BCM 205 - Construction Methods III

SERVICES
Mechanical ventilations
Air Conditioning
Drainage System
Domestic waste water treatment
Water Supply to high rise buildings
Electrical installation

A.MECHANICAL VENTILATION

Definition –
Is the system in which air flows through the building by use of fans to exchange outdoor with
indoor air with aim of improve indoor air quality that is plenty of fresh and clean air.

Installing a ventilation system in your home is a great way to ensure your indoor air
environment has plenty of fresh and clean air. Whole house ventilation system needs to
be designed to provide households with healthy indoor air all throughout the year.
From the view point of comfortable living & working conditions, the good an d efficient
ventilation system should meet the following functional requirements:

Functional Requirements for Mechanical Ventilation System

i. The Rate of Supply of Fresh Air:
A ventilating system should be capable of supplying fresh air inside a room and also
removing the used air to outside. The quantity of fresh air to be supplied into a room
depends upon the use of the house to which it is subjected. The rate of supplying fresh
air is decided by considering several factors such as a number of occupants, type of
work, period of working, the age of occupants, etc

ii. Air movement or Air Change:

At the place of work, air has to be moved or changed to cause proper ventilation of the
space. The rate of air change depends on the number of persons inside, room
temperature, nature of the work, etc. Air change per hour is the volume of air entered
into a room in one hour with respect to the total volume of air. All standard codes have
prescribed a number of air change required for different categories of rooms, like living
room, kitchen, bathroom,

iii. The Temperature of Air:

It is desirable that the incoming air for ventilation should be cool in the summer and
warm in winter before it enters the room. When the velocity of the incoming air is high,
its temperature should not be lower than the room temperature.

iv. Humidity:
Air contains a certain amount of water vapour in it. When the work is required to be
done at a high temperature, low humidity and grater air movements are necessary for
removing a greater portion of heat from the body.

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v. The Purity of Air:

It is essential that the ventilating air should be free from impurities such as odours,
organic matter, inorganic dust, and unhealthy fumes of gases. All these impurities
depend on the habits of occupants, the volume of the room, surrounding condition, the
source of ventilating air, etc. To get pure ventilating air, the entry of ventilation system
should not be situated in the neighbourhood of chimneys, latrines, kitchens or other
sources.
Good airflow is important, as improper ventilation system can lead to illnesses and
general discomfort as well as cause damage due to poor moisture and temperature
control.

Consequences of poor ventilation

Air is polluted by many different gases, droplets and particles. The sources of these can be
anything, from car traffic and building materials, to cleaning products and environmental
toxins from the furniture. It’s your ventilation system’s job to rid the indoor air of these
pollutants.

If ventilation isn’t working properly, these harmful components make their way into your
airways. Damage and irritation of the lung tissue can lead to activation of inflammatory
reactions. This is believed to be the biggest driver of diseases and health problems related to
air pollution. If you are exposed to this over time, the ailments can become chronic

Air pollution increases the risk of these diseases:

• Asthma and respiratory allergies

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Heart disease
• Lung cancer

Common health issues:

• Coughing
• Dry/burning eyes
• Lack of concentration
• Dry Skin
• Stuffy nose
• Dry throat
• Abnormal fatigue
• Headache
• Dry mucous membranes.

If you or others in your building are struggling with any of these health problems, poor air
quality and ventilation can be to blame. It’s necessary that you start measuring air quality and
implementing measures to improve it.

General requirements for ventilation

There are different requirements for ventilation that must be met for buildings in different
parts of the world. Here we present the general ventilation requirements for buildings

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a. The location of the building and ventilation system -Consider the location of the
building and the ventilation system, such that the air that is taken into the building is
of good quality.
b. Ventilation adapted to number of people -The ventilation must be adapted to the
number of people using the building.
c. Materials and products that do not pollute- Materials and products must give low
or no pollution to the indoor air.
d. Proper ventilation -Air must be carried from rooms with higher requirements for air
quality to rooms with lower standards.
e. Recirculated air should not pollute - Recirculated air, i.e. reuse of exhaust air, may
only be done if it does not transmit pollution between rooms.
f. Safe placement of air intake and air exhaust - Air intake, air vents, and exhaust
shall be located and designed so that exhaust pollution does not return via the intake.
The air at the intake must be minimally contaminated.
g. Major measures in rooms with polluting activities - Polluting activities and
processes shall, where possible, be encapsulated or equipped with point extraction.

Requirements for ventilation in commercial buildings

Workrooms and staff rooms must be designed and furnished to have a satisfactory climate, in
terms of temperature, humidity, drafts, air quality and annoying odours. They must be
protected against substances that are hazardous to health.

• The air quality in areas where user operates must have a proper oxygen content.
• Solar radiation must be taken into account, so that users are not exposed to
unpleasantly strong light or heat
• Ventilation systems must be equipped with an error notification, if necessary, for the
health of the users/occupants.
• Underground areas, where access is permitted, must have a good supply of fresh air

Factors to Consider in designing and procuring of Ventilation Fans for basements

Below are factors to consider when purchasing ventilation fans for y our next underground
construction project.
a. Performance- look at expected output, then design and procure fan that is effective.
b. Noise Sensitivity With ever increasing limits on sound exposure, noise has become a
major component of the modern ventilation system, design and procure fans built with
integrated silencers .
c. Service – look after sale servicing and availability of replacement parts, also local
supplier should stand behind its product and manage warranty claims should the claim
fall under the warranty period.
d. Price- price is something that is taken into account when selecting a fan, but also
downtime is equally important to note on today’s construction projects far exceeds
the savings you may see on a couple of fans.

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Basic types of Mechanical ventilation systems

a. Exhaust-only ventilation

This ventilation type uses a fan to move indoor air out of the building, while outdoor air is
drawn in through leaks. Some benefits of this type include the low costs of installation and
maintenance, but there are also several drawbacks. For one, exhaust-only ventilation can
draw contaminants into your home from areas such as an attic or crawlspace, and could also
move moisture from the outside into a wall cavity that then leads to problems such as rot and
mold.

b. Supply-only ventilation

This type of ventilation is the opposite of exhaust-only, as instead of pushing indoor air out, it
draws outdoor air in using fans. The indoor air escapes through a system of exhaust fan ducts
as well as the building enclosure. The outdoor air comes in from a single source that is
chosen specifically for its high air quality, which can be a benefit for people seeking clean air
in their home. Furthermore, this type has a low installation cost and reduces contaminants
that can be drawn in from the building’s enclosure. However, it can still result in moisture
problems in the walls that result from humidity drawn in from outside.

c. Balanced ventilation

This type of ventilation combines the other two by using fans to draw air both into and out of
a building. This system has all the benefits of exhaust-only and supply-only, such as reduced
contaminants and control of air supply, without many of the drawbacks like humidity in the
walls. However, the cost is higher than the other two options.

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B. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Definition

Air conditioning - is a system used to cool down the temperature in an inside space by
removing the existing heat and moisture from the room/building.

Functional requirements for an effective Airconditioning system

• Power Levels- Every air conditioner has a specific power output level that needs to
be tailored to fit the parameters of intended use. An ideal air conditioner matches the
specifics of intended use perfectly and is neither overpowered, nor underpowered, but
just right.
• Efficiency- Every air conditioning system should be designed to be energy
effectiveness, that’s maximizes cooling at low energy consumption.
• Smart connectivity – Every air conditioning system must be designed with
technology that facilitates and communicates among all its components to enable
operation at peak efficiency and offer superior comfort automatically.
• Warranty- Every air conditioner must come with a warranty covering the parts
involved in case they break down during a certain period of time. The longer the
warranty, the greater period of time for which you’re covered in the event repairs are
needed down the road.

Air Conditioning Cycle

All air-conditioning systems utilize a specific material to undergo the phase conversion
process. This material is called a refrigerant, and is contained within tubing which runs
throughout the air-conditioning system. The refrigerant is pulled into the system’s
compressor (item 1 in the diagram below) in the form of a warm vapor after leaving the
evaporator coil.

The compressor increases the density of the incoming refrigerant vapor, causing it to increase
in pressure and temperature. This is normally accomplished using a centrifugal system, where
a series of spinning blades rapidly forces the vapor to the outside of the compressor chamber,
at which point it exits. This hot, high-pressure vapor then travels to the air conditioner’s
condenser (item 2) where it moves through a series of coils with thin metal fins attached. A
fan blows air over the fins, and heat moves from the refrigerant to the fins and into the air
stream, very similar to the method a radiator uses to remove heat from the coolant circulating
within in a car engine. The air that is run over the condenser coils is vented to the building
exterior and is released to the atmosphere.

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This trip through the condenser causes the vapor to lose a significant amount of heat and it
subsequently changes phase from a gas to a high temperature liquid. The liquid refrigerant is
then forced through an expansion valve (item 3) which is basically a pinhole that causes the
liquid to form a mist. A sudden pressure drop and material expansion when the liquid turns
into a mist results in a rapid cooling of the fluid as it throws off heat energy. This cold mist
travels through the evaporator coil (item 4) which is located directly in the air stream of a
circulation fan which pulls air from within the building. The fan pushes the air across the cold
coils, which pulls heat from the air, causing the air to cool. The transfer of heat to the
refrigerant causes it to change back into a warm vapor and it enters the compressor to begin
the cycle again.

Condensation drain to outside

Functions of the air conditioning system

Below are the major functions of an air conditioning system in modern houses:
i. The primary purpose of air conditioning is to create a room climate comfortable for
humans.
ii. Some special type of conditioning system is used to cool the temperature of electric
devices.
iii. It controls the humidity of a room as 30 to 65% is permitted while the temperature
should be between 20 and 26 degrees Celsius.
iv. Air conditioning system affects the room air to comfort people and their productivity
is not impeded.
v. The condition of the air is characterized by temperature, pressure and humidity. The
air pressure is not changed.
vi. Air conditioning system can be for heating, dehumidifying, cooling, and humidifying.

