Human Physiology From Cells to Systems 9th Edition Sherwood Solutions Manual

Human Physiology From Cells to Systems 9th

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 Chapter 5
The Central Nervous System

CHAPTER OUTLINE

5.1 ORGANIZATION AND CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is organized into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous
system (nerve fibers carrying information between the CNS and other parts of the body).
The PNS can be subdivided into two branches: afferent (sensory, carries information to the CNS) and efferent (motor,
carries information from the CNS to the effector organs). The efferent branch can be further divided into the somatic
nervous system (motor neurons supplying the skeletal muscles) and the autonomic nervous systems (fibers that
innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands). The autonomic nervous system can be divided into the
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
In addition to CNS and PNS there is a separate nerve network in the wall of the digestive tract called the enteric
nervous system.
The three classes of neurons are afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneurons.
Afferent neurons make up the afferent nervous system. These neurons have the sensory receptor that gives rise to
action potentials in response to specific stimuli. A long peripheral axon (peripheral fiber) extends from the sensory
receptor to the cell body that lies adjacent to the spinal cord. A short, central axon passes from the cell body into the
spinal cord where it synapses with other neurons within the spinal cord.
Efferent neurons lie primarily in the PNS; however their cell bodies originate in the CNS. Here, many centrally located
presynaptic inputs converge on the efferent neuron to influence their outputs to the peripheral effector organs. The
efferent axons (efferent fibers) extend into the PNS to terminate on muscles or glands.
Interneurons comprise about 99 percent of all CNS neurons (100 billion interneurons in the human CNS). These
interneurons lie between the afferent and efferent neurons and are important in integrating peripheral information to
peripheral responses.

Glial cells support the interneurons physically, metabolically, and functionally.

Neuroglia, or glial, cells account for 90 percent of the cells in the CNS; however, due to their size, they occupy only
about 50 percent of the CNS volume. Glial cells do not initiate nor conduct nerve impulses, but they are involved in
communication with neurons and between themselves by means of chemical signaling. There are four major types of
glial cells in the CNS:
- Astrocytes: these star-shaped cells are the most abundant glial cells. They perform several tasks, including: holding
neurons in the proper spatial relationship to one another; serving as scaffolding to guide neurons to their proper final
destination during fetal development; affecting the brain capillaries to form the blood-brain barrier; transferring
nutrients from the blood to the neurons; forming neural scars in the event of brain injuries; taking up and degrading
certain neurotransmitters to halt specific neuronal signaling; removing excess K+ from the synaptic clefts, thus
preserving the optimal ion concentration gradients; enhancing the formation of synapses and modifying synaptic
transmission; and communicating with neurons by use of various chemical signals .
- Oligodendricytes: these cells form the myelin sheaths in the CNS to optimize action potential propagation.
- Microglia: these cells are phagocytic scavengers and they release nerve growth factor.
- Ependymal cells: these cells line the internal cavities in the brain and spinal cord. They are part of the choroid plexus
and contribute to the formation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). They function as neural stem cells and can form new
neurons and glial cells.

5.2 PROTECTION AND NOURISHMENT OF THE BRAIN

The delicate central nervous system is well protected. Four major features help protect the CNS from injury.
Hard, boney structures enclose the CNS. The cranium or skull encloses the brain, while the vertebral column encloses
the spinal cord.

The Central Nervous System

Three meningeal membranes wrap, protect, and nourish the central nervous system.
The dura mater is a tough, inelastic covering that sits directly below the cranium and vertebral column. It consists of
two layers that are most often adhered to one another, but can be separated at special places such as the dural and
venous sinuses.
The arachnoid mater is a delicate, richly vascularized layer that sits immediately inferior to the dura mater. Protrusions
from the arachnoid mater (arachnoid villi) extend into the dural sinus to reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and return
it to the blood.
The pia mater is a very fragile layer that is highly vascularized and is in intimate contact with, and adheres directly to,
the surfaces of the brain and spinal cord. Because it dips deeply into specific regions of the brain, it brings a rich blood
supply into contact with ependymal cells lining the ventricles, thus forming the choroid plexus responsible for the
formation of the CSF.

The brain floats in its own special cerebrospinal fluid.

