ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

MODULE 1: ACID RAIN

DISCUSSION

ACID RAIN

Humans make use of many things found in nature. For example, we use trees to build our homes and cotton
to make our clothes. Things that are not made by people, but instead occur naturally, are called NATURAL
RESOURCES. Some examples of natural resources are plants, minerals, and water. All of these things are important
to humans because they provide us with the materials, we need to make the things we use every day. Natural
resources that humans use to generate electricity are called ENERGY RESOURCES. Many human activities,
including the burning of fossil fuels, cause POLLUTION. Pollution is the release of harmful substances called
pollutants into the ENVIRONMENT. The air pollution created when fossil fuels burn does not stay in the air forever.
Instead, it can travel great distances, and fall to the ground again as dust or rain. When airborne chemicals and
pollutants fall to the Earth, or deposit, it is called DEPOSITION.

ACID RAIN forms when clean rain comes into contact with pollutants in the air, like SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO 2),
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2), and NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX). Although sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide occur in the
air naturally, burning fossil fuels adds more of these chemicals to the air. When these pollutants are released into the
air, they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form acid rain. Acid rain then falls to the Earth
where it can damage plants, animals, soil, water, and building materials. Despite its name, acid rain does not burn
and cannot directly harm people. However, the pollutants that cause acid rain, especially SO2 and NOX, can react with
other pollutants in the air, forming substances like Particulate Matter and ground level Ozone, which can sometimes
make people sick.

The emissions that result from the burning of fossil fuels have many other environmental consequences in addition to
causing acid rain. Chemicals like NOX, produced by the burning of fossil fuels, combine with other chemicals in the
atmosphere to form ground level ozone. Although the planet needs an ozone layer for protection from the sun’s
harmful ultraviolet rays, ozone can be dangerous when it forms low to the ground because it hurts our lungs and
sometimes makes it difficult to breathe. Other chemicals that are released by the burning of fossil fuels are
GREENHOUSE GASES. Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the Earth’s atmosphere, keeping the planet warm
enough for humans to live. Without greenhouse gases, the planet would be an average 60° F colder than it is today.
However, since the Industrial Revolution, human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels, has increased the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. By increasing the levels of greenhouse gases, human activities are
affecting the mix of gases in the atmosphere. This is causing the Earth’s temperature to rise. For more information on
climate change and its causes and effects.

The consequences of air pollution are important to understand because air pollution can be carried long distances
and affect large areas. This means that pollution from a town hundreds of miles away may be affecting your
community. Scientists, engineers, and researchers monitor the effects of pollution on the air, forests, water, and soil.
They are inventing ways to reduce the amount of pollution that enters the environment and to prevent new damage in
the future.

1. THE SOURCES OF ACID RAIN

Acid rain is rain that is more acidic than it should be. Acid rain is a complicated problem affecting soil and water
chemistry, as well as the life cycles of plants and animals on land and in the water. In addition, weather conditions
contribute to air pollution and cause acid rain to spread vast distances.

1.1 Air Pollution Causes Acid Rain

Scientists have discovered that air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid rain. Power
plants and factories burn coal, oil, and natural gas to produce the electricity we need to do all kinds of things, like light
our homes. Cars, trucks, and airplanes also run on gasoline, a fossil fuel. When we burn things, they do not
disappear. For example, when you burn a log in a campfire, ash is left. But what happened to the rest of the log?
Water from the log becomes vapor and enters the air. Burning wood also releases chemicals and particles into the
air. The same thing happens when we burn fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels sends smoke and fumes into the
ATMOSPHERE, or the air above the Earth. In the air, these pollutants combine with moisture to form acid rain. The
main chemicals in air pollution that create acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Acid rain
usually forms high in the clouds where SO2 and NOX react with water and oxygen. This forms SULFURIC ACID and
NITRIC ACID in the atmosphere. Sunlight increases the speed of these reactions, and therefore the amount of acid in
the atmosphere. Rainwater, snow, fog, and other forms of PRECIPITATION then mix with the sulfuric and nitric acids
in the air and fall to Earth as acid rain.