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Important Factors to Consider in Air Conditioning System Design

While it’s possible to simply install an off-the-shelf air conditioning system into a
commercial property and hope for the best, this approach to air conditioning systems, will
never produce the most energy-efficient and cost-effective results.
During the air conditioning design process, HVAC engineers look at a wide range of different
factors, but the most important to consider are:
• The type of air conditioning system - One of the initial factors that need to be
considered in the design process is the type of air conditioning system that’s going to
be installed. HVAC systems are all designed for the same purpose, to regulate the
temperature of a building, but they’re not all designed in the same way.

• The size of the system and the available space- Different systems take up varying
amounts of space. As mentioned, a packaged system is the most compact. While this
is great for an office block, it won’t be the best option for a multi-tiered football
stadium. For Instance, is there a basement where heating systems can be installed or
will the air conditioning units disrupt the existing office plan if they are installed
inside rather than outside?

• Ducts and ventilation- Air conditioning units and heaters can’t work in isolation, at
least not if a system’s designed to regulate the temperature of large commercial
properties. HVAC designers need to factor in a series of ducts and vents that allow the
entire building to be temperature controlled in a cost-effective manner.

• Cooling loads - Cooling loads are an incredibly important calculation that designers
need to make while constructing and optimising an air conditioning system. Cooling
loads are a measure of how much heat an air conditioning system can remove from a
building within a given space of time-

• Energy efficiency- Energy efficiency also helps the environment, ensuring that your
company can promote itself as a greener, more sustainable operation. lower the
energy usage of an air conditioning system, which in turn lowers the commercial
property’s monthly energy bill.

• Cost-effectiveness - For any commercial business, cost is always a huge factor,

particularly when such a large project is being undertaken. Ultimately, cost-
effectiveness isn’t about simply cutting costs and ordering the cheapest possible air
conditioning unit, it’s about creating a bespoke and efficient system that saves money
over several decades.

• Health and safety requirements - air conditioning systems being installed on a

commercial or industrial scale have to meet stringent health and safety requirements.

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C. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS TO HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes. It should be capable
of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure head. It should be
capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.

Requirements of Good Water Distribution System

i. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
ii. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient
pressure head.
iii. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
iv. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during
the repair of any section of the system.
v. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or above the
sewer lines.
vi. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.

Water regulations
These are requirements for design, installation and maintenance of plumbing systems, water
fittings and water using appliances in domestic and commercial property in Kenya and
worldwide

Main requirements

The three main requirements of the regulations are:

• Plumbing systems, water fittings and water using appliances must be installed and
maintained to comply with the regulations
• Contamination of drinking water must be prevented.
• Advance notice of plumbing installation work must be given.

The regulations are designed to prevent:

• The inefficient use or waste of water

• Contamination of drinking water supplies
• Incorrect measurement of water supplied.

Principles of Design of Water Supply System

i. Plumbing fixtures and appliances should be supplied with water in sufficient volume
and at pressures adequate to function satisfactorily and without undue noise under all
circumstances.
ii. The design of pipe should be made so that there is no contact between the lines
feeding to the cistern or any such other appliance with those feeding water for human
consumption.
iii. Pipe network should be completely water tight and also remain undamaged either by
traffic loads, vibrations or temperature and any strains of buildings.
iv. Pipe network in the premises should be optimum discharge of water is obtained
consistent with economy. The system should be free from water hammer, corrosion
and should also look aesthetic.

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v. The pipe network should be laid and fixed that it doe not pass by the side of any
sewage line or refuse drain nor does it pass through any field of foul ground where
dirt or city have been deposited and manure dumps.
vi. The pipe network should be laid and fixed so that it shell be accessible at any time
for attending to damages, leakages etc.
vii. The pipe network should be of adequate size to give the desired rate of flow.
viii. The pipe network should be divided into sections to facilitate repairs. These sections
should be separated by valves in order that a section can be isolated for repairs
keeping the rest of the distribution.
ix. The methods of joining pipe should be such as to avoid water loses.
x. Whenever the pipes are bent it should be so made that these are not likely to
materially diminish or alter cross section.
xi. The piping should be so laid that air locks do not occur and it should be possible to
flush out the network from time to time.
xii. The pipes to carry satisfactory and un satisfactory water should be laid separately
.whenever a supply of less satisfactory water and satisfactory water has to mixed,
which shall be done only by discharging both the flows in to a cistern and by a pipe
discharging in to the air gap above t he top level of the cistern at the height equal to
twice its nominal bore and in no case less than 15cm. It is necessary to maintain a
definite air gap in all plumbing used in the water closet.
xiii. In the building if a provision is required to be made for storage of water on account
of;-
• In the interruption of supply
• to maintain a reserve supply
• to regulate discharge in the mains
• to maintain a reserve for firefighting arrangements, a tank for storage of water
should be provided which should be watertight and also should be of
sufficient thickness and capacity should be provided which should be
watertight and also should be of sufficient thickness and capacity

Water Distribution System to High Rise Buildings

Designing skyscrapers is an extremely complicated art that integrates several different

logistic operations and utilities. Plumbing is one of the more challenging problems to solve
due to the loss of pressure as water travels up a vertical pipe. As the building gets taller,
another problem arises as the water pressure at the bottom of a vertical pipe becomes too
great for safe operation and building codes.