CSF formed by the choroid plexus of the ventricles has approximately the same density as the brain, so the brain and
spinal cord float in the CSF. This provides a protective cushioning.

A highly selective blood-brain barrier carefully regulates exchanges between the blood and brain. This is formed by
the interaction of astrocytes with brain capillaries. The pores usually found in capillary walls are closed with the
formation of tight junctions at the direction of the astrocytes. All communication between the blood and the brain
interstitial fluid must occur through the capillary cells, not between them.

The brain depends on constant delivery of oxygen and glucose by the blood.

5.3 OVERVIEW OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CNS consists of the brain (approximately 100 billion neurons) and the spinal cord. The brain allows one to: (1)
subconsciously regulate internal environment, (2) experience emotions, (3) control movements, (4) perceive own body
and surroundings, and (5) engage in higher cognitive processes.
The brain operates as an integrated unit, but parts of the brain can be grouped based on anatomic distinctions,
functional specialization, and evolutionary development.
This text uses: brain stem, cerebellum, forebrain, diencephalon, hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebrum, basal nuclei, and
cerebral cortex.

5.4 CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex is an outer shell of gray matter covering an inner core of white matter.
Neurons in different regions of the cortex may fire in rhythmic synchrony.
The cerebral cortex is organized into layers and functional columns.
The four pairs of lobes in the cerebral cortex are specialized for different activities.
The parietal lobes accomplish somatosensory processing.
The primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobes.
Brain regions other than the primary motor cortex are important in motor control.
Somatotopic maps vary slightly between individuals and are dynamic, not static.
Because of its plasticity, the brain can be remodeled in response to varying demands.
Different regions of the cortex control different aspects of language.
The association areas of the cortex are involved in many higher functions.
The cerebral hemispheres have some degree of specialization.
The cortex has a default mode network that is most active when the mind wanders.
An electroencephalogram is a record of postsynaptic activity in cortical neurons.

5.5 BASAL NUCLEI, THALAMUS, AND HYPOTHALAMUS

The basal nuclei play an inhibitory role in motor control; coordination of slow, sustained movements; and suppression
of useless movements.
The thalamus is a relay station for all synaptic inputs to the CNS, provides a crude awareness of sensations, and
provides a degree of consciousness. The thalamus screens out insignificant sensory signals and routes important signals
to the appropriate areas of the somatosensory cortex to help direct attention to stimuli of immediate

Chapter Five
interest/importance. The thalamus is important in motor control by reinforcing voluntary motor behaviors initiated by
the motor cortex.
The hypothalamus regulates many homeostatic functions. The hypothalamus is the brain area most directly involved in
regulating the internal environment. Specifically, the hypothalamus: (1) controls body temperature, (2) controls thirst
and urine output, (3) controls food intake, (4) controls anterior pituitary hormone production, (5) produces posterior
pituitary hormones, (6) controls uterine contraction and milk ejection, (7) serves as the major autonomic nervous
system coordinating center, (8) plays a role in emotional and behavioral patterns, and (9) participates in the sleep-wake
cycle.

5.6 EMOTION, BEHAVIOR, AND MOTIVATION

The limbic system plays a key role in emotion. This includes subjective emotional feelings and moods such as anger,
fear, sadness and joy, plus the physical responses associated with these feelings, for example crying, laughing, and
blushing.
The limbic system and higher cortex participate in controlling basic behavior patterns.

Motivated behaviors are goal directed.

Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are neurotransmitters in pathways for emotion and behavior.

5.7 LEARNING AND MEMORY

Learning is the acquisition of knowledge as a consequence of experience, instruction, or both. Rewards and
punishments are integral parts of many types of learning. Rewards reinforce a response to a particular stimulation,
while punishments will reduce the likelihood of repeating the same response to the same stimulation.

Memory is laid down in stages. Memory traces are present in multiple regions of the brain. Short-term memory, which
lasts for seconds to hours, and long-term memory, which is retained for days to years, involve different molecular
mechanisms.

Short-term memory involves transient changes in preexisting synaptic activity. Long-term memory involves formation
of new, permanent synaptic connections. Working memory temporarily holds and interrelates various pieces of
information relevant to a current mental task.
Newly acquired information is initially deposited into short-term memory. This is either soon forgotten or it is
transferred to more permanent long-term memory through practice or rehearsal.

