IET Circuits, Devices & Systems

Review Article

Review on system development in eddy ISSN 1751-858X

Received on 4th September 2016
Revised 16th November 2016
current testing and technique for defect Accepted on 20th January 2017
E-First on 20th March 2017
classification and characterization doi: 10.1049/iet-cds.2016.0327
www.ietdl.org

Kharudin Bin Ali1,2 , Ahmed N. Abdalla1, Damhuji Rifai1,2, Moneer A. Faraj1

1Faculty of Engineering Technology, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
2Faculty of Electrical and Automation Engineering Technology, TATI University College, Terengganu, Malaysia
E-mail: kharudin@tatiuc.edu.my

Abstract: Eddy current testing (ECT) is one of the non-destructive evaluation techniques widely used, especially in oil and gas
industries. It characterized noisy data to the less-than-perfect detection and as an indication of serious false alarm problem.
However, not many researchers have described in detail the intelligent ECT crack detection system. This paper introduces a
review of ECT technique and factors that affect the signal fundamental according to the hardware and software development.
First, describe the magnetic excitation resources including the sinusoidal and pulse exciting signal. Second, outlines explanation
about the ECT probe. The explanations are more about the probes development for air core probe and giant magnetoresistance
probe. Third, there is discussion on ECT circuit that used including ECT system, ECT rotating magnetic field and application
measurement for optimal control parameters. The defect in characterizations and measurement are discussed on the fourth part
of this paper. The fourth part discusses the ECT lift-off compensation including the lift-off and application of intelligent technique
in ECT. The limitations of lift-off for coil probe and compensation techniques also discussed in this part. Finally, a comprehensive
review of previous studies on the application of intelligent ECT crack detection in nondestructive ECT is presented.

1 Introduction temperatures since such treatment changes the physical

Eddy current testing (ECT) technique is a widely applied non-
destructive testing (NDT) in different sections of industries [1, 2].
ECT is also used as a quality control tool in various industries.
Eddy current methods are mostly used in two types of applications.
One is to detect a defect and inspect the condition of samples [3].
The condition of samples may related to the surface cracks, sub-
surface flaw [4, 5] and degradation of samples. Eddy current
methods are also able to measure the thickness of coatings or paint.
The range of thickness that ECT can handle is usually from the
level of micrometres to the level of millimetres. Since corrosion
might change the thickness of coatings, ECT can also be used as a
method to detect corrosion.
ECT is an NDT method that used according to the
electromagnetic principle as basis in performing inspections.
Remote field testing and flux leakage are other methods [6] based
on the use of electromagnetic theory. ECT is originated from
Faraday's principle of electromagnetic induction. The changes are
the maker of Hughes that recorded differential in the properties of a
coil in conductivity and permeability condition when placed in
contact with metals [7]. However, more work in testing materials
was done later, especially in the aerospace and nuclear industries.
Inspection ECT mostly used in inspection technique especially in
many applications involve deficiency measurement. One of the
essential uses of eddy current scrutiny is for defect detection, thus
the character of the flaw can be identified. The technique is
employed to examine a comparatively tiny space. The probe style
and check parameters should be chosen with a deep understanding
of the flaw that the technique is attempt to discover [7]. Since eddy
currents concentrate at the fabric surface, they will solely be
wanted to discover defects near the surface.
Additionally, the eddy current technique is helpful in detecting
corrosion injury and dilution. The technique is employed for
corrosion and dilution measurements on aircraft due to warmth
exchanges [7]. Eddy currents area unit struck by the electrical
physical phenomenon and magnetic porosity of materials.
Therefore, eddy currents are often investigated on various working
materials especially towards fabric that exposed to high
phenomenon of bound materials.
2 Overview of ECT
ECT has its origins from Michael Faraday's discovery on
electromagnetic induction in 1831. He is a personified and
accredited as an English chemist in 1800s with his contribution on
finding electromagnetic inductance, electromagnetic revolutions,
the magneto-optical consequence, diamagnetism, and other
phenomena [8]. In the presence of French physicists Leon
Foucault, he carried on the eddy current breakthrough in 1851, and
since then, eddy currents are sometimes known as Foucault
currents. Foucault expanded a device that applied a copper disk
actuating in a hard magnetic field to display generated eddy
currents (magnetic fields) while a substantial travels inside an
implemented magnetic field [9]. At this point, it cost a lot of
valuable application and equipment for materials categorisation for
only an acting hypothesis which was inadequate. This leads to the
German F. Foerster in 1950s processed the hypothesis for ECT and
formulated the essential techniques [10, 11]. Table 1 shows the
research summary of ECT hardware and software started from
2011 to 2016 with more focussing on the hardware and devices
development. From here the development including of probe and
sensor used, the circuit development, types of excitation signal,
application on rotation part and lift-off measuring.
3 Magnetic characterisation excitation source
In ECT, there are two types of signal input characterisation that
usually used and applied in ECT which are AC eddy current signal
and pulse eddy current (PEC) signal. This topic is focusing on the
application of input signal for eddy current in inspection and
appropriable frequency that could be applied according to the types
of material and system used. The feedback of output signal will be
shown following the applied input signals.