The Solution
• The early solution to this problem was a water tank mounted on the top of a
building with fill pumps at the bottom of the building, a simple gravity down feed
arrangement.
• Today, a system of pressure-reducing valves and sub-risers is used to manage the
inconsistent water pressure throughout a skyscraper.
• Pressure-reducing valves reduce the pressure at the bottom of the building, while
sub-risers increase the pressure for the skyscraper’s upper floors.

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Distribution Systems In High-Rise Structures

– Direct Supply System
– Direct Pumping Systems
– Hydro-pneumatic Systems
– Overhead Tank Distribution (Down Feed Arrangement)

a. Direct Supply System

• Useful when pressure is available round the clock at the topmost floor.
• The pressure may not be available so generally floors above 2nd or 3rd storey face
shortfall of water pressure.

b. Direct Pumping Systems

• Water is pumped directly into the distribution system without the aid of any overhead
tank except for flushing purposes.
• Pumps – controlled by pressure switch installed on the line
• Useful in buildings where a certain amount of constant use of water occurs.
• The system requires a constant and reliable supply of power, Power failure brings
about the breakdown of the water supply system.

Direct Pumping System Applicable Where There is Continuous Demand on System

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c. Hydro-Pneumatic System

• Variation of the direct pumping system.

• An airtight pressure vessel is installed on the line to regulate the operation of the
pumps.

Hydro-Pneumatic System

• The pressure switch installed in the pressure vessel/tank switches off after reaching
the predetermined pressure when the operating pump is put to stop.
• An Air compressor is necessary to feed the water with air to maintain the air-water
ratio.
• This system eliminates the need for an OHT and supplies water at a much higher
pressure resulting in even distribution of water on all floors.

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d. Overhead Tank Distribution (Down Feed Arrangement)

Overhead Tank Distribution

• The system comprises water to one or more OHT placed at the topmost location of
the hydraulic zone.
• Water distribution- through pipes generally located on the terrace through gravity
(down feed)

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D. DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT

wastewater treatment, also called sewage treatment, the removal of impurities from
wastewater, or sewage, before it reaches aquifers or natural bodies of water such
as rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans

Objectives of Wastewater Treatment:

• To improve quality of wastewater.
• Elimination of pollutants, toxicants and many such.
• Preservation of water quality of natural water resources.
• To make wastewater usable for other purposes.
• Prevention of harmful diseases.

Domestic Waste water treatment process

Domestic wastewater treatment - is the process of removing contaminants from

wastewater and household sewage, both runoff (effluents) and domestic. It includes physical,
chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological
contaminants. Organic wastes, suspended solids, bacteria, nitrates, and phosphates are
pollutants that commonly must be removed.

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step 1: Screening and Pumping

The incoming wastewater passes through screening equipment where objects such as rags,
wood fragments, plastics, and grease are removed. The material removed is washed and
pressed and disposed of in a landfill. The screened wastewater is then pumped to the next
step: grit removal.

Step 2: Grit Removal

In this step, heavy but fine material such as sand and gravel is removed from the wastewater.
This material is also disposed of in a landfill.

Step 3: Primary Settling

The material, which will settle, but at a slower rate than step two, is taken out using large
circular tanks called clarifiers. The settled material, called primary sludge, is pumped off the
bottom and the wastewater exits the tank from the top. Floating debris such as grease is
skimmed off the top and sent with the settled material to digesters. In this step, chemicals are
also added to remove phosphorus.

Step 4: Aeration / Activated Sludge

In this step, the wastewater receives most of its treatment. Through biological degradation,
the pollutants are consumed by microorganisms and transformed into cell tissue, water, and
nitrogen. The biological activity occurring in this step is very similar to what occurs at the
bottom of lakes and rivers, but in these areas the degradation takes years to accomplish.

Step 5: Secondary Settling

Large circular tanks called secondary clarifiers allow the treated wastewater to separate from
the biology from the aeration tanks at this step, yielding an effluent, which is now over 90%
treated. The biology (activated sludge) is continuously pumped from the bottom of the
clarifiers and returned to the aeration tanks in step four.

Step 6: Filtration
The clarified effluent is polished in this step by filtering through 10 micron polyester media.
The material captured on the surface of the disc filters is periodically backwashed and
returned to the head of the plant for treatment.
Step 7: Disinfection
To assure the treated wastewater is virtually free of bacteria, ultraviolet disinfection is used
after the filtration step. The ultraviolet treatment process kills remaining bacteria to levels
within our discharge permit.

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Step 8: Oxygen Uptake

The treated water, now in a very stabilized high quality state, is aerated if necessary to bring
the dissolved oxygen up to permit level. After this step, the treated water passes through the
effluent outfall where it joins the Oconomowoc River. The water discharged to the river must
meet stringent requirements set by the DNR. Pollutant removal is maintained at 98% or
greater.