Long-term memory involves formation of new, permanent, synaptic connections.

Remembering is the process of retrieving specific information from memory stores, while forgetting is the inability to
retrieve stored information.

Memory traces are present in multiple regions of the brain.

5.8 CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is important in balance, and in planning and execution of voluntary movement. The cerebellum has
about four times as many individual neurons as the entire rest of the brain. There are three functionally distinct parts of
the cerebellum: the vestibulocerebellum is important for maintaining balance and control eye movements; the
spinocerebellum enhances muscle tone and coordinates skilled, voluntary movements; and the cerebrocerebellum plays
a role in planning and initiating voluntary activity. This area of the cerebellum stores procedural memories.

5.9 BRAIN STEM

The brain stem consists of the medulla, pons, and midbrain.

The brain stem is a vital link between the spinal cord and higher brain regions. The functions of the brainstem include:
(1) origin of most of the 12 cranial nerves; (2) houses the neuronal clusters of center that control heart and blood vessel
function, respiration, and digestive functions; (3) helps regulate muscle reflexes involved in equilibrium and posture;

The Central Nervous System

(4) houses the reticular formation, which is involved in arousal and attention or cortical alertness; and (5) houses most
of the centers governing sleep, which coordinate with the hypothalamus to control sleep processes.

Consciousness refers to awareness of one’s existence, thoughts, and surroundings.

An electroencephalogram is a record of postsynaptic activity in cortical neurons.

Sleep is an active process consisting of alternating periods of slow-wave and paradoxical sleep.

The sleep-wake cycle is controlled by interactions among three neural systems. These include: (1) an arousal system
involving the reticular activating system, (2) a slow-wave sleep center in the hypothalamus, and (3) a paradoxical sleep
center in the brainstem.

The function of sleep is unclear, however, it is suggested that sleep may allow the brain to restore biochemical or
physiological processes that have progressively degraded during wakefulness. This may include restoring depleted
biochemical stores and/or repairing damage produced by toxic free-radicals produced by the enhanced metabolism
during the waking state.

Impaired states of consciousness are associated with minimal or no awareness.

5.10 SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is a long, slender cylinder of nerve tissue that extends through the vertebral canal and is connected to
the spinal nerves.

The white matter of the spinal cord is organized into tracts. Ascending tracts carry afferent inputs to the brain.
Descending tracts relay messages from the brain to the efferent neurons.

Each horn of the spinal cord gray matter houses a different type of neuronal cell body. The dorsal (posterior) horn
contains cell bodies of interneurons, which receive information from afferent (sensory) neurons. The ventral (anterior)
horn contains cell bodies of efferent motor neurons supplying the skeletal muscles. The lateral horn contains cell bodies
of autonomic nerve fibers supplying cardiac and smooth muscle and exocrine glands.

Spinal nerves carry both afferent and efferent fibers.

The spinal cord is responsible for the integration of many basic reflexes. These spinal reflexes occur automatically
without conscious effort and do not involve brain functions. These include: reflex arc, stretch reflex, and withdrawal
reflex.

LIST OF KEY TERMS

Organization and cells

- peripheral nervous system - glial cells/ neuroglia - pia mater
(PNS) - astrocytes - cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
- afferent division - ependymal cells - blood-brain barrier
- efferent division - microglia
- autonomic nervous system - oligodendrocytes Regions of the brain
- parasympathetic nervous - neurons - cerebellum
system - afferent neurons - forebrain
- sympathetic nervous system - efferent neurons - cerebrum
- somatic nervous system - interneurons - grey matter
- central nervous system (CNS) Protection and nourishment of - white matter
- brain brain - cerebral hemispheres
- brain stem - meninges - electroencephalogram (EEG)
- spinal cord - dura mater - corpus callosum
- cauda equina - arachnoid mater - epilepsy

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 - frontal lobes - diencephalon - vestibulocerebellum
- primary motor cortex - thalamus - brain stem
- cognition - hypothalamus - pons
- Broca’s area - neuroendocrinology - medulla
- language - homeostatic drives - sleep
- aphasia - thalamus - sleep attacks
- parietal lobes - midbrain - sleep-wake cycle
- somatosensory cortex - learning and memory Spinal cord
- somesthetic sensations - memory - reflex
- proprioception - hippocampus - reflex arc
- Wernicke’s area - long-term memory - spinal reflexes
- occipital lobes - short-term memory - spinocerebellum
- temporal lobes - working memory - withdrawal reflexes
- limbic system - consolidation - dorsal horn
- emotion - amnesia - ventral horn
- behavior patterns - dyslexia - dorsal root
- depression - cerebellum - dorsal root ganglion
- Parkinson’s disease - motor program - effector organs

LECTURE HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS

1. Point out the major anatomical structures on a preserved sheep brain or fresh calf brain, and compare with a
human brain. Explain the functions of the structures as they are identified.