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Table 1 Summary of research in ECT hardware and software
Hardware development Software development Experimental
Excitation Probe/sensor Circuit Rotation Lift-off Intelligent Simulation / Optimisation Sampling Analysis
signal 3D
Circuit for An air-core or Develop The PWM Multi- System by Simulations Topological Simplex-mesh Lorentz force
constant ferrite-core coil circuitry to carrier eddy
frequency using artificial for the three- shape refinement is ECT [21]
current AC as EC probe [13] measurement current formode for neural dimensional optimisation proposed for
signal pump and functioned estimation of
triple-coil network [17] finite [19] creating a
[12] a particular type magnet [15] sensor in element [18] forward
of probe [14] lift-off database [20]
detection
[16]
Pulsed eddy Probe Feeding An induction Lorentz Image Enables the Swarm Characterisation Non-invasive
current signal development of devices which motor ‘s force ECT processing detection of algorithm is of defects on inspection of
in inspection the detection are used in the loading being [21] with 2D defects lying performed rivets [29] large
technique [22] system [23] eddy current controlled by defect profile and deep wherein the conductive
detection of ECB [25] reconstruction inside a exact forward structures [30]
titanium alloy technique conducting computations
tube [24] [26] material with [28]
computation
3D with
Lorentz force
technique in
ECT [27]
Constant Type sensor is Filtrate the The braking Effectively Modelling of Simulated of Imperialist Characterisation The numerical
current AC introduced suspension of torque and eliminate the measured three- competitive of the crack solution in
source for based on the multi-walled force analysis the response in dimensional algorithm in depth [39] NDE
excitation of eddy current carbon in eddy distance feature diagnosis of solve the configuration
the probe [31] principle [32] nanotubes current using effects extraction for real cracks problem of [40]
CNTs [33] axial flux between non-linear from two natural crack
permanent the regressions dimensional shape
magnet-type surface of for [36] [37] reconstruction
[34] the coil [38]
[35]
Multi- The air-core coil Electromagnetic Rotating A real-time Finite Optimal ECT signals inEddy current
frequency is located above inspection [43] magnetic digital signal element control crack size [48] position
ECT for sizing a conducting field in processing model for parameters sensor has
accuracy of a [42] composed of architecture three- [47] been
deep stress three [45] dimensional conceptualise
corrosion windings [44] simulation to detect the
cracks [41] [46] diverse safety
rods [49]
Low- Lift-off effect and A portable low- EC Neural Finite Particle Sinusoidal A numerical
frequency probe direction cost system measurement network data element swarm magnetic field model was
ECT [50] [51] capable to over affected fusion [54] simulations optimisation with fixed used to verify
detecting by depletion in numerical algorithms inversion are the
metallic of aluminium modelling for [56] applied in EC progression of
surfaces’ in a crack in inspection [57] eddy currents
defects [52] combustion stress [58]
turbine blade corrosion
coatings [53] [55]
Difficult cases Magnetoresistive Instrument to Development Artificial Nested Conductivity
are explored sensors for detect cracks of a new prosthesis by sampling invariance in
by used subsurface crack and defects in a method in eddy current methods [64] the impact the
sinusoidal detection [60] conductive eddy currents method [63] random
measurement, plate material induced by distribution in
detection [61] velocity [62] the vertical
supporting direction [65]
and
quantification
stages [59]
Capabilities of Magnetometer Forces and The fuzzy A numerical Calculate the
pulsed ECT sensor for torques acting inference by model based magnetic field,
method uniform eddy upon a using theory on the based on the
defect's current probe magnetic dipole of Dempster– solution of Maxwell
detecting and architecture [67] interacting [68] Shafer [69] the Maxwell equations [71]
material equations
evaluating [70]
[66]