The chemical reactions that cause acid rain can take several hours to several days to occur. Years ago, when
smokestacks were only a few stories high, pollution from smokestacks usually stayed near the ground and settled on
the land nearby. This caused unhealthy conditions for people, plants, and animals near those smokestacks. To
reduce this pollution, the government tpassed laws for the construction of very tall smokestacks. At that time, people
thought that if the pollution were sent high into the air it would no longer be a problem. Scientists now know that this
is incorrect. In fact, sending pollution high into the sky increases the time that the pollution stays in the air. The longer
the pollution is in the air, the greater the chances that the pollutants will form acid rain. In addition, the wind can carry
these pollutants for hundreds of miles before they become joined with water droplets to form acid rain. For that
reason, acid rain, or wet deposition, can be a problem in areas far from sources of pollution. Dry deposition is usually
greater near the cities and industrial areas where the pollutants are released.

1.2 Natural Acids

There are also natural sources of acids such as volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs. Nature has developed ways of
recycling these acids by absorbing and breaking them down. These natural acids contribute to only a small portion of
the acidic rainfall in the world today. In small amounts, these acids actually help dissolve nutrients and minerals from
the soil so that trees and other plants can use them for food. Unfortunately, the large amounts of acids produced by
human activities overload this natural acidity and throw ecosystems off balance.

Figure 1. Formation of Acid Rain

2. THE EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON ECOSYSTEMS

Acid rain and the air pollution that causes it can severely damage ECOSYSTEMS. An ecosystem is all the living and
nonliving things in an area, as well as the interactions between them. Ecosystems come in all sizes. An entire forest
is an ecosystem, but so is a single tree. Some scientists even consider the entire Earth an ecosystem. This is how
acid rain can affect entire ecosystems. Acid rain may only damage a few organisms in an ecosystem, but everything
else is indirectly affected. The damage acid rain causes can also take years, or even decades to reverse.

2.1 Forests

Acid rain causes significant damage to forests. It directly affects trees and other plants which are important to the
ecosystem as a whole because they are PRIMARY PRODUCERS. If trees and plants are damaged by acid rain, the
effects are felt throughout the entire ecosystem. Acid rain causes trees in forests to grow more slowly, and in some
sensitive species it can even make the leaves or needles turn brown and fall off. Red Spruce and Sugar Maple, two
species of trees found mainly in the East and in New England, are very susceptible to acid rain damage. Acid rain
damages trees by dissolving the calcium in the soil and in the leaves of trees. This hurts the tree, because calcium is
a mineral that trees need to grow. Once the calcium is dissolved, the rain washes it away so the trees and other
plants cannot use it to grow. Acid rain washes other minerals and nutrients from the soil in a similar fashion, causing
Nutrient Deficiency. This is why acid rain can cause trees to grow more slowly.

Nutrient deficiency causes other problems for trees and plants. The lack of nutrients weakens the trees, and makes
them more sensitive to the cold. A well-nourished tree in healthy soil will survive even a very cold winter with little
difficulty, but a tree already weakened by a mineral deficiency can die during a cold winter. The weakened trees and
plants are also more sensitive to insects and disease. At the same time, acid rain causes the release of substances
such as aluminum from the soil. Aluminum can be very harmful to trees and plants. Once released into soil, aluminum
can end up in streams, rivers, and lakes, where it can harm or even kill fish. Less aluminum is released when the
rainfall is cleaner. Further reducing the amount of photosynthesis are acid fogs. Fog can often be more acidic than
rainfall. When leaves are frequently bathed in acid fog, their protective waxy coating can wear away. The loss of this
coating damages the leaves and creates brown spots. The leaves are then unable to use photosynthesis to turn the
energy in sunlight into food for growth. When leaves are damaged, they cannot produce enough food energy for the
tree to remain healthy.

2.2 Ponds, Lakes and Streams

The effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in AQUATIC environments such as streams, lakes, and marshes. Acid
rain flows to streams, lakes, and marshes after falling on forests, fields, buildings, and roads. Acid rain also falls
directly on aquatic habitats. Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, because the buffering capacity of
soil usually neutralizes slightly acidic, clean rain. Lakes and streams become acidic (pH value goes down) when the
rainwater itself is so acidic that the surrounding soil cannot buffer the rain enough to neutralize it. For this reason,
some lakes in areas where soil does not have a lot of buffering capacity are naturally acidic even without acid rain. In
areas like the northeastern United States where soil buffering is poor, acid rain has made already slightly acidic lakes
very acidic, with some lakes having a pH value of less than 5. As lakes and streams become more acidic, the
numbers and types of fish and other aquatic plants and animals that live in these waters decrease. Some types of
plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will leave or die as the
pH declines. Some acidic lakes have no fish, because at pH 5 most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, adult
fish can die. Substances like aluminum that wash into the water from the soil can also harm and kill fish.