2. Preserved specimens of brains from representative vertebrates illustrate the differences in size and complexity of
various parts.

3. Use a “breakdown” model of the brain to illustrate its anatomy. This is available from Carolina Biological
Supply Company, Burlington, NC.

4. CAT scans of the brain are very informative. These can be obtained from local hospitals. Display them in the lab
during the study of the brain. http://rad.usuhs.mil/rad/vhproject/vhcoronal.html has images from the Visible
Human Project.

5. Point out the major motor and sensory regions of the cerebrum on a Carolina Biological Supply Company model
of the brain.

6. Illustrate the ventricles of the brain on a Carolina Biological Supply Company model and show them in cross
sections of mounted human brain specimens.

7. Obtain a fresh spinal cord from a steer for demonstration of the various anatomical parts. Local slaughterhouses
are a good source.

8. Prepare a demonstration of the cranial and spinal nerves of a cat. See Chaisson’s Laboratory Anatomy of the Cat
(Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown), for dissection procedures.

9. Various charts and models can be used for the central nervous system. These can be obtained from Carolina
Biological Supply Company.

10. Demonstrate an EEG recording. See any general physiology lab manual for explanation of various wave forms.
Ask students which wave pattern their brain probably is in at the moment. Discuss other states of consciousness
such as sleep. Low-cost EEG recorders are available; see companies like http://www.brainmaster.com and
http://www.hospira.com for examples.

The Central Nervous System

11. Use an articulated skeleton to illustrate the openings through which the various spinal nerves pass. Carolina
Biological Supply Company is an excellent source.

12. Use a model of the spinal cord to illustrate its structure. Discuss the functions of the white matter and gray
matter.

13. If available, demonstrate a human spinal cord. These are obtainable from Carolina Biological Supply Company.

14. Have students examine a histological slide and a model of a cross section through a nerve. Note areas of gray
and white matter and relate function.

15. Discuss brain functioning with regards to the “higher,” “middle,” and “lower” brain anatomy and relate to the
capabilities of humans and other animals.

16. Discuss why brain and spinal cord injury can result in peripheral dysfunction, paralysis, etc. The Christopher
Reeves Foundation has good resources on spinal cord injuries (http://www.apacure.com).

17. Be sure to remind students of the learning resources available on MindTap®.

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

Videos/Films
Following are films that may be suitable for presentation in your class.

The Brooks/Cole Human Physiology Video Library.

Mark A. Paternostro, 2011, Clip # 1: Exploring the Brain; Clip # 3: New Ways of Helping the Blind to See.
(Request this from your local Cengage Sales Representative.)

http://www.libraryvideo.com

The Nervous System, 26 min.

An introductory level (high school) tour of the entire nervous system.

Taste, 60 min. Series produced by NOVA.

Viewers will learn how taste was inherited from distant ancestors as a means of
distinguishing potential poisons in the wild or for finding nourishment.

Smell, 60 min. Series produced by NOVA.

Viewers are taken to the world’s largest creators of perfume as a backdrop for the discussion of olfaction.

Touch, 60 min. Series produced by NOVA.

NOVA looks at the most sensual sense, which arguably gives the most profound pleasure. Discover how
massage highlights the beneficial effects of the tactile sense. For asthmatics, a therapeutic massage can
restore breathing. Then, learn how massage is a potent substitute for a mother's touch for premature infants
confined to the isolation of an incubator.

Vision, 60 min. Series produced by NOVA.

NOVA explores the magical and elusive truths that both art and science reveal about sight. From Native
American petroglyphs and the artwork of M.C. Escher to the latest 3-D views of the living human brain,
images are a prodigious medium of communication. Witness a PET scan, and learn how people use the same
visual circuits to see an object as to imagine it.