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Fig. 1
Peak factor hardware flowchart and schematic diagram with output waveform
(a) The peak factor values versus the multi-sine signal's tones [59],
(b) Hardware flowchart [31],
(c) Phase shift oscillator schematic [31],
(d) Phase shift oscillator output waveform [31]
3.1 Sinusoidal excitation signal
Various sinusoidal tone are combined to produce a multi-frequency
signal, which aims to increase the frequency component as desired
by the desired amplitude. Formula (1) for the general signal of
multi-sine is described below. The Øk and fk represent phase and
frequency sinusoid for kth and Ns is the number of tones to be
considered in addition to the amplitude of Sk and sinusoidal kth.
Fig. 1a shows the peak factor values versus the multi-sine signal's
tones. The Øk accuracy is selected through the effect resulting peak
factor of SM(t) ratio, and minimised square root peak-to-peak
value. Limit peak power is important in practical applications that
exist in the generator. By reducing the peak power and maximise
total energy delivered at a fixed time t it will also maximising of
the SNR [59, 72].
Ns
SM t = ∑ Sksin(2pi f kt + ∅k)
k−1
Magnet coil generated is directly proportional to the current
drawn. AC characterisation current is required to generate a
magnetic field inside the coil during the examination process. Tests
must be conducted according to the type of metal tested. The
Howland pump is designed to maintain the main magnetic field (as
an input wave) fixed so that the signal obtained and the result
output can be measured [12]. The basic hardware of flowchart is
shown in Fig. 1b. Reaction to pump instrumentation can be seen on
a test made as an example. ECT probe impedance will change each
time when there are cracks in the material tested subsequently
causes change in the input and output of measured amplitude. The
crack signal obtained by demodulation generated by the output
signal. The oscillator is required as a fixed AC input. This oscillator
is set at 30 kHz sinusoidal waveform's frequency and 4Vpp as a
peak voltage. Phase shift oscillator waveform is selected. No noise
332
to guide resource in addition offering a stable frequency shown in
schematic diagram Fig. 1c and pure sine wave output is shown in
Fig. 1d. [31].
A low-frequency eddy current method used to estimate internal
deep defects in ferromagnetic material and iron plate [50, 73]. One
of the methods in ECT uses a single coil in both excitation and
detection. In this case, changes in coil impedance are used in
detecting the presence of conductive materials. ECS has been
designed and developed based on multiple frequencies to measure
cracks in metal structures [74, 75]. This includes the peak AC
source and remains capable in operating within the frequency range
for the metal surface and sub-surface near the crack metal. The
resulting output is inversely proportional to the given frequency
change. Fig. 2 shows the circuit schematic diagram. Although the
current decline and the frequency increase, the resulting current is
still able to turn the ECT probe [75].
The analysis of amplitude-frequency response for basic
(1) measurement channels w0 shown in Fig. 3a (on line 1) displays the
dependency analysis of K(w) containing null for different
frequencies via wi as the value and multiple to Δw. Line 2 displays
the signal modulated by changing the route that crossed the
channel frequency measurement wi practically without interruption.
The modulated signal spectrum over frequency is displayed on the
third line, rejected >10 times [76]. The designing, execution, and
evaluation of processing architecture in real-time digital signalling
are needed in operation the eddy currents testing signal with multi-
frequency has applied on an ordained instrument which working on
the core of programmable gate array area. Stimulation generation
can be achieved practically through direct digital synthetic
processing and also by significant improvements on reduced
inauthentic frequency elements. The multi-frequency generation
stimulant is handled with the outputs combination from different
direct digital synthesis and sinusoidal waveform generators inside
the FPGA as shown in Fig. 3b [45].
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Fig. 2
Howland pump circuit and signal [75]

Fig. 3
Multi-frequency stimulus amplitude and characteristic of measuring channel
(a) Multi-frequency stimulus generator [76],
(b) The amplitude-frequency characteristic of the measuring channel [45]

3.2 Pulsed excitation signal are stronger than non-ferrous materials [78]. Therefore, to improve
the resolution of the signal and the signal to noise [79, 80], it is
The PEC respond to corrosion involve multi complex factors, convenient to make the difference between a normal signal in
including conductivity, permeability and material thickness which the reference signal has Bref obtained in the rolling direction
variation. When the exposure time increases, the decrease of
of 90°.
average electrical conductivity and permeability means there are
PEC testing is useful in different position against the defect.
increase of corrosion thickness. Based on the relationship between
Peak waves of response signals present with the same shape in
the PEC features and exposure time, the fitted line and formula can
direction of magnetic induction flux, but with different shapes in
be used for exposure time evaluation of coated and uncoated
direction of exciting current, thus different classes of defects can be
corrosion [77]. The ECT signal is to simulate the pulses on the
identified and classified effectively by selecting the rising time as
procedure frequency domain summation is as follows. Then, a
the time domain feature in both directions [81].
sinusoidal wave signal is a response to the excitation pulses signal
The needs in various factory and industry are to examine the
with use of difference harmonic frequencies. Fig. 4a shows a
carbon fibre reinforced (CFR) plastic components, as used in wind
schematic of test pieces and excitation coil and Fig. 4b shows a
turbine blades and aircraft so that the issues that could potentially
period of ideal square wave excitation pulse repetition [66]. Hall
lead to failure can be identified. To identify the surface defects of
sensor function is to measure the response of the magnetic field
CFR composite materials, pulsed eddy current test [82, 83] defect
that centred on the ferrite core. Fig. 4c shows the PEC testing's
investigations rectangle are recommended as a powerful
principle. The horizontal axis is normal to period of repeated
assessment technique.
excitation.
The PEC response in range of heat treatable and non-heat
The total magnetic field is measured by the probe represents the
treatable aluminium alloys applied stress well below the elastic
superposition of PEC low excitation field and the magnetic field
limit. The effect prior to the heat treatment plastic deformation on
due to the EC. Total reaction PEC can be divided into two parts in
the stress dependency of the pulsed eddy current response is
the time domain transient segment (between the initial half of the
quantified using the peak value of the PEC difference signal [84].
current period increase) as in Fig. 4d (after half of the time up to
Two features of PEC were investigated, the magnetic field intensity
start of the next period). PEC response to the transient segment is
and conductivity. These features were used to characterise the
determined by the time constant, which has a complex dependence
different types of defects in CFR plastics using scanning PEC and
on both electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability in the
the feature representing the magnetic field intensity variation [22,
test piece. Although the changes in the magnetic permeability may
85]. Experimental appliances mainly consist of inquiries of
be weak, the EC changes in the steel for cold work, because they
rectangular hall sensor, generator module for pulse signal, module

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Fig. 4
Positioning of exciting coil and signal and the excitation period waveform
(a) Excitation coil and the test-piece schematic [66],
(b) Repeating ideal for square wave excitation pulse in a period [66],
(c) PEC excitation period [78],
(d) PEC response for a half of period of the normalised [78]

Fig. 5
Two placements testing for conductivity, 24 processed signals and reconstruction the thermal image [86]

power amplification, signal conditioning circuits, specimen and
module of data acquisition and various types Hall sensors.
Fig. 5 shows the reconstructed image for four divisions’
representatives showing the main characteristics of the original
infrared images have been exhibited. Based on the analysis about
the specific physical meanings, representative parts in the ICs
which highlight the marked positions are the significant ones [86,
87].
4 ECT probe
Explanation on designing probes for ECT will be discussed in this
section. By following the sub-topic included there are two main
parts of discussions. The first part is about development probe by
focusing the air coil probe and the second part is about giant
magnetoresistance (GMR) probe development. Both sub-topics are
included with the probe design and application of ECT.
4.1 Air coil probe
Design probe can be improved and interpretation of the
experimental signal can be easily understood by using dedicated
numerical simulation tools provided that they are computationally