Sludge Treatment
The primary sludge pumped from the bottom of the primary clarifiers in step three, along
with the continuous flow of waste activated sludge from the aeration / activated sludge
process in step four, must be treated to reduce volume and produce a usable end product. The
sludge treatment process involves four steps as described here.
Thicknessing - thicknessing is the process of reducing the total volume of sludge to less
than half the original volume.
Digestion - biological process in which organic solids are decomposed into stable substances,
that is reducing the total mass of solids and destroys pathogen.
Dewatering- process of watering the digested sludge before disposal
Disposal - The final process of discarding of treated sewage sludge usually underground or
landfills for agricultural purposes.

Methods/ways of treating waste water

a. Physical Water Treatment method

In this stage, physical methods are used for cleaning the wastewater. Processes like screening,
sedimentation and skimming are used to remove the solids. No chemicals are involved in this
process.

One of the main techniques of physical wastewater treatment includes sedimentation, which
is a process of suspending the insoluble/heavy particles from the wastewater. Once the
insoluble material settles down at the bottom, you can separate the pure water.

Another effective physical water treatment technique includes aeration. This process consists
of circulating air through the water to provide oxygen to it. Filtration, the third method, is
used for filtering out all the contaminants. You can use special kind of filters to pass the
wastewater and separate the contaminants and insoluble particles present in it. The sand filter
is the most commonly used filter. The grease found on the surface of some wastewater can
also be removed easily through this method.

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b. Biological Water Treatment

This uses various biological processes to break down the organic matter present in
wastewater, such as soap, human waste, oils and food. Microorganisms metabolize organic
matter in the wastewater in biological treatment. It can be divided into three categories:

• Aerobic processes: Bacteria decomposes the organic matter and converts it into
carbon dioxide that can be used by plants. Oxygen is used in this process.
• Anaerobic processes: Here, fermentation is used for fermenting the waste at a specific
temperature. Oxygen is not used in anaerobic process.
• Composting: A type of aerobic process where wastewater is treated by mixing it with
sawdust or other carbon sources.

Secondary treatment removes most of the solids present in wastewater, however, some
dissolved nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous may remain.

c. Chemical Water Treatment

As the name suggests, this treatment involves the use of chemicals in water. Chlorine, an
oxidizing chemical, is commonly used to kill bacteria which decomposes water by adding
contaminants to it. Another oxidizing agent used for purifying the wastewater is ozone.
Neutralization is a technique where an acid or base is added to bring the water to its natural
pH of 7. Chemicals prevent the bacteria from reproducing in water, thus making the water
pure.

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E. DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Drainage system means all the piping network within commercial or domestic buildings that
conveys waste and foul water or other liquid wastes to a legal point of treatment and
dispersal.

Principles of Good Drainage

• Materials should have adequate strength and durability.
• Diameter of drain to be as small as practicable: for soil drains the minimum diameter
allowed is 100 mm and for surface water the minimum diameter is 75 mm.
• Every part of a drain should be accessible for the purposes of inspection and
cleansing.
• Drains should be laid in straight runs as far as possible.
• Drains must be laid to a gradient that will render them efficient. The fall or gradient
should be calculated according to the rate of flow, the velocity required and the
diameter of the drain. Individual domestic buildings have an irregular flow, and tables
to accommodate this are provided in the Building Regulations,
• Every drain inlet should be trapped to prevent the entry of foul air into the building;
the minimum seal required is 50 mm. The trap seal is provided in many cases by the
sanitary fitting itself; rainwater drains need not be trapped unless they connect with a
soil drain or sewer.
• A rodding access should be located at the head or start of each drain run.
• Inspection chambers, manholes, rodding eyes or access fittings should be placed at
changes of direction and gradient if these changes would prevent the drain from being
readily cleansed.
• Inspection chambers must also be placed at a junction, unless each run can be cleared
from an access point.
• A change of drain pipe size will also require access.
• Junctions between drains must be arranged so that the incoming drain joints at an
oblique angle in the direction of the main flow.
• Avoid drains under buildings if possible; if unavoidable they must be protected to
ensure watertightness and to prevent damage. The usual protection methods employed
are: encase the drain with 100 mm (minimum) of granular filling; use cast iron pipes
under the building.
• Drains that are within 1 m of the foundations to the walls of buildings and below the
foundation level must be backfilled with concrete up to the level of the underside of
the foundations. Drains more than 1 m from the foundations are backfilled with
concrete to a depth equal to the distance of the trench from the foundation less 150
mm.
• Where possible, the minimum invert level of a drain should be 450 mm to avoid
damage by ground movement and 700 mm for traffic. The invert level is the lowest
level of the bore of a drain

Two types of drainage system

i. Sanitary drainage
ii. Below ground drainage

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SANITARY PIPING SYSTEM

As per Building Regulations : Sanitary pipework and drainage sets out in detail the
recommendations for soil pipes, waste pipes and ventilating pipes. These regulations govern
such things as minimum diameters of soil pipes, material requirements, provision of adequate
water seals by means of an integral trap or non-integral trap, the positioning of soil pipes on
the inside of a building, overflow pipework, and ventilating pipes. The only pipework that is
permissible on the outside of the external wall is any waste pipe from a waste appliance
situated at ground floor level, provided such a pipe discharges into a suitable trap with a
grating, and the discharge is above the level of the water but below the level of the grating.

