TABLE OF CONTENT

1st semester
STRAND 1: HEALTH AND SAFETY
Sub-strand 2: Demonstrate knowledge of basic concept of the need to stay healthy
CAREER TECHNOLOGY and safe
1: Explain the need to stay healthy and safe 1
FOR BASIC SCHOOL 2: Explain what is meant by food hygiene 2
3: Describe ways of maintaining personal hygiene 3
Sub-strand 2: personal, workshop and food laboratory safety
1: Describe accidents in the workshop/food laboratory 4
2: Enumerate the need to keep the workshop and in the food 5
laboratory safe
3: Demonstrate basic skills in applying first aid to self and others 6
Sub-strand 3: environmental health
1: Enumerate the constituents of environmental health 7
2: Enumerate the preventive measures of environmental health 8

STRAND 2: MATERIAL FOR PRODUCTION

Sub-strand 1: compliant materials
1: Describe compliant materials 9
2: Distinguish between types of compliant materials 10
ISBN – 374-0220-17 Sub-strand 2: resistant materials
1: Describe resistant materials 11
INANA PUBLICATION 2: Distinguish between the types of resistant materials
E-mail; inanaseries@gmail.com 3: Explain how each of the resistant materials is obtained 12
Accra: Lapaz, behind Apugu tower
Sub-strand 3: smart and modern materials
Tell; 0544-117766 // 0504-117766 // 0542-097000
B7.2.3.1.1: explore the general properties of smart and modern 13
FOR BULK PURCHASE. materials
CONTACT; Sub-strand 4: food commodities (animal and plant sources)
1: Discuss food commodities 15
Office line 1 Yesu Maame Bookshop Office line 2
Accra-Lapaz Kumasi Kumasi STARND 3; TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES
{0579-172211} {0243-255359} {0542-097000} Sub-strand 1: measuring and marking out
All leading Bookshops nation wide 1: Identify measuring and marking out tools and equipment for 16
production and classify them
INANA SERIES “A Better Grade Awaits You” 2: demonstrate how to care and maintain measuring and marking 17
out tools used for production

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 2nd semester 3rd Semester
Sub-strand 2: cutting/shaping
1: Identify cutting and shaping tools and equipment used for 78 Sub-strand 2: designing
production 1: Work with a given design brief 234
2: Use appropriate skills in cutting, chopping , slicing, dicing 89 2: Generate ideas 234
and shaping products 3: Make artifacts using compliant materials 345
3: Demonstrate how to care for and maintain cutting and shaping 89 4: test and evaluate the manufactured artifact 456
tools used for production
Sub-strand 3: planning for making artifacts/products
Sub-strand 3: joining and assembling
1: Outline the factors to consider when planning meal for supper 234
1: Identify joining and assembling materials, tools and equipment 100
2: Plan for making artifacts/products in sewing and crocheting 233
used for making artifacts/products
2: Use appropriate skills for joining and assembling artifacts using 123 Sub-strand 4: making artifacts from compliant, resistant materials and food
the materials, tools and equipment Ingredients
3: Demonstrate how to care for and maintain cutting and shaping 567 1: Demonstrate skills in preparing food using moist and dry 456
materials, tools used for production methods of cooking
2: Demonstrate skills of making artifacts/products in sewing 456
Sub-strand 4: kitchen essentials
and crocheting
1: Explain what is meant by basic kitchen essentials 876
3: Making of card board or paper mock ups 567
2: Demonstrate skills in the classification of kitchen essentials 987
Sub-strand 5: finishes and finishing STRAND 6: ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS
1: Identify finishing and finishes applied to products/artifacts 787
Sub-strand 1: career pathways and career opportunities
2: Demonstrate knowledge in basic processes for finishing raw 897 1: Evaluate own learning styles, interests and reasons for pursuing 456
edges of articles in sewing career technology
STRAND 4: TECHNOLOGY
Sub-strand 2: establishing and managing a small business enterprise
Sub-strand 2: simple structures and mechanisms, electric and electronic systems 1: Explain what is meant by ‘entrepreneurship’ and ‘entrepreneur’ 345
1: Outline the uses of structures in frame construction 768 2: Explain the characteristics of an entrepreneur 234
2: Examine the need to understand the causes of structural failure 876 3: Describe the characteristics that lead to a successful entrepreneur 234
in construction 4: Explain the advantages and disadvantages of being an 234
3: Design and make simple structures 897 entrepreneur
5: Explain what is meant by career technology entrepreneurship 234
STRAND 5: DESIGNING AND MAKING OF ARTIFACTS 6: Identify an entrepreneurial opportunity in the locality 234
Sub-strand 1: communicating designs
1: Identify drawing materials, instruments and equipment used 876
for Graphic communication
2: Identify the types of lines used in graphic communication 870
3: Make sketches of lines, curves, objects, and write the letterings 678