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Fig. 6
The block diagram of ECT excitation probe
(a) ECT probe and PCB lines coil array sensor [32],
(b) The designed ECT probe in front view [89]
Fig. 7
Coil arrangement and carbon steel collar [90]
efficient and accurate, and it is simple enough to use at the end-
user level [88]. ECT is the process of placing the excitation coil
carries current near test samples to encourage the EC in it and use
the sensing element to take a secondary magnetic field produced by
the EC [13]. Fig. 6a shows that ECT system framework-dashed
line represents the entire differential probe excitation. Alternative
magnetic field around the coil will be generated when an
alternative sinusoidal voltage-controlled applied to the excitation
coil, thus generate eddy currents in the specimen. The detection
coil on the surface cause changes in the magnetic signal into
voltage signal and the changes can be affected by various factors,
including the defects. After amplification is carried out,
demodulation, filtering, and another signal conditioning
measurement signal is converted by A/D according to data
acquisition card into a digital signal, and stored by the computer
[32]. Effective equipment is needed for probes tailored design,
interpret measurements, and assessing the reliability test procedure.
Boundary element model is suitable for eddy current inspection
with affecting planar stratified in several cracked smooth flow.
Selected cracked can be very small and their orientation is either be
parallel or octagon [89]. Magnetic field and one error-free
interconnects will be detected by sensor-array planar coil using the
ECT. This probe consists of a pair of coil sensor planar array and
Helmholtz coils. Planar coil sensor array is produced through flame
retardant with thickness of 1.6 mm and the thickness of the copper
plating used is 32 μm. The sensor is located at 1.6 mm above the
PCB and in between the pair of Helmholtz coils. The board and
sensor that the tests separated by FR4 substrate shown in Fig. 6b.
The PEC probe consists of eight additional surface coils placed
in arrays of four coils before and after the mid-coil drive.
Preparation of the coil structured shown in Fig. 7. The additional
coil is 360 rounds of 42 American Wire Gauge (AWG) wires when
the drive coil is 127 turns of 36 AWG wire [90]
The development, characterisation and execution of an apply
measuring system for NDT utilising with dual new eddy current
planar probe array, effective excitement driver traces also as
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multiple detection coils localised between the matrix configuration
excitation traces [91]. On sensing the equivalent inductances of
three coils vary regularly on the changing of crack raising
guidance. Concurrently, the standardised inductance is also
affiliated the crack width and depth [92]. The crack width could be
approximately supported the median value and variance of the
standardised inductance variation. The crack depth could be gusted
by analysing the standardised inductance at the dissimilar exciting
frequency. Low-frequency ECT by predilections on sensitivity of
the three coils for inspecting wall-thinning of large pipes through
experimental signals. One specimen was fabricated using carbon
steel. Hollows with dissimilar depth were demonstrated on the
bottom of the specimen. Three forms of coil's orientations shown
in Fig. 8a were discussed. Orientation 1 corresponds both axes of
coils are basic to the surface of the plate. Orientation 2 constitutes
both axes of coils are perpendicular to the surface of the plate.
Orientation 3 corresponds one of the coils’ axes is perpendicular to
the surface of the plate but some other basic to surface of the plate.
Coil interval is normal as space between these two coils’ centre.
Fig. 8bshows the experimental setup of low-frequency eddy current
testing commonly admits a procedure synthesis, an oscilloscope, an
isolation amplifier and a lock-in amplifiers [93].
A rotating electromagnetic field is using eddy current
transceiver probe design. A three-phase sinusoidal current
generator is applied for energising the coils. The form voltages are
identical in amplitude, but 120° aside in phase. The rotating
magnetic flux engendered by the three-phase current is sinusoidal
in place and time and also induced eddy currents in the tube wall.
The sensor reaches mechanical rotating probe functionality by
electronic signifies and clears the need for mechanical rotation.
Rotating probes can allow a C-scan image of the tube wall with
high resolution and offer the utmost ability to characterise and size
the defects. Such probes are sensitive to circumferential defects,
but the lift-off sensitivity and deposit signals could uncertain defect
signals [94]. Fig. 9a shows the axial direction line scan and top
view of windings.
335
Fig. 8
Specimen coil orientation and experiment setup [93]
(a) Coil's orientations,
(b) Experimental setup
Fig. 9
Magnetic field directions for axial of line scan direction and corner region (50°) in CS jacket section and self-compensation-type (DIF) probe and self-induction for inner surface
ECT
(a) The axial of line scan direction and winding's Top view [94],
(b) ECT Common type probe and Diagonal type probe [95]
In testing multi-layer moving conductive plates, the cylindrical
excitation coil is set parallel to the conductor. The cylindrical and
rectangular coils are placed near to the excitation coil that serves as
pick-up coil, respectively [96]. In testing of conductive structures,
rectangular excitation coil is located above and parallel with
conductive to ease the movement of the conductive plate. On the
opposite side, another cylindrical pick-up coil is located to move
the conductive plate. The send-receive coils probe has much more
advantage than the absolute coil probe [71]. The probe coils are
wound on the cylindrical frame due to the surface of inner
conductive is a cylinder [95]. Two types of probe were being
studied to optimise the types of probe geometry, first is a normal
type and second is the diagonal type, as shown in Fig. 9b. One pair
of probe coils is self-induction and one pair is self-compensation
type.
The averaging and wavelet analysis methods are used to de-
noise the hall response signals. By selecting peak amplitude and
zero-crossing time of response signal in time domain as key
features, defects in riveted structures can be detected effectively. In
the course of probe rotating on its axis around the rivet, the hall
response signals of the differential probe are sampled in real time.
At the same time, the peak amplitude points of response signals are
extracted and connected to form peak waves [97].
336
4.2 GMR probe
GMR-based ECT is a component as a sensor to detect small crack
under the surface. The depth of optimisation probe will increase
based on high sensitive of the crack detection. The size of the coil
is selected as Coil2 in Table 2 [60]. To create insensitive of the
primary stronger excitation field, the GMR sensor measuring axis
must be perpendicular to the excitation coil axis. On the other
hand, to work in a linear portion of its characteristics, the GMR
sensor must be polarised with a small permanent magnet whose
position was conveniently adjusted to obtain a maximum dynamic
range of operation. Fig. 10a shows block diagram of the measuring
system [98].
The eddy current ECP probe has been designed along dissimilar
architectures that combining unvarying magnetic field generation
to a magnetometer sensor was applied and proved. The best
metrological execution obtained delivered in Fig. 10b. Based on
the figure, the probe shows a parallelepiped shape with a tangential
excitation coil characterised by a rectangular section.
The GMR sensor is an element that integrates an eddy current-
based NDT due to high sensitive and signal to the noise in a large
range of frequencies (from DC to hundreds of megahertz). A
sensor was created in several magnetic tunnel junctions elements in
series to reduce and included in a custom probe configuration for
detection effect. Low frequency and high sensitivity [99] led to the
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Fig. 10
Block diagram of signal conditioning and eddy current ECP probe
(a) Measuring system in Depicts block diagram [98],
(b) The architecture of 3D uniform eddy current ECP probe [67]