Sanitary Pipework Systems

Three basic pipework systems have been used for domestic work:
i. one-pipe system;
ii. two-pipe system;
iii. single-stack system.
Whichever system is adopted, the functions of quick, reliable and quiet removal of the
discharges to the drains remain constant.

One-pipe system
This consists of a single discharge pipe, which conveys both soil and waste water directly to
the drain. To ensure that water seals in the traps are not broken, deep seals of 75 mm for
waste pipes up to 65 mm diameter and 50 mm for pipes over 75 mm diameter are required.
To allow for unrestricted layout of appliances most
branch pipes will require an anti-siphon arrangement The advantage of this system is the
flexibility of appliance layout, the main disadvantage is cost, and generally the one-pipe
system has been superseded by the more restricted but economic single-stack system
described below.

Two-pipe system
As its name implies, this system consists of two discharge pipes: one conveys soil discharges
and the other all the waste discharges. It is a simple, reliable and costly system, but has the
advantages of complete flexibility in appliance layout and the fact that deep seal traps are not
usually required. Like the one-pipe system, it has been largely superseded by the single-stack
system. A comparison of the one- and two-pipe systems.

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Single-stack system
It is a simplification of the one-pipe system by using deep seal traps, relying on venting by
the discharge pipe and placing certain restrictions on basin waste pipes, which have a higher
risk of self-siphonage than other appliances.

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BELOW GROUND DRAINAGE

Below ground Drainage is a system of pipework, usually installed below ground level, to
convey the discharge from sanitary fittings, rainwater gutters and downpipes to a suitable
disposal installation. The usual method of disposal is to connect the pipework to the public
sewer, which will convey the discharges to a local authority sewage treatment plant.
Alternatives are a small self-contained treatment plant on site or a cesspool; the latter is a
collection tank to hold the discharge until it can be collected in a special tanker lorry and
taken to the local authority sewage treatment installation for disposal.

Drainage Systems – Below Ground

There are three drainage systems used by local authorities in this country, and the method
employed by any particular authority will determine the basic scheme to be used for the drain
runs from individual premises. That is combined system, totally separate and partially
separate system

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i. Combined System
All the drains discharge into a common or combined sewer. It is a simple and economic
method as there is no duplication of drains. This method has the advantages of easy
maintenance, all drains are flushed when it rains, and it is impossible to connect to the wrong
sewer. The main disadvantage is that all the discharges must pass through the sewage
treatment installation, which could be costly and prove to be difficult with periods of heavy
rain.

ii. Totally Separate System

The most common method employed by local authorities; two sewers are used in this
method. One sewer receives the surface water discharge and conveys this direct to a suitable
outfall such as a river, where it is discharged without treatment. The second sewer receives
all the soil or foul discharge from baths, basins, sinks, showers and toilets; this is then
conveyed to the sewage treatment installation. More drains are required, and it is often
necessary to cross drains one over the other. There is a risk of connection to the wrong sewer,
and the soil drains are not flushed during heavy rain, but the savings on the treatment of a
smaller volume of discharge leads to an overall economy.

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iii. Partially Separate System

This is a compromise of the other two systems, and is favoured by some local authorities
because of its flexibility. Two sewers are used, one to carry surface water only and the other
to act as a combined sewer. The amount of surface water to be discharged into the combined
sewer can be adjusted according to the capacity of
the sewage treatment installation.
Soakaways, which are pits below ground level designed to receive surface water and allow it
to percolate into the soil, are sometimes used to lessen the load on the surface water sewers.
Typical examples of the three drainage systems are shown in

PRIVATE SEWERS
A sewer can be defined as a means of conveying waste, soil or rainwater below the ground
that has been collected from the drains and conveying it to the final disposal point. If the
sewer is owned and maintained by the local authority it is generally called a public sewer,
whereas one owned by a single person or a group of people and maintained by them can be
classed as a private sewer.
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When planning the connection of houses to the main or public sewer one method is to
consider each dwelling in isolation, but important economies in design can be achieved by
the use of a private sewer. A number of houses are connected to the single sewer, which in
turn is connected to the public sewer. Depending upon the number of houses connected to the
private sewer, and the distance from the public sewer, the following savings are possible:
• total length of drain required;
• number of connections to public sewer;
• amount of openings in the roads;
• number of inspection chambers.
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DRAIN LAYING
Domestic drains are laid in trenches that are excavated and if necessary timbered in a similar
manner to that described for foundations; the main difference is that drain trenches are
excavated to the required fall or gradient. It is good practice to programme the work to enable
the activities of excavation, drain laying and backfilling to be carried out in quick succession
so that the excavations remain open for the shortest possible time.
The technique used in the laying and bedding of drains will depend upon two factors:
i. material – rigid or flexible;
ii. joint – rigid or flexible.

