Remember that energy cannot be either created or destroyed, it can
only be converted from one form to another. In this case the kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy. Gas passes from the diffuser into the volute. In the
volute the conversion from velocity (kinetic energy) to pressure continues.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

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 Figure 3-5 Diffuser and Volute

To sum up what happens; the work put in to the compressor by the prime mover is
used to increase the velocity of the gas inside the compressor. The velocity (kinetic
4 - Turbines

energy) is then converted into pressure energy and the pressure of the gas is
increased.
Turbines

3,2 CAPACITY CONTROL_

In a -continuous gas process the flow of gas through the process may not be
4 -No.

constant. - There may be changes in either the supply of gas or the demand for
Unit

gas. If a compressor is installed as part of a continuous gas process we need to be

Unit No.

able to control the capacity of the compressor to suit changes in gas flow. Capacity
is the amount of gas flowing through the compressor at any one time.

One of the easiest ways to do this is to control the speed of the compressor. The
lower the speed, the lower the capacity and the higher the speed, the higher the
capacity. However, the prime mover of the compressor may not be suitable for
speed control. In this case other methods of capacity control are used. These are;

• A recycle loop, which is sometimes known as a hot gas bypass or

• as a kick-back,
• Adjustable inlet guide vanes,
• Using the compressor suction valve in an operation called 'throttling'.

3.2.1 Speed Control

Centrifugal compressors which are driven by a steam turbine, a gas turbine or an

internal combustion engine can have their capacity controlled easily by adjusting
the speed of the prime mover. Usually a controlling instrument is linked to the
governor of the prime mover.

The governor is an instrument which controls the speed of the machine by adjusting
the supply of steam or fuel going to the machine.

The controlling instrument may be measuring pressure or flow. As the pressure or

flow change a signal from the controlling instrument changes the governor setting.
This makes the prime mover increase or decrease speed.
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Variable speed electric motors are very expensive. If a compressor is driven by an

electric motor it is most likely to be a constant speed machine.
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3.2.2 Recycle Loop

6 : Compressors

Figure 3-6 shows a recycle loop.

Module
Module Compressors
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Unit No. 4 - Turbines

Figure 3-6 Recycle Loop

A recycle loop is used to recycle gas from the discharge side of the compressor to
the suction side to control the capacity of the compressor. A recycle loop is
sometimes known as a hot gas bypass.

A capacity control valve is fitted in the recycle line. The capacity control valve is
usually operated automatically. Some compressors may have manually operated
capacity control valves.

If the capacity control valve is automatically operated it will receive a controlling

signal from an instrument. The instrument may be fitted on the compressor suction
or discharge lines to measure pressure or flow. As the pressure or flow change, the
measuring instrument signals the capacity control valve to open or close to keep
the compressor's capacity constant.

A disadvantage of the recycle loop is that hot gas from the compressor discharge is
being sent to the compressor suction. This will increase the suction temperature,
which will also cause the discharge temperature to rise. To prevent this a cooler is
sometimes fitted in the recycle line.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

3.2.3 Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes

To direct incoming gas to the impeller some centrifugal compressors are fitted with
inlet guide vanes. The inlet guide vanes can be made adjustable so that they control
the amount of gas entering the compressor. This controls the capacity of the
compressor.

The inlet guide vanes may be adjusted manually or automatically. In automatic

operation the guide vanes respond to signals from a sensing instrument.

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Unit No. 4 - Turbines

Figure 3-7 Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes

3.3. SURGE CONTROL

3.3.1 What Causes Surge?

The condition known as surge occurs if the compressor attempts to raise the
pressure of the gas too high when the flow of gas through the compressor is too low.

Inside the compressor the gas then starts to flow backwards. When the gas flows
backwards the suction pressure is increased and the compressor can work properly
again. The gas flows in the normal direction. The increase in suction pressure is only
temporary so the compressor starts to surge again. This cycle is repeated again and
again and takes place very, very quickly.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

3.3.2 What Does Surge Do?

Surge causes serious damage to compressors.

With the gas moving very rapidly backwards and forwards in the compressor three
things happen:

• Because the gas is recirculating within the compressor it gets hotter and hotter.
The heat of the gas can damage the internal parts of the compressor or can
cause the lubricating oil to lose its lubricating properties.

• Surging also causes violent changes. of thrust. First there is a normal thrust

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 force on the compressor's thrust bearing, then there is none. As the gas flow in
the compressor changes direction the rotor of the compressor is slammed back
onto the thrust bearing. This is more load than the thrust bearing can take and
the thrust bearing will break.

• The rapid change in the flow direction of the gas in the compressor causes
vibrations in the compressor. When the vibrations reach a certain level they can
cause parts of the compressor to break.
Unit No. 4 - Turbines

3.3.3 Controlling Surge

A centrifugal compressor can be brought out of surge by any of the following:

• Reducing the speed of the compressor. This method can only be used if the
compressor has a variable speed prime mover.

• Increasing the flow through the compressor. Using this method depends on the
process which the compressor forms part of. In some processes it may not be
possible to increase the gas flow.

• Reducing the compression ratio either by increasing the suction pressure or

decreasing the discharge pressure. , This method also depends on the process
which the compressor forms. part of. In some processes it may not be possible
to alter the suction pressure or the discharge pressure.

Most large centrifugal compressors are fitted with an' automatic anti-surge system.
Figure 3-8 shows an anti-surge system.

An anti surge system looks almost the same as a recycle loop used for capacity
control. Surge is prevented by recycling some of the discharge gas back to the
compressor suction. This increases the suction pressure and reduces the
compression ratio so the compressor does not surge.
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

Figure 3-8 Anti-Surge System

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 The control box on the anti-surge system receives more information, usually from
more than one instrument, than the recycle loop does. The control box looks at the
information it receives and uses it to check if the compressor is near to its surge
point. If the surge point is near, the control box signals the control valve in the
recycle line to open.
Unit No. 4 - Turbines

3.4 AUTOMATIC SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS

Compressors, especially large compressors, are usually fitted with automatic

shutdown systems. The purpose of these systems is to detect when something is
going wrong with the compressor and to shut it down before damage occurs.
Although this could affect upstream, of downstream processes, the cost of a short
shutdown is far less than repairing a damaged -compressor.

Listed below are some of the usual automatic shutdown systems fitted to a
centrifugal compressor.- The numbers in brackets refer to the instruments shown on
Figure 11

Low lubricating oil pressure (1) is detected by a low pressure sensor. The low
pressure sensor is usually located on the lubricating oil supply line.

• Low lubricating oil level (2) is detected by a low level sensor fitted
• on the, oil sump.

• Vibration (3 and 4) is detected by instruments called vibration monitors. The

vibration monitors can be fitted to various places on the compressor or its prime
mover.

• High temperature of the discharged gas (5) is detected by a high temperature

sensor. The sensor is fitted on the compressor discharge line. In multi-stage
compressors more than one sensor may be fitted to detect high temperatures
from one or more stages.

• Overspeed (6) is detected by an overspeed sensor which is usually fitted to the

prime mover of the compressor.

• Low suction pressure (7) is detected by a low pressure sensor fitted in the
compressor suction line.

• Low seal oil pressure (8) is detected by a low pressure sensor. The low
Module No. 6 : Compressors & Turbines

pressure sensor is usually located on the seal oil supply line._

• Low seal oil level (9) is detected by a low level sensor fitted on the seal oil
sump.

All of these sensors are linked to the shutdown arrangements for the compressor.
The usual method of shutdown is to cut off the supply of fuel, steam or electricity to
the prime mover of the compressor.

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Figure 3-9 Automatic Shutdown Systems

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