Table 2 Geometric parameters of the coils [60]

Coil type Inside radius, mm Outside radius, mm Length of probe, mm
coil 1 5 6 30
coil 2 4 7 15
coil 3 2 8 4

GMR sensor successfully used in ECT. EC smart probe, based on
the GMR sensor and processing unit is an appropriate instrument
[100]. The ability to detect, locates, and characterises flaws and
sub-superficial thin superficial cracks are the main features of the
instrument.
Four GMR elements are arranged in a Wheatstone bridge
configuration is a key reference. A positive output regardless of the
direction of the magnetic field so that the AC magnetic field
produces distortion effects on the output voltage, appears as a full-
wave rectified sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 11a is due to
GMR sensor operates as omnipolar. Point magnet DC (after a DC
operating point) at which the sensor function cause changes in this
effect. Magnetic sensor bias is a method for creating a bipolar
output. Detect defects in conductive materials typically includes a
transmitter coil and a receiver coil or magnetoresistive sensor for
the system using NDT based on EC [101]. An arrangement sensor
and the details of the excitation coil and permanent magnet is
shown in Fig. 11b. Sensor GMR and two exciting coils disposed
orthogonally. An excited magnetic field direction and parallel to
the other [102] that cause each sensor are orthogonal.
5 ECT the rotating magnetic field development
As defined, time steps in temperature rising test are being
measured by winding temperature and induction motor is loaded
gradually [25]. Methods of measurement based on the locked rotor
test were conducted to estimate the magnetic carrier PWM EC
losses in synchronous machines. Fig. 12a describes how the
measurement system is ongoing. The PWM base frequency
inverter is set to zero. DC current, voltage and a locked rotor
position in this experiment are shown in Fig. 12b. Fig. 12c shows
the voltage waveform shaper with/without Rext. The modulation
index, RMS value, and duty ratio of the voltage waveform is
smaller than that under a predetermined load rate due to lack of
basic AC voltage caused by changes in flux when it is not working.
As a result, the machine will produce very small harmonic losses
[15].
On the basis calculation of space harmonic analysis method was
investigated by analysing the braking torque and axial normal force
permanent magnet flux (AFPM)-type eddy current brake (ECB).
Eddy current effects are obtained after considering the permanent
magnets based on the 2D polar coordinate system and the basis of