Approved Document H recommends drains to be of sufficient strength and durability and so

jointed that the drain remains watertight under all working conditions, including any
differential movement between the pipe and ground. Many examples of traditional bedding
and haunching in concrete will be found in existing drains, but this is no longer practised
unless the drain requires a complete surround of concrete for total protection. The cost is
prohibitive, the quality of concrete is difficult to control in wet trenches, and the system is
prone to failure in ground movement and settlement. Both clay and uPVC drains can
accommodate axial flexibility and extensibility by combining flexible jointing with a granular
flexible bedding medium.

The selected material required for granular bedding and for tamping around pipes laid on a
jointed concrete base must be of the correct quality. Pipes depend to a large extent upon the
support bedding for their strength and must therefore be uniformly supported on all sides by a
material that can be hard compacted.
Generally a non-cohesive granular material with a particle size of 5 suitable, and if not
present on site it will have to be ‘imported’. Pipes with socket joints are laid from the bottom
of the drain run with the socket end laid against the flow, each pipe being aligned and laid to
the correct fall. The collar of the socket is laid in a prepared ‘hollow’ in the bedding, and the
bore is centralised. In the case of a rigid joint a tarred gaskin is used, which also forms the
seal, whereas the mechanical or flexible joints are self-aligning. Most flexible joints
require a special lubricant to ease the jointing process, and those that use a coupling can be
laid in any direction.

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Typical pipe bedding details

Means of Access
Drains require access for testing, maintenance and clearance of blockages. Four possibilities
exist:
• rodding eye;
• shallow access fitting;
• inspection chamber;
• manhole.

When fitted with lightweight covers these should be secured by screws to deter unauthorised
interference.

Rodding eyes
These generally locate at the head of a drain and are effectively a swept extension of the drain
to surface level, with a sealed access plate. With local authority approval they can replace a
more expensive inspection chamber to provide means for clearance in one direction only.

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Shallow access fittings

These provide vertical access to both directions of a drain run that is not over 600 mm deep.

Inspection chambers
These are an enlarged version of the shallow access fitting, used to invert depths of up to 1 m.
They provide for limited access, and contain facilities for a few junctions and branch
connections. Materials include plastics, precast concrete and traditional brick masonry.

Manholes
These are inspection chambers over 1 m to invert. They are a compartment containing half or
three-quarter section round channels to enable the flow to be observed, and to provide a drain
access point for cleansing and testing. Both inspection chambers and manholes are positioned
to comply with the means of access as a basic requirement.

Simple domestic drainage is normally concerned only with shallow manholes up to an invert
depth of 1800 mm. The internal sizing is governed by the depth to invert, the number of
branch drains, the diameter of branch drains, and the space required for a person to work
within the manhole

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Typical detail of masonry inspection chamber/manhole

Typical detail of Precast concrete inspection chamber/manhole

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RAIN WATER DRAINAGE

A rainwater drainage installation is required to collect the discharge from roofs and convey it
to a suitable drainage system. A rainwater installation for a roof consists of a collection
channel called a gutter, which is connected to vertical rainwater pipes. The rainwater pipe is
terminated at its lowest point by means of a rainwater shoe for discharge to a surface water
drain, or a trapped gully if the discharge is to a combined drain. If a separate system of
drainage or soakaways is used it may be possible to connect the rainwater pipe direct to the
drains, provided there is an alternative means of access for cleansing. The materials available
for domestic rainwater installations are galvanised pressed steel and uPVC.

Sizing of pipes and gutters

The sizing of the gutters and downpipes to effectively cater for the discharge from a roof will
depend upon:
i. the area of roof to be drained;
ii. anticipated intensity of rainfall;
iii. material of gutter and downpipe;

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iv. fall within gutter, usually in the range 1/150 to 1/600;

v. number, size and position of outlets.

Connections to Sewers
It is generally recommended that all connections to sewers shall be made so that the incoming
drain or private sewer is joined to the main sewer obliquely in the direction of flow and that
the connection will remain watertight and satisfactory under all working conditions.
Normally sewer connections are made by the local authority or under their direction and
supervision. The method of connection will depend upon a number of factors:
i. relative sizes of sewer and connecting drain or private sewer;
ii. relative invert levels;
iii. position of nearest inspection chamber on the sewer run;
iv. whether the sewer is existing or being laid concurrently with the drains or private
sewers;
v. whether stopped or joinder junctions have been built into the existing sewer;
vi. the shortest and most practicable route.

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F. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
Key Aspects and Parameters of Electrical Setups in Commercial Premises
Factors must be taken into consideration for electrical installation
Electrical networks in buildings serve the purpose of distributing the required power to the
consuming point where it is used for different purposes. Installations have to take care of
• load requirements and supply limitation in a simple and economic manner ensuring at
the same time full protection to human life and property by fire,
• To facilitate easy installation and repair or maintenance.