3. THE EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN-CAUSING POLLUTANTS ON HUMANS

Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake,
is no more dangerous for humans than walking or swimming in clean water. However, breathing air that contains the
pollutants that cause acid rain can damage human health. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate
matter, and ozone all irritate or even damage our lungs. These effects are mostly seen in people whose lungs have
already been weakened by respiratory illness, but even healthy people can sometimes have pain or difficulty
breathing because of air pollution. Ozone is a dangerous pollutant that is caused by air pollution, especially in the
summer. Exposure to high levels of ozone have been linked to a number of health problems. Ozone can make
respiratory illnesses, such as asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis worse. Ozone can also reduce the respiratory
system’s ability to fight off bacterial infections. Even healthy people can have symptoms related to ozone exposure,
including coughing, pain with deep breathing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath. Over time, ozone can cause
permanent damage to the lungs or even death. Small particles called particulate matter are made up of the same
pollutants that cause acid rain. Particulate matter also damages the lungs. The tiny particles of dust that make up
particulate matter can bypass the body’s natural defenses and become lodged deep in the lungs, where it can cause
irritation and damage the lungs. SO2 and NOX, the pollutants that cause acid rain, can also reduce visibility, limiting
how far into the distance we can see. These pollutants form small particles in the atmosphere. These particles reduce
visibility by scattering light.

4. WHAT YOU CAN DO TO HELP

All environmental problems, including acid rain, are caused or impacted by the combined actions of individual people.
This is why individuals can play a big part in solving these problems. While you cannot run a nationwide cap and
trade program from your classroom, there are many things you can do to help reduce pollution and protect the
environment.

4.1 To Prevent Acid Rain

1. Conserve electricity by turning off lights, appliances, and computers when no one is using them.

2. You can greatly reduce acid rain-causing emissions by changing your transportation habits. Try to reduce the
amount of time you spend in the car by walking, biking, or taking public transportation. When you drive, plan trips
ahead of time to minimize miles traveled, drive the most fuel-efficient car you can, and carpool whenever possible.

4.2 To Address other Environmental Problems

1. Volunteer to help clean up trash and litter in local streams and rivers, or help restore wetlands. By cleaning up
trash, you help protect ecosystems that are important habitats to wildlife.

2. Recycle everything you can at home and school. This reduces the amount of waste that you produce, and keeps
recyclable materials out of landfills. Also, try to buy products with less packaging, or products with recyclable
packaging.

3. Conserving water helps ecosystems and the people and animals that live in them.

MODULE 2: GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AS A CONSEQUENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

DISCUSSION

1. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and particulate contaminants that are
present in the earth’s atmosphere. Chemicals discharged into the air that have a direct impact on the environment are
called primary pollutants. These primary pollutants sometimes react with other chemicals in the air to produce
secondary pollutants.

Air pollution is typically separated into two categories: outdoor air pollution and indoor air pollution. Outdoor air
pollution involves exposures that take place outside of the built environment. Examples include fine particles
produced by the burning of coal, noxious gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide;
ground-level ozone and tobacco smoke. Indoor air pollution involves exposures to particulates, carbon oxides, and
other pollutants carried by indoor air or dust. Examples include household products and chemicals, out-gassing of
building materials, allergens (cockroach and mouse dropping, mold, pollen), and tobacco smoke.

1.1 Sources of Air Pollution

Stationary source. It refers to an emission source that does not move, also known as a point source. Stationary
sources include factories, power plants, and dry cleaners.

Area source. It is used to describe many small sources of air pollution located together whose individual emissions
may be below thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential wood burners are
a good example of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources, they can contribute to local
and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be thought of as non-point sources, such as construction of
housing developments, dry lake beds, and landfills.

Mobile source. Itis a source that is capable of moving under its own power. In general, mobile sources imply “on-
road” transportation, which includes vehicles such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a
“non-road” or “off-road” category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and construction
equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.

Agricultural sources. They arise from operations that raise animals and grow crops, which can generate emissions
of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or restricted area produce large amounts of
manure. Manure emits various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted from the animal
houses, manure storage areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In crop production, the misapplication of
fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result in aerial drift of these materials and harm may be caused.
Natural sources. These are not caused by people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter
and gases, forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of “pollutants”, dust storms can create large amounts of
particulate matter, and plants and trees naturally emit volatile organic compounds which can form aerosols that can
cause a natural blue haze. Wild animals in their natural habitat are also considered natural sources of “pollution”.

Figure 2. Mobile, stationary, area, and natural sources all emit pollution into the air.

1. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AS A CONSEQUENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

1.1 Global Climate Change: What is it?

The term climate refers to the general weather conditions of a place over many years. Climate change is a significant
variation of average weather conditions, conditions becoming warmer, wetter, or drier—over several decades or
more. It’s that longer-term trend that differentiates climate change from natural weather variability. And while “climate
change” and “global warming” are often used interchangeably, global warming—the recent rise in the global average
temperature near the earth’s surface—is just one aspect of climate change.

2.2. What Causes Global Climate Change?

The mechanics of the earth’s climate system are simple. When energy from the sun is reflected off the earth and
back into space (mostly by clouds and ice), or when the earth’s atmosphere releases energy, the planet cools. When
the earth absorbs the sun’s energy, or when atmospheric gases prevent heat released by the earth from radiating into
space (the greenhouse effect), the planet warms. A variety of factors, both natural and human, can influence the
earth’s climate system.

 Natural Causes of Climate Change

As we all know, the earth has gone through warm and cool phases in the past, and long before humans were around.
Forces that contribute to climate change include the sun’s intensity, volcanic eruptions, and changes in naturally
occurring greenhouse gas concentrations. But records indicate that today’s climatic warming—particularly the
warming since the mid-20th century—is occurring much faster than ever before and can’t be explained by natural
causes alone. According to NASA, “These natural causes are still in play today, but their influence is too small or they
occur too slowly to explain the rapid warming seen in recent decades.”

 Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change

Humans—more specifically, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions we generate—are the leading cause of the earth’s
rapidly changing climate. Greenhouse gases play an important role in keeping the planet warm enough to inhabit. But
the amount of these gases in our atmosphere has skyrocketed in recent decades. According to the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides “have increased to
levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years.” Indeed, the atmosphere’s share of carbon dioxide—the
planet’s chief climate change contributor—has risen by 40 percent since pre-industrial times.

The burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas for electricity, heat, and transportation is the primary source of
human-generated emissions. A second major source is deforestation, which releases sequestered carbon into the air.
It’s estimated that logging, clear-cutting, fires, and other forms of forest degradation contribute up to 20 percent of
global carbon emissions. Other human activities that generate air pollution include fertilizer use (a primary source of
nitrous oxide emissions), livestock production (cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats are major methane emitters), and
certain industrial processes that release fluorinated gases. Activities like agriculture and road construction can
change the reflectivity of the earth’s surface, leading to local warming or cooling, too.

Though our planet’s forests and oceans absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and
other processes, these natural carbon sinks can’t keep up with our rising emissions. The resulting buildup of
greenhouse gases is causing alarmingly fast warming worldwide. It’s estimated that the earth’s average temperature
rose by about 1 degree Fahrenheit during the 20th century. If that doesn’t sound like much, consider this: When the
last ice age ended and the northeastern United States was covered by more than 3,000 feet of ice, average
temperatures were just 5 to 9 degrees cooler than they are now.

2.3 Global Climate Change as A Consequence of Atmospheric Pollution

According to the World Economic Forum’s 2016 Global Risks Report, the failure to mitigate and adapt to climate
change will be “the most impactful risk” facing communities worldwide in the coming decade—ahead even of
weapons of mass destruction and water crises. Blame its cascading effects: As climate change transforms global
ecosystems, it affects everything from the places we live to the water we drink to the air we breathe.

 Extreme Weather.

As the earth’s atmosphere heats up, it collects, retains, and drops more water, changing weather patterns and
making wet areas wetter and dry areas drier. Higher temperatures worsen and increase the frequency of many types
of disasters, including storms, floods, heat waves, and droughts. These events can have devastating and costly
consequences, jeopardizing access to clean drinking water, fueling out-of-control wildfires, damaging property,
creating hazardous-material spills, polluting the air, and leading to loss of life.

 Dirty Air.

Air pollution and climate change are inextricably linked, with one exacerbating the other. When the earth’s
temperatures rise, not only does our air gets dirtier—with smog and soot levels going up—but there are also more
allergenic air pollutants such as circulating mold and pollen.

 Health Risks.

According to the World Health Organization, “climate change is expected to cause approximately 250,000 additional
deaths per year” between 2030 and 2050. As global temperatures rise, so do the number of fatalities and illnesses
from heat stress, heatstroke, and cardiovascular and kidney disease. As air pollution worsens, so does respiratory
health—particularly for the 300 million people living with asthma worldwide; there’s more airborne pollen and mold to
torment hay fever and allergy sufferers, too. Extreme weather events, such as severe storms and flooding, can lead
to injury, drinking water contamination, and storm damage that may compromise basic infrastructure or lead to
community displacement.