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 BASIC CONCEPT OF THE NEED TO STAY HEALTHY
AND SAFE
THE NEED TO STAY HEALTHY AND SAFE
Staying healthy and safe is also known as keeping oneself healthy, is the
condition of the body: physical, mental and emotional and degree to which it
is free from illness or the state of being well. Staying healthy mean enjoying
or indicative of good health. It implies full strength and vigor as well as
freedom from signs of disease.
To create a healthy and safe life, it sits on a foundation of:
* Mental health- is a state of well-being in which an individual realizes his
or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work
productively, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.”
- Physical health: is a state of physical well-being in which individual is able
to perform daily activities without problems or is the ability of your body
systems to work together efficiently to allow one to be healthy and perform
activities of daily living.
STAYING HEALTHY
Basic keys for living full life or life-long fitness
* Eating balance diet or healthy diet.
* Body exercising.
* Having enough rest.
* Weight control.
* Avoiding drug abuse.
* Negative peer pressure.
* Practice relaxation exercises.
* Taking care of the body i.e. bathing, trimming your nails, brushing your
teeth etc.
Eating balanced diet
Balance diet is a diet which provides adequate amount of the different food
nutrient that is required by the body to perform its function. A balance diet
must contain all the following nutrients; protein, fat and oil, carbohydrate,
minerals salt and vitamins.
A healthy diet is a way of eating that reduces risk for complications such as
heart diseases and stroke. Healthy eating including eating a wide variety of
food including, vegetables, whole grain, fruits, non-fat daily product, beans,
lean meat, poultry and fish.
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Eating mainly unprocessed foods like whole grains, vegetables and fresh
fruit is key to a healthy body. Eating this way can help lower your risk for
chronic diseases, and help stabilize your energy levels and mood.
Importance of eating Balance diet
* It prevents disease and infection.
* It helps control weight.
* It promotes healthy body growth.
* It helps promotes mental health.
* It helps enhance your beauty.
Outline of simple, actionable advice for healthy eating
* Eat a variety of foods.
* Base your diet on plenty of foods rich in carbohydrates.
* Replace saturated with unsaturated fat.
* Enjoy plenty of fruits and vegetables.
* Reduce salt and sugar intake.
* Eat regularly, control the portion size.
* Drink plenty of fluids.
Body exercising
Exercise can take many forms, such as taking the stairs whenever possible,
walking up escalators, and running and biking rather than driving. Daily
exercise naturally produces stress-relieving hormones in your body and
improves your overall health.
We all should be doing at least 30 minutes of exercise, 3 to 4 or more times
a week, to maintain good health and keep fit. This can be pretty much
anything that is physical, like walking, cycling, running, swimming to
weightlifting, etc. This too does not have to be expensive, and you can get a
great work out without joining any costly gyms. Most of these exercises are
inexpensive, and just doing a cardiovascular exercise, like walking, jogging,
or walking on a treadmill a few times a week will do your body (and heart)
good.
Having enough rest.
Sleep is huge and almost a third of the population doesn’t get near enough to
staying physically and mentally healthy. If you are sleep deprived, try
changing your habits so you get a full eight hours every night. Your body
repairs itself when you sleep, and not getting enough can really affect that in
a bad way, therefore affecting your mood, concentration, metabolism and
generally bringing you down the next day. Best of all, a good night of restful
sleep won’t cost you a thing.
Adults generally need between seven and nine hours of sleep. A brief nap—
up to 30 minutes—can help you feel alert again during the day. Even 15
minutes of daytime sleep is helpful. To make your nighttime sleep count
more, practice good “sleep hygiene.
Negative peer pressure
Peer pressure - refers to many type of influence that your friends may have
over you many times, teens are influenced by their peers to do things that
result in negative consequence. This is negative peer pressure. Negative peer
pressure - refers to activities such as using drugs, alcohol or cigarettes:
vandalizing property: using violence against other, having sex before you are
ready or having unsafe sex, stealing, or driving drunk.
Weight control
People who maintain their ideal weight become less prone to the cardiac and
other health problems. People who are physically active can easily maintain
a relaxed state of mind. Healthy and fit people can easily face all the ups and
downs of their life and less affected by any drastic change. People are being
more conscious towards their health and fitness as time changes.
People who are in corporate businesses have very little movement and lot of
sitting all through the day. That’s why they face being overweight, obese,
lazy, and tired. It is proved with studies that people who are more fit and
healthy achieve greater success in life.
Excess weight may increase the risk for many health problems, including:
Type 2 diabetes - is a disease in which blood sugar levels are above normal.
High blood sugar is a major