Necessity of conserving power to maximum extent, power factor compensation assumes

special importance. The reliability of supply to essential operations for which stand-by supply
has to be designed.
Electrical installation is designed by building architect with the help of electrical engineer.
In electrical installations safest protection is an active filter in the dedicated lime that follows
the sine wave and clamps voltage spikes.

The following factors must be taken into consideration for electrical installation –

i. Power supply:
Characteristics of the available supply, such as nature of current, number of conductors,
voltage and frequency value, maximum allowable current, protective measures inherent in the
supply must be known. The standard voltage in single phase 2 wire systems must be 220 V.
In 3 phase system standard voltage should be 415 V with 240 V between live and neutral.

ii. Nature of demands:

The number and type of circuits required are determined by location of points of power
demand, loads expected in the various circuits, daily and yearly variations in demand.

iii. Emergency supply:

Certain areas will need standby supplies to prevent any interruption in power supply to life
saving equipment’s, or other equipment’s. The electrical installations should take into
account the possibility of either an automatic change over or selective connection of standby
supply to critical areas.

iv. Environmental conditions:

The following environmental factors also apply to buildings:
• Water: Possibility of free falling drops or sprays.
• Foreign solid bodies: Dust etc.
• Corrosive polluting substances.
• Mechanical stresses: Impact, vibration, etc.
• Seismic effects and lightning.

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v. Type of wiring and method of intuition:

It depends upon nature of installation. The major portion of design of, installation relates to
this, the cables should not be laid in same trench alongside a water main, sheathed or
sheathed wires can be used in low voltage installations. In 3 phase circuits, neutral conductor
can be incorporated.

vi. Protective equipment’s:

Protection must be provided against the following:
• Protection against direct current
• Protection against indirect current
• Protection against thermal effects
• Protection against over currents
• Protection against over voltage
• Protection against fault currents.

vii. Disconnecting devices:

Disconnecting devices provided to permit disconnections of electrical installations or
maintenance, testing and fault detection.
viii. Accessibility:
Adequate passageways shall be allowed to all accesses to switch board for operation and
maintenance.

Safety rules for working with Electrical equipment on a construction site

A safe work environment is not always enough to control all potential electrical hazards.
You must be very cautious and work safely. Safety rules help you control your and others
risk of injury or death from workplace hazards.
If you are working on electrical circuits or with electrical tools and equipment, you need to
use following golden safety rules:

i. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits

ii. Treat all electrical devices as if they are live or energized- you never know
iii. Disconnect the power source before servicing or repairing electrical equipment -the
only way to be sure
iv. Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting handles when working on
electrical devices.- easy to check
v. Never use metallic pencils or rulers, or wear rings or metal watchbands when
working with electrical equipment. This rule is very easy to forget, especially when
you are showing some electrical part pointing with metallic pencil.- always be aware
vi. When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure hands are dry
and, when possible, wear nonconductive gloves, protective clothes and shoes with
insulated sole- remember gloves, clothes and shoes
vii. If it is safe to do so, work with only one hand, keeping the other hand at your side or
in your pocket, away from all conductive material. This precaution reduces the
likelihood of accidents that result in current passing through the chest cavity.

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viii. Minimize the use of electrical equipment in cold rooms or other areas where
condensation is likely. If equipment must be used in such areas, mount the
equipment on a wall or vertical panel.
ix. If water or a chemical is spilled onto equipment, shut off power at the main switch
or circuit breaker and unplug the equipment.- NEVER try to remove water or
similar from equipment while energized. Afterall, it’s stupid to do so.
x. If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch
the equipment, cord or person. Disconnect the power source from the circuit breaker
or pull out the plug using a leather belt.- always disconnect the power FIRST
xi. Equipment producing a “tingle” should be disconnected and reported promptly for
repair.
xii. Do not rely on grounding to mask a defective circuit nor attempt to correct a fault by
insertion of another fuse or breaker, particularly one of larger capacity.
xiii. Drain capacitors before working near them and keep the short circuit on the
terminals during the work to prevent electrical shock
xiv. Never touch another person’s equipment or electrical control devices unless
instructed to do so.
xv. Enclose all electric contacts and conductors so that no one can accidentally come
into contact with them- if applicable do it always, if not be careful.
xvi. Never handle electrical equipment when hands, feet, or body are wet or perspiring,
or when standing on a wet floor- Remember gloves and shoes.
xvii. Do not store highly flammable liquids near electrical equipment.
xviii. Be aware that interlocks on equipment disconnect the high voltage source when a
cabinet door is open but power for control circuits may remain on.
xix. De-energize open experimental/testing circuits and equipment to be left unattended.
xx. Do not wear loose clothing or ties near electrical equipment. Act like an electrical
engineer,

Significance of good coordination of building services at construction site.

• Eliminates chances of clashes

• Ensures that the team members address all spatial issues before the final model is
created.
• Prevents delays and disputes at site since it helps prove the working of all the services
beforehand
• Provides an easy means of communication as the 3D model can be easily walked
through for demo.

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