 Rising Seas.

The Arctic is heating twice as fast as any other place on the planet. As its ice sheets melt into the seas, our oceans
are on track to rise one to four feet higher by 2100, threatening coastal ecosystems and low-lying areas.

 Warmer, more Acidic Oceans.

The earth’s oceans absorb between one-quarter and one-third of our fossil fuel emissions and are now 30 percent
more acidic than they were in preindustrial times. This acidification poses a serious threat to underwater life,
particularly creatures with calcified shells or skeletons like oysters, clams, and coral. It can have a devastating impact
on shellfisheries, as well as the fish, birds, and mammals that depend on shellfish for sustenance. Rising ocean
temperatures are also altering the range and population of underwater species and contributing to coral bleaching
events capable of killing entire reefs—ecosystems that support more than 25 percent of all marine life.
  Imperiled Ecosystems

Climate change is increasing pressure on wildlife to adapt to changing habitats—and fast. Many species are seeking
out cooler climates and higher altitudes, altering seasonal behaviors, and adjusting traditional migration patterns.
These shifts can fundamentally transform entire ecosystems and the intricate webs of life that depend on them. As a
result, according to a 2014 IPCC climate change report, many species now face “increased extinction risk due to
climate change.” And one 2015 study showed that mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and other vertebrate species are
disappearing 114 times faster than they should be, a phenomenon that has been linked to climate change, pollution,
and deforestation—all interconnected threats. On the flip side, milder winters and longer summers have enabled
some species to thrive, including tree-killing insects that are endangering entire forests.

2. HOW YOU CAN PREVENT GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

a. Reduce emissions.

b. Save energy.

c. Put the 3R’s of sustainability into practice.

d. Eat low-carbon diet.

e. Act against forest loss.

f. Promote renewable energy.

MODULE 3: STRATOSPHERIC OZONE LAYER

1. EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

Earth is the only planet in the solar system with an atmosphere that can sustain life. The blanket of
gases not only contains the air that we breathe but also protects us from the blasts of heat and radiation
emanating from the sun. It warms the planet by day and cools it at night.

Earth's atmosphere is about 300 miles (480 kilometers) thick, but most of it is within 10 miles (16
km) the surface. Air pressure decreases with altitude. At sea level, air pressure is about 14.7 pounds per
square inch (1 kilogram per square centimeter). At 10,000 feet (3 km), the air pressure is 10 pounds per
square inch (0.7 kg per square cm). There is also less oxygen to breathe.

According to NASA, the gases in Earth's atmosphere include:

 Nitrogen — 78 percent
 Oxygen — 21 percent
 Argon — 0.93 percent
 Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent
 Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen, as well as water vapor.

Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Earth's atmosphere has a series of layers, each with its own

specific traits. Moving upward from ground level, these layers
are named the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere. The exosphere gradually fades
away into the realm of interplanetary space.
 Troposphere. It is the lowest layer of our atmosphere. Starting at ground level, it extends upward to
about 10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level. We humans live in the troposphere, and
nearly all weather occurs in this lowest layer. Most clouds appear here, mainly because 99% of the
water vapor in the atmosphere is found in the troposphere. Air pressure drops, and temperatures get
colder, as you climb higher in the troposphere.

Stratosphere.The next layer up is called the stratosphere. The stratosphere extends from the top of the
troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles) above the ground. The infamous ozone layer is found within the
stratosphere. Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun,
converting the UV energy into heat. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere actually gets warmer the
higher you go! That trend of rising temperatures with altitude means that air in the stratosphere lacks
the turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath. Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower
stratosphere, partly because this less-turbulent layer provides a smoother ride. The jet stream flows
near the border between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Mesosphere. Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. It extends upward to a height of about 85 km
(53 miles) above our planet. Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere. Unlike the stratosphere,
temperatures once again grow colder as you rise up through the mesosphere. The coldest
temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are found near the top of this layer. The air
in the mesosphere is far too thin to breathe; air pressure at the bottom of the layer is well below 1% of
the pressure at sea level, and continues dropping as you go higher.