Addiction, 90 min.
This live-action documentary examines the myths of addiction, and explains to viewers that addiction is really
a brain disease caused by a variety of genetic and psychosocial factors. The program discusses the best
recovery options available, such as evidence-based medical and behavioral treatments.

Chapter Five
Inside the Teenage Brain, 60 min. Produced by PBS.
Frontline explores the brain looking for explanations for adolescent behavior and to discover new ways to
teach and understand teenagers. New neuroscience research has shown that a crucial part of the brain
undergoes extensive changes during puberty—precisely the time when the raging hormones often blamed for
teenage behavior begin to wreak havoc.

http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html (Annenberg Media)

The Mind, 35 video modules, 5–20 min. each. Produced by Colorado State University.
Unravel the mysteries of the mind with these video teaching modules. An extension of topics covered in The
Brain: Teaching Modules, these programs explore cognition and human behavior. The modules present
current findings on language processing, drug treatment and addictions, and cognitive development
throughout the life span. The programs also cover mood and personality disorders, and pain and its
treatment.

http://www.carolina.com

Nervous System: Neurons, Networks, and the Human Brain, 39 min.

This DVD comes complete with printable PDFs of study guides, worksheets, and an annotated script of the
program describing the nervous system. The program examines the structure and function of neurons and the
networks of neurons in the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Human Body in Action: The Brain and the Nervous System, 23 min.
This is one of a series of DVDs describing the anatomy and function of the nervous system. A recurring theme
in this series is the hierarchy of the human body, and the program is based on the concepts outlined in the
National Science Education Standards for life sciences.

www.ffh.films.com

The Brain, 20 min.

This program provides an introduction to brain structure and function, localization of brain activity, motor
and sensory neurons, and simple reflex arc. This program opens in the emergency room of a large hospital
where head injuries are an all-too-common problem.

Bubble, Bubble, Toil and Trouble, 58 min.

In this program, we start to construct a description of the brain from the neuron. Starting with very simple
neuronal circuits, we progress to the highly complex circuitry and functioning of collections of millions of
neurons, which make up regions that work together to enable us to sense the outside world.

Nicotine and the Brain, 16 min.

This program uses animation and dramatizations to illustrate the addictive nature of nicotine at the level of
the cells of the brain. Explanations for the roles of dopamine, GABA, and glutamate in forming the smoking
habit are provided.

The Human Mind: From Neurons to Knowledge, 60 min.

This program combines computer animation and dramatization to explore the function of the brain.

The Addicted Brain, 26 min.

This VHS, DVD, or streaming video explores the biochemistry of the brain.

http://cambridge.films.com

The Nature of the Nerve Impulse, 15 min.

This program shows experiments using the locust’s descending contralateral movement detector circuits to
describe neuronal impulses.

The Central Nervous System

Brain and Nervous System: Your Information Superhighway, 31 min.
This program explores the function of the human nervous system using the analogy of computers and the
Internet.

Reflexes and Conscious Movement, 28 min.

This program looks at the range of reflexive and controlled, conscious and unconscious movements of the
human body, showing how the controlling nerve impulses are originated and executed, following such actions
as walking and scratching from neuron to brain, and distinguishing volition from habit and reflex.

The Nervous System: Nerves at Work, 28 min. Available as VHS, DVD or 3-year on-demand steaming.
This program uses vignettes to explore neuronal function, neuron to neuron connections, and integration of
neuronal signals.

Stimulants: The Mechanics of Pleasure, 52 min.

This program explores the effects of CNS stimulants like cocaine and amphetamines on the function of
neurons.

Software
Anatomy Projects, PTH, three-set neuroanatomy CD, including the ANS.
BIOPAC Brain, BIP, hardware and software to examine EEG, reaction times, EOGs.
The Brain & Spinal Cord, PLP, interactive software.
Brainiac, RAM, an interactive CD.
Flash: Nerves, PLP, explores cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, and cranial nerves.
Flash: The EEG, PLP, covers physiological basis and EEG frequencies.
Flash: The Human Brain, PLP, functionally surveys the major areas of the brain.
The Human Brain, PLP, interactive software.
Human Brain: Neurons, PLP, designed to provide mastery of neuron anatomy and physiology.
Human Brain Animations, HSC, a videodisc of neuroanatomy and physiology.
Interactive Brain Atlas, HSC, CD-ROM covering neuroanatomy.
Nervous System, PLP, two-part program that covers the human nervous system.
NIMH: The Brains Inner Workings, NIM, basic brain functioning video on CD.
Thinking and Learning, SSS, three programs on how we think, evaluate, and reach reasonable conclusions.
Your Body: Series II, SSS, covers the nervous system and brain.