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Fig. 11
GMR-based ECT probe‘s schematic and prototype probe with configuration of GMR magnetometers sensor
(a) Configuration of sensor for GMR magnetometers are connected with Wheatstone bridge [101],
(b) The biaxial sensors arrangement and the permanent magnet and coil excitation [102]
the magnetic vector potential. In addition, the comparison result of
analysis is measured using accurate test results. The magnetic field
can be accurately analysed with methods of analysis. The AFPM-
ECB has a very simple structure as shown in Fig. 13a. In a circle
on the iron yoke, a permanent magnet was positioned to generate a
magnetic flux axis. Proceeding parts are an iron yoke and a
conducting plate [34]. An alternate method that has compact
configuration and higher speed compared to traditional bobbin coil,
array probes, and rotating probe coils is rotating magnetic field
eddy-current probe used in a nuclear power plant for non-
destructive evaluation of steam generator tubes is shown in
Fig. 13b. The magnetic flux density BA, BB, and BC associated
with three windings perpendicular to the plane of each winding
[44].
6 Crack defect classification
The crack defect classification often used in the design of
electromagnetic problems where the goal is to find a topology
change rather than to determine the surface shape. For example, in
NDT applications, it is more important to know the number and
location of all the flaws in the specimen than to find the right form
cracked only specimen. A numerical model was created in the
magnet [44] with the same geometry as described in this TEAM
problem [103]. Reversal of the procedure starts with the
assumption of no crack. Therefore, the objective function F in
Fig. 14 was assessed using the value taken from a signal that is
measured and calculated values of simulation of aluminium sheets
free of flaws. The classification gradient is calculated and plotted
in Fig. 14a. The highest gradient values topology (represented by
the light areas) coincides with the position of slot in the plate. The
classification sensitivity analysis shows the topology changes in
the domain of interest. Fig. 14b shows creation of the air in the slot
early in the plate, where the border is dubious with five control
points. The slot is then determined started from the right slot using
sensitivity analysis design continuum form-based optimidation [19,
104]. The signal impedance changes are calculated from the
338
reconstructed shape then compared with experimental results in
Fig. 14c. Fig. 14d shows changes in the value of the objective
function during the procedure inversely proportionate to
reconstruction of the crack using topology optimisation and shape
optimisation pure form.
As well as known, the defects in the work piece to modify the
pattern in which EC caused by the probe during a given source.
The source probes or the other probes have a variation of
impedances that can be collected. The solution method of the
defects classify from values of such impedances in almost real time
can be created with enabling. A particle swarm algorithm is used
for fast optimisation can be replaced with a matching model with
exact forward calculations [28].
PCA/ICA-based method is an obvious improvement [105].
PEC, generated by a probe design that utilises the ferrous fastener
as a flux conduit, are demonstrated to have capability of detecting
simulated cracks within the spar with the wing skin present.
Different connected pickup coils are used to sense differences in
response due to asymmetrical induced eddy current fields arising in
the presence of cracks.
In [79], a feature extraction technique based on principal
component analysis for PEC NDT introduced by the application of
principal component analysis in extracting information from PEC
responses. The method reduces the dimensionality of the response
signals and extracts relevant features, which allow effective
classification of defects.
7 ECT defect measuring
On the last topic the discussion is more about the defect measuring
including the lift-off defect measuring in ECT and intelligent
technique defect measuring.
7.1 Air-coil for lift-off measuring
The eddy current measurement of metallic plate thickness will
cause an error of lift-off variation. The triple coil sensor was
IET Circuits Devices Syst., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 4, pp. 330-343
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Fig. 12
Measurement system, position of locked rotor and voltage and Locked rotor test with of line-line voltage waveforms [15]
(a) Measurement system,
(b) Position of locked rotor and DC current, voltage,
(c) Locked rotor test (fc = 5 kHz) with theoretical of line-line voltage waveforms

Fig. 13
Eddy current brake in axial-permanent-magnet-type with rotating field eddy-current probe and rotating field eddy-current probe with Magnetic flux density
(a) Eddy current brake in axial-permanent-magnet-type [34],
(b) Rotating field eddy-current probe with Magnetic flux density [44]