Thermosphere.The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the thermosphere. High-
energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere, raising its temperature
to hundreds or at times thousands of degrees. However, the air in this layer is so thin that it would feel
freezing cold to us! In many ways, the thermosphere is more like outer space than a part of the
atmosphere. Many satellites actually orbit Earth within the thermosphere! Variations in the amount of
energy coming from the Sun exert a powerful influence on both the height of the top of this layer and
the temperature within it. Because of this, the top of the thermosphere can be found anywhere between
500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above the ground. Temperatures in the upper thermosphere can
range from about 500° C (932° F) to 2,000° C (3,632° F) or higher. The aurora, the Northern Lights and
Southern Lights, occur in the thermosphere.

Exosphere.Although some experts consider the thermosphere to be the uppermost layer of our
atmosphere, others consider the exosphere to be the actual "final frontier" of Earth's gaseous envelope.
As you might imagine, the "air" in the exosphere is very, very, very thin, making this layer even more
space-like than the thermosphere. In fact, air in the exosphere is constantly - though very gradually -
"leaking" out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space. There is no clear-cut upper boundary where the
exosphere finally fades away into space. Different definitions place the top of the exosphere
somewhere between 100,000 km (62,000 miles) and 190,000 km (120,000 miles) above the surface of
Earth. The latter value is about halfway to the Moon!

Ionosphere.The ionosphere is not a distinct layer like the others mentioned above. Instead, the
ionosphere is a series of regions in parts of the mesosphere and thermosphere where high-energy
radiation from the Sun has knocked electrons loose from their parent atoms and molecules. The
electrically charged atoms and molecules that are formed in this way are called ions, giving the
ionosphere its name and endowing this region with some special properties.
2. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE LAYER

The Earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers. The lowest layer, the troposphere,
extends from the Earth's surface up to about 6 miles or 10 kilometers (km) in altitude. Virtually all
human activities occur in the troposphere. Mt. Everest, the tallest mountain on the planet, is only about
5.6 miles (9 km) high. The next layer, the stratosphere, continues from 6 miles (10 km) to about 31
miles (50 km). Most commercial airplanes fly
in the lower part of the stratosphere.

Most atmospheric ozone is

concentrated in a layer in the stratosphere,
about 9 to 18 miles (15 to 30 km) above the
Earth's surface. Ozone is a molecule that contains three oxygen atoms. At any given time, ozone
molecules are constantly formed and destroyed in the stratosphere. The total amount has remained
relatively stable during the decades that it has been measured.

The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing
it from reaching the planet's surface. Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of UV light called UVB.
UVB has been linked to many harmful effects, including skin cancers, cataracts, and harm to some
crops and marine life.

Scientists have established records spanning several decades that detail normal ozone levels
during natural cycles. Ozone concentrations in the atmosphere vary naturally with sunspots, seasons,
and latitude. These processes are well understood and predictable. Each natural reduction in ozone
levels has been followed by a recovery. Beginning in the 1970s, however, scientific evidence showed
that the ozone shield was being depleted well beyond natural processes.

2.1How is stratospheric ozone formed in the atmosphere?

Stratospheric ozone, known as ozone layer, is formed naturally by chemical reactions

involving solar ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) and oxygen molecules, which make up 21% of the
atmosphere.

In the first step, solar ultraviolet

radiation breaks apart one oxygen
molecule (O2) to produce two oxygen
atoms (2 O).

In the second step, each of

these highly reactive atoms combines
with an oxygen molecule to produce an
ozone molecule (O3). These reactions
occur continually whenever solar
ultraviolet radiation is present in the
stratosphere. As a result, the largest
ozone production occurs in the tropical stratosphere. The production of stratospheric ozone is balanced
by its destruction in chemical reactions. Ozone reacts continually with sunlight and a wide variety of
natural and human produced chemicals in the stratosphere. In each reaction, an ozone molecule is lost
and other chemical compounds are produced. Important reactive gases that destroy ozone are
hydrogen and nitrogen oxides and those containing chlorine and bromine. Some stratospheric ozone is
regularly transported down into the troposphere and can occasionally influence ozone amounts at
Earth’s surface, particularly in remote, unpolluted regions of the globe.

2.2Why is the stratospheric ozone layer important?

Ozone is a greenhouse gas that exists throughout our atmosphere. Four billion years ago,
before life on Earth, the planet’s atmosphere contained much lower levels of ozone, and much higher
levels of UV sunlight reached the planet’s surface than today. It took the development of the ozone
layer in the atmosphere for life to be able to withstand the damaging effects of intense UV sunlight
(Cnossen et al, 2007).