Relevant Educational Websites

http://www.medicine.uiowa.edu/
A page of hyperlinks to more than 35 pages of neurobiology/neuropathology/neurophysiology related sites.

http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/da.html
The Washington University site for Interactive 2-D and 3-D views of brain from cadavers including Quicktime
movies.

http://neuroinformatics.usc.edu/mediawiki/index.php/Main_Page
Jump-off page for the USC Brain Project. Hyperlinks to various resources including available
publications on neuroscience.

http://www.christopherreeve.org/site/c.ddJFKRNoFiG/b.4426955/k.440E/Spinal_Cord_Injury_Resource_Center.htm
Spinal cord injury resource center with hyperlinks to a basic review of the spinal cord, rehabilitation sections,
and discussion boards dealing with spinal cord injury.

http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n05/mente/limbic_i.htm
A very effective review of the limbic system structure and function. Includes hyperlinks for further study.

Chapter Five
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/cranial.html
A very inclusive review of the structure and function of the cranial nerves, built by Dr. Chudler at the
University of Washington.

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/introb.html
A very inclusive review of the structure and function of neuroscience at a high school/first year college level
built by Dr. Chudler at the University of Washington.

Relevant Organizations Providing Educational Resources

The Alzheimer’s Association
224 N. Michigan Ave., Fl. 17
Chicago, IL 60601-7633
http://www.alz.org/

American Academy of Neurology

1080 Montreal Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55116
http://www.aan.com

The Brain Injury Association of America

8201 Greensboro Dr., Suite 611
McLean, VA 22102
http://www.biausa.org/

International Brain Research Society

http://ibro.info/

National Brain Tumor Foundation

22 Battery St., Suite 612
San Francisco, CA 94111-5520
http://www.braintumor.org/

National Institute of Mental Health

6001 Executive Boulevard, Rm. 8184, MSC 9663
Bethesda, MD 20892-9663
http://www.nimh.nih.gov

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

http://www.ninds.nih.gov

National Spinal Cord Injury Association

6701 Democracy Blvd., Suite 300-9
Bethesda, MD 20817
http://www.spinalcord.org

Society for Neuroscience

11 Dupont Circle, N.W., Ste. 500
Washington, DC 20036
http://www.sfn.org

The Central Nervous System

Answers to End of Chapter Essays

1. Astrocytes—support neurons, form part of the blood-brain barrier, transfer nutrients to neurons, form
neural scar tissue, take up and degrade neurotransmitter, take up excess potassium. Oligodendrocytes—
form myelin in the CNS. Ependymal cells—involved in CSF production, are stem cells for neuronal and
glial production. Microglia—involved in phagocytosis activities in the brain, release nerve growth factor.
Cranium—bony skull to protect the brain. Vertebral column—bony structures that protect the spinal cord.
Meninges—three membranes: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater, which surround the CNS and
play various protective and supportive roles. CSF—cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds and encases the
brain and spinal cord, serves as a shock absorber, and plays a role in exchange of material between
neuronal cells and interstitial fluid. Blood-brain barrier—formed by astrocyte:
(1) signaling of the brain capillaries to “get tight” (formation of tight junctions between capillary wall
cells; (2) production of specific carrier proteins and ion channels that regulate the transport of selected
substances through the capillary cells; and (3) participation in the cross-cellular transport of substances
(e.g., K+). CSF shields portions of the brain from harmful substance in blood and from large fluctuations
in plasma solute concentrations.

2. Gray matter contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and glial cells. White matter contains tracts of
myelinated axons.

3. Drawing should look like Figure 5-8 and include the following: occipital lobe, involved in initial
processing of vision; temporal lobe, involved in initial processing of auditory information; frontal lobe,
involved in voluntary motor functions, speaking ability, and elaborate thought; and parietal lobe, involved
in somatosensory perception.