designed and operated as two pairs coil and make a research on
multi-frequency mode. The difference of the peak frequencies
found is directly series to the plate thickness but totally immune to
reduce variations. Statistics velocity, specimen conductivity,
magnetic resonance, and the permanent magnet off distance are
determined experimentally and β is modelled as a random variable
uniformly distributed and circulated. Fig. 15a illustrates the general
principle of ECT. The test object and permanent magnet are based
on the induction of eddy currents that cause relative movement
between it. Lorentz force is functioning as on the magnet was
measured and recorded to analyse the quality of the specimen in
IET Circuits Devices Syst., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 4, pp. 330-343
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
ECT [21]. Sensor connection to a Solartron 1260 impedance
analyser is shown in Fig. 15b [16]. Based on the results showed,
when high lift-off occurs from the cracks, the signal will reduced,
thus the lower lift-off will give maximum measurable signal.
7.2 Intelligent technique in defect measuring
The fuzzy logic is very useful for achieving lift-off compensation.
In addition, the use of absolute and differential probe for
compensation is also investigated. Based on AI technology, a lot of
research has been done by many researchers with regard to eddy
current compensation as shown in Table 3
339
Fig. 14
Rectangular slot in the topological gradient plot with reconstructed slot for final shape and impedance signal and performances of two optimisation models [19]
(a) Rectangular slot in the topological gradient plot,
(b) Reconstructed slot for final shape,
(c) Reconstructed slot for impedance signal,
(d) Performances of two optimisation models

Fig. 15
ECT principle in random variables output quantities and lift-offs simulation results
(a) ECT Principle in random with (red) input variables and (blue) output quantities [21],
(b) The lift-offs simulation results [16]

8 Conclusion
Various methods were used in ECT inspection process to obtain a
good result in identify the main fracture. The most common
method is based on the diversity of excitation input. As usual, there
are two inputs used, input pulse excitation and signal AC
excitation. The effect of input pulse excitation signal is better than
AC excitation signal due to travelling depth on the plate or pipe
inspection besides of clarity output signal derived. There are two
methods in ECT probe development, air coil probe and GMR
probe. Air coil probe is widely used in the inspection process than
GMR probe. However, the stability and ability of air coil probe in
measuring small cracks and defects of the pipe and plate is low.
GMR probe can overcome the problems with high sensitivity on
small defect and crack and low noise interference. In addition, an
in-depth review has been made on ECT compensation techniques
of air coil sensor and GMR sensor. Specifically, the review
addressed the hardware and software compensation based on their
main characteristics/structures, strength, and weakness. To
eliminate the lift-off error, consideration of the methods has been
analysed from the hardware and software. Compared to the
hardware compensation, software compensation is better and
achieves higher accuracy.
9 Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the TATI University College under
grant number 9001-1501 and University Malaysia Pahang under
research project.

340 IET Circuits Devices Syst., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 4, pp. 330-343
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Table 3 Intelligent technique in defect measuring
Author Research area
Rosado.et.al [17] defect characterisation on ECT using
artificial neural networks
Betta.et.al [26] image processing for ECT for 2D
crack
Rosado.et.al [36] ANN and non-linear regressions for
defect characterisation
Rosado.et.al [45] multi-frequency for ECT signals in
RTP
Dashtbani pulse ECT for stress accuracy
Moghari.et.al [54] measurement using ANN
Guohou.et.al [69] multi-sensor application for data
fusion in defects evaluation
D'Angelo.et.al [106] NDT shape defect classification
Ahmed.et.al [107] NDT sizing of defects for
multidimensional learning
Shejuan Xie.et.al pulsed ECT signals (PET) functioning the combination CG methods and NN are
[108] in sizing of wall-thinning defects
Buck.et.al [90] pulsed eddy current steam generator
data in simultaneous measurement by
using ANN
He et al. [109] PEC defect automated classification
in aircraft multiply structures with classification can effectively eliminate the
interlayer gaps and lift-offs
Finding
ANN was predicted deflect overfitting
width of the sensed defect, it is strongly
determined along the skimming resolving
and dimension of the exciting coil
synthetic ECT by using finite element
framework data for respective faulty sites
eddy currents testing signals for multi-
frequency stimulus by using DSP
ANN improve the stress measurement
accuracy
the defects parameters and conductive
material is fined by using the D-S theory
accuracy rate effectiveness of this approach
multidimensional data used to improve the
dimensional result
effective by using pulsed eddy current
testing signals
ANN model simplification for higher
accuracy
PEC technique for defect automated
air-gap and lift-off effect in multi-layer
structures
Intelligent and purpose
ANN to deal with complex data of
the defect properties.
image processing technique in fast
reconstruction of defects geometry
parameters estimation and profile
reconstruction of defects by using
artificial neural networks to perform
DSP purposes in FPGA
neural network data fusion
theory of Dempster–Shafer in fuzzy
inference
neural networks
multidimensional in a neural network
for radial basis functions
ANN application in pulsed eddy
current testing signals
investigated of the complex relation
between inspection data and defect
properties by using ANNs
PCA-based feature extraction
methods (ANN)

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