In the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth, ozone is typically present only
in low concentrations. Its concentrations are greatest in the second layer of Earth’s atmosphere, the
stratosphere, and peak at around 25 kilometres altitude. At this level of the atmosphere, ozone is
 beneficial because it absorbs damaging UV sunlight, reducing the levels experienced at Earth’s
surface.

Therefore, the following explain that:

 Stratospheric ozone is important because it prevents most of the high-energy ultraviolet solar
radiation from reaching the earth's surface. It completely stops the penetration of UV-C rays and
eliminates most of the UV-B rays.

 As such, stratospheric ozone helps to protect humans and other organisms on Earth's surface from
some of the harmful effects of exposure to this high-energy electromagnetic radiation or solar radiation
on a daily basis.

2.3 How can we Protect the Ozone Layer?

1. Avoid the consumption of gases dangerous to the ozone layer, due to their content or
manufacturing process. Some of the most dangerous gases are CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons),
halogenated hydrocarbon, methyl bromide and nitrous oxide.
2. Minimize the use of cars. The best transport option is urban, bicycle, or walking. If you use a car to
a destination, try to carpool with others to decrease the use of cars in order to pollute less and save.
3. Do not use cleaning products that are harmful to the environment and to us. Many cleaning
products contain solvents and substances corrosive, but you can replace these dangerous substances
with non-toxic products such as vinegar or bicarbonate.
4. Buy local products. In this way, you not only get fresh products but you avoid consuming food that
has traveled long distances. As the more distance traveled, the more nitrous oxide is produced due to
the medium used to transport that product.
5. Maintain air conditioners, as their malfunctions cause CFC to escape into the atmosphere
MODULE 4: SMOG

1. SMOG

Smog is a community-wide polluted air. Its composition is variable. The term is derived from the
words smoke and fog, but it is commonly used to describe the pall of automotive or industrial origin that lies
over many cities. The term was probably first used in 1905 by H.A. Des Voeux to describe atmospheric
conditions over many British towns. It was popularized in 1911 by Des Voeux’s report to
the Manchester Conference of the Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain on the more than 1,000
“smoke-fog” deaths that occurred in Glasgow and Edinburgh during the autumn of 1909.

 Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility. The term "smog" was first used in the early 1900s to
describe a mix of smoke and fog. The smoke usually came from burning coal. Smog was common
in industrial areas, and remains a familiar sight in cities today.
Today, most of the smog we see is photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is produced when
sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and at least one volatile organic compound (VOC) in the atmosphere.
Nitrogen oxides come from car exhaust, coal power plants, and factory emissions. VOCs are released
from gasoline, paints, and many cleaning solvents. When sunlight hits these chemicals, they
form airborne particles and ground-level ozone—or smog.
Ozone can be helpful or harmful. The ozone layer high up in the atmosphere protects us from the
sun’s dangerous ultraviolet radiation. But when ozone is close to the ground, it is bad for human health.
Ozone can damage lung tissue, and it is especially dangerous to people with respiratory illnesses
like asthma. Ozone can also cause itchy, burning eyes.
Smog is unhealthy to humans and animals, and it can kill plants. Smog is also ugly. It makes the
sky brown or gray. Smog is common in big cities with a lot of industry and traffic. Cities located in basins
surrounded by mountains may have smog problems because the smog is trapped in the valley and cannot be
carried away by wind. Los Angeles, California, and Mexico City, Mexico, both have high smog levels partly
because of this kind of landscape.
Many countries, including the United States, have created laws to reduce smog. Some laws
include restrictions on what chemicals a factory can release into the atmosphere, or when the factory can
release them. Some communities have "burn days" when residents can burn waste such as leaves in
their yard. These limits on chemicals released into the air reduce the amount of smog.

1.1 Primary and Secondary Pollutants

Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal, vehicular
emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants). Smog contains soot particulates like smoke, sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other components.

 A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source.

 A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary
pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
 Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight;
 NO combines with oxygen in the air; and
 acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water.

1.2 Types of Smog

a. Sulfurous Smog

 Sulfurous smog is also called “London

smog,” (first formed in London).
 Sulfurous smog results from a high
concentration of SULFUR OXIDES in the air
and is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil
fuels, particularly coal (Coal was the mains
source of power in London during nineteenth
century. The effects of coal burning were
observed in early twentieth century).
 This type of smog is aggravated
by dampness and a high concentration of
suspended particulate matter in the air.

b. Photochemical Smog

 Photochemical
smog is also known
as “Los Angeles smog”.
 Photochemical
smog occurs most
prominently in urban
areas that have large
numbers of automobiles
(Nitrogen oxides are the
primary emissions).
  Photochemical (summer smog) forms when pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant)
and organic compounds (primary pollutants) react together in the presence of SUNLIGHT. A gas
called OZONE (Secondary pollutant) is formed.

Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons = Ozone (Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but

near the earth’s surface it results in global warming as it is a greenhouse gas)

 The resulting smog causes a light brownish coloration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant
damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory distress.

2. CAUSES OF SMOG

The atmospheric pollutants or gases that form smog are released in the air when fuels are burnt. When
sunlight and its heat react with these gases and fine particles in the atmosphere, smog is formed. It is
purely caused by air pollution. Ground level ozone and fine particles are released in the air due to complex
photochemical reactions between volatile organic compounds (VOC), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx).

These VOC, SO2, and NOx are called precursors. The main sources of these precursors are pollutants
released directly into the air by gasoline and diesel-run vehicles, industrial plants and activities, and heating due
to human activities.

Smog is often caused by heavy traffic, high temperatures, sunshine, and calm winds. These are a few
of the factors behind an increasing level of air pollution in the atmosphere. During the winter months when the
wind speeds are low, it helps the smoke and fog to become stagnate at a place forming smog and increasing
pollution levels near the ground closer to where people are respiring. It hampers visibility and disturbs the
environment.

The time that smog takes to form depends directly on the temperature. Temperature inversions are
situations when warm air does not rise instead stays near the ground. During situations of temperature
inversions, if the wind is calm, smog may get trapped and remain over a place for days.But it is also true that
smog is more severe when it occurs farther away from the sources of release of pollutants. This is because the
photochemical reactions that cause smog to take place in the air when the released pollutants from heavy traffic
drift due to the wind. Smog can thus affect and prove to be dangerous for suburbs, rural areas as well as urban
areas or large cities.

3. EFFECTS OF SMOG

Smog is harmful and it is evident from the components that form it and effects that can happen from it.
It is harmful to humans, animals, plants, and nature as a whole. Many people deaths were recorded, notably,
those relating to bronchial diseases. Heavy smog is responsible for decreasing UV radiation greatly. Thus
heavy smog results in low production of the crucial natural element vitamin D leading to cases of rickets among
people.

When a city or town gets covered in smog, the effects are felt immediately. Smog can be responsible
for any ailment from minor pains to deadly pulmonary diseases such as lung cancer. Smog is well known for
causing irritation in the eye. It may also result in inflammation in the tissues of lungs; giving rise to pain in the
chest. Other issues or illnesses such as cold and pneumonia are also related to smog. The human body faces
great difficulty in defending itself against the harmful effects of smog.
 Minor exposure to smog can lead to greater threats of asthma attacks; people suffering from asthma
problems must avoid exposure. Smog also causes premature deaths and affects densely populated areas
building it up to dangerous levels. The highly affected people include old people, kids and those with cardiac
and respiratory complications as they have an easy tendency to be a disadvantage of asthma.

The ground level ozone present in the smog also inhibits plant growth and causes immense damage to
crops and forests. Crops, vegetables like soybeans, wheat, tomatoes, peanuts, and cotton are subject to
infection when they are exposed to smog. The smog results in mortifying impacts on the environment by killing
innumerable animal species and green life as these take time to adapt to breathing and surviving in such toxic
environments.

Smog is a devastating problem especially due to the fast modernization or industrialization as the
hazardous chemicals involved in smog formation are highly reactive is spread around in the atmosphere.
Smoke and sulfur dioxide pollution in urban areas is at much lower levels than in the past, as a result of the law
passed to control emissions and in favor of cleaner emission technology.https://www.conserve-energy-
future.com/smogpollution.php

4. What you can do in the Impact of Smog

Smog is still a problem in many places. Everyone can do their part to reduce smog by changing a
few behaviors, such as:

 Drive less. Walk, bike, carpool, and use public transportation whenever possible.
 Take care of cars. Getting regular tune-ups, changing oil on schedule, and inflating tires to the
proper level can improve gas mileage and reduce emissions.
 Fuel up during the cooler hours of the day—night or early morning. This prevents gas fumes from
heating up and producing ozone.
 Avoid products that release high levels of VOCs. For example, use low-VOC paints.
 Avoid gas-powered yard equipment, like lawn mowers. Use electric appliances instead.

It can be reduced by implementing modifications in your lifestyle, decreasing the consumption of

fuels that are non-renewable and by replacing them with alternate sources of fuel which will reduce toxic
emissions from vehicles.