4. Cognition refers to the act or process of “knowing”, including both awareness and judgment.

5. The default network consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla and control life-sustaining functions such
as respiration, circulation, and digestion. These lower brain levels can sustain the functions essential for
survival.

6. Thalamus is a relay center for sensory synaptic input, helps direct attention, has a crude awareness of
sensations, and plays a minor role in consciousness. Hypothalamus has a variety of functions including:
controlling body temperature, thirst, urine output, food intake, and anterior pituitary hormone secretion;
producing posterior pituitary hormones that control uterine contractions and milk ejection; and being
involved in the sleep-wake cycle. Basal nuclei inhibit muscle tone, coordinate slow and sustained
movements, and suppress useless patterns of movement. Limbic system controls emotions, is associated
with survival and socio-sexual behavior, and is involved in motivation and leaning. The cerebellum
maintains balance, enhances motor tone, and is involved in the coordination and planning of skilled,
voluntary motor activity. The brainstem contains cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control
centers; coordinates reflexes associated with equilibrium and posture; and is associated with arousal and
activation of the cerebral cortex as well as the sleep-wake cycle.

7. Somesthetic sensations come from the surface of the body (hot, cold, touch, pain, temperature).
Proprioception is the awareness of body position in space.

8. Broca’s area controls speaking ability. Wernicke’s area is involved in comprehension of written and
spoken language.

9. In short-term memory information is stored immediately, but only lasts for a short period of time (seconds
to hours); it has a limited storage capacity, but allows rapid retrieval. It fades over time unless
consolidated. In long-term memory, information is stored for later retrieval and lasts for extended periods
of time (days to years); it has a large storage capacity with a slow retrieval time. Once acquired, it has a
stable memory trace.

10. AMPA is a regular chemically mediated receptor channel that, when activated by glutamate, allows Na+
to enter the cell. The NMDA receptor is both chemically and voltage-gated. When it is activated

Chapter Five
Human Physiology From Cells to Systems 9th Edition Sherwood Solutions Manual

completely it allows calcium to enter the cell. When the voltage-gated component is not activated, Mg++
blocks the opening of the NMDA channel. The two receptors work together in long-term potentiation.
Glutamate binds to both receptors and this allows Na+ to move into the cell through the AMPA channel,
producing an EPSP. If the EPSPs are sufficient the depolarized membrane potential repels the positively
charged Mg+ out of the NMDA channel. Calcium enters through the NMDA channel and activates the
Ca++ second messenger pathway. The activation of this pathway results in the insertion of more AMPA
receptors in the membrane, which increases the cell’s sensitivity to glutamate.

11. The reticular activating system (RAS) is a structure in the brainstem and thalamus. It sends ascending
fibers into the cerebral cortex and produces arousal across the entire cortex, and also controls cortical
alertness associated with directing attention.

12. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of current flow arising from electrical activity within the
cerebral cortex. See Table 5-4- slow wave sleep displays slow waves in four stages, while paradoxical
sleep (REM) looks similar to the EEG of an alert, wake person.

13. Slow-wave sleep shows slow frequency waves on an EEG recording. A person in slow-wave sleep shows
considerable movement and shifting, does not dream, and is easily aroused. Slow-wave sleep occurs
during 80 percent of the sleeping time and can be divided into four separate, progressive stages.
Paradoxical sleep shows an EEG similar to that of an awake person. A person in paradoxical sleep does
not show much movement, can have a dream state, and is hard to arouse. Paradoxical sleep occurs during
20 percent of the sleeping time and is characterized by rapid eye movements (REM).

14. The dorsal (posterior) horn of the spinal cord contains cell bodies of interneurons on which afferent
neurons terminate. The ventral (anterior) horn of the spinal cord contains cell bodies of the efferent motor
neurons innervating the skeletal muscles. The lateral horn of the spinal cord contains cell bodies of
autonomic nerve fibers innervating cardiac and smooth muscle and exocrine glands.

15. Monosynaptic reflexes involve only one synapse between the afferent and efferent pathways.
Polysynaptic reflexes contain multiple synapses due to the placement of interneurons within the pathway.

The Central Nervous System

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