Psychological Testing and Assessment
Chapter 4: Of Tests and Testing
I. Correlation and Inference
 Central to psychological testing
and assessment are inferences
(deduced conclusions) about how
some things (such as traits,
abilities, or interests) are related
to other things (such as behavior)
 A coefficient of correlation (or
correlation coefficient) is a
number that provides us with an
index of the strength of the
relationship between two things
o Simply stated, correlation
is an expression of the
degree and direction of
correspondence
between two things
 A coefficient of correlation (r)
expresses a linear relationship
between two variables, usually
continuous in nature
 It reflects the degree of
concomitant variation between
variable X and variable Y
 The coefficient of correlation is
the numerical index that
expresses this relationship: It tells
us the extent to which X and Y
are “co-related”
A. The Concept of Correlation
 The meaning of a correlation
coefficient is interpreted by its
sign and magnitude
 Only ranges from -1 and +1
o Degree and direction
 If asked to supply information
about its magnitude
o It would respond with a
number anywhere at all
between -1 and +1
o Mao rajud na ang result;
mag range ra sya sa -1 ug
+1
 The two ways to describe a
perfect correlation between two
variables are as either -1 or +1
 If a correlation coefficient has a
value of +1 or -1, then the
relationship between the two
variables being correlated is
perfect --- without error in the
statistical sense
o +1 or -1 correlation is rare;
rare instances nga
makakuha kag perfect
correlation
 Positive (or directly)
correlation
o Two variables
simultaneously increase or
decrease
 Negative (or inverse)
correlation
o One variable increases
while the other variable
decreases
 Zero correlation
o No relationship exists
between the two variable
 Although correlation does not
imply causation, there is an
implication of prediction
o If kabalo ta sa value sa isa
ka variable, then we
should be able to predict
the other variable as well
B. The Pearson r
 Most widely used
 Devised by Karl Pearson
 Device used to measure
correlation
 Also known as the Pearson
correlation coefficient and the
Pearson product-moment
coefficient of correlation
o Symbol: r
 r can be the statistical tool of
choice when the relationship
between the variables is linear
and when the two variables being
correlated are continuous
 The formula for the Pearson r
takes into account the relative
position of each test score or
measurement with respect to the
mean of the distribution
 Formula for pearson r:
 Although this formula looks
complicated, but it is easier to
use
o N represents the number
of paired scores
o ∑ XY is the sum of the
product of the paired X
and Y scores
o ∑ X is the sum of X scores
o ∑ Y is the sum of Y scores
o ∑ X² is the sum of squared
X scores
o ∑ Y² is the sum of squared
Y scores
 Steps in solving Pearson r:
1) Table the raw scores (x, x²,
y, y², xy)
2) Get the x squared and y
squared
3) Get the summation of xy
4) Get the summation of x
5) Get the summation of y
6) Get the summation of x
squared and y squared
7) Get the summation of xy
8) Substitute sa formula
Size of Correlation Interpretation
.90 to 1.00 (-.90 – Very high positive
1.00) (negative) correlation
.70 to .90 (-.70 to High positive (negative)
-.90) correlation
.50 to .70 (-.50 to Moderate positive
-.70) (negative) correlation
.30 to .50 (-.30 to Low positive (negative)
-.50) correlation
.00 to .30 (.00 to Negligible correlation
-.30)
 The value obtained for the
coefficient of correlation can be
further interpreted by deriving
from it what is called a coefficient
of determination or r²
 Coefficient of determination
o Symbol: r²
o Is an indication of how
much variance is shared
by the X – and the Y –
variables
 Simply square the correlation
coefficient and multiply by 100
o The result is equal to the
percentage of the variance
accounted for
 Indication how
much variance is
shared by the X and
the Y variable
o The remaining
percentages might be
accounted for by
unexplainable factors

C. The Spearman Rho
 Commonly used alternative
statistic is variously called a rank-
order correlation coefficient, a
rank-difference correlation
coefficient, or simply Spearman’s
Rho
 Developed by Charles Spearman
o A British psychologist
 This coefficient of correlation is
frequently used when the sample
size is small (fewer than 30 pairs
of measurements)
 And when both sets of
measurements are in ordinal (or
rank-order) form
 Formula:
D= difference in ranks
N= number of pairs in data
∑= sigma= sum of
r^s= Spearman’s Rank
Correlation Coefficient
1 and 6= constant
 Steps in solving spearman pho:
1) Table (x, rank, y, rank, d [x-
y], d²)
2) Rank order the scores (dili
ang raw scores, leave it as
is) in a different table
(lowest to highest)
3) Get the D (x-y); use the
rank order not the raw
scores
o In calculating spearman
rho, we use the absolute
value
 Meaning, we ignore
the sign of the result
 Disregard the
negative signs
4) Get the d²
5) Total all of the d²
6) Substitute sa formula
D. Graphic Representations of
Correlation
 One type of graphic
representation of correlation is
referred to by many names
including a bivariate distribution,
a scatter diagram, a scattergram,
or a scatterplot
1. Scatterplot
 A simple graphing of the
coordinate points for values of the
X- variable (placed along the
graph’s horizontal axis) and the
Y-variable (placed along the
graph’s vertical axis)
 They are useful because they
provide a quick indication of the
direction and magnitude of the
relationship, if any, between the
two variables
 Also useful in revealing the
presence of curvilinearity in a
relationship
o Curvilinearity refers to an
“eyeball gauge” of how
curved a graph is
 A graph also makes the spotting
of outliers relatively easy
2. Outliers
 An extremely atypical point
located at a relatively long
distance—an outlying distance—
from the rest of the coordinate
points in a scatterplot

 People who have occasion to use

or make interpretations from
graphed data need to know if the
range of scores has been
restricted in any way

E. Regression
 May be defined broadly as the
analysis of relationships among
variables for the purpose of
understanding how one variable
may predict another
 Used to predict one variable from
another
 Synonymous with “reversion to
some previous state.”

1. Simple Regression
 Involves one independent
variable (X), typically
referred to as the predictor
variable
  And one dependent
variable (Y), referred to as
the outcome variable
 Simple regression analysis
results in an equation for a 3. Standard error of estimate
regression line  Measure of the accuracy
of the prediction
2. Regression line  The higher the correlation
 The line of best fit between X and Y, the
 The straight line that, in greater the accuracy of the
one sense, comes closest prediction and the smaller
to the greatest number of the standard error of the
points on the scatterplot of estimate
X and Y
 It will give you an
understanding of how one
variable may predict
another
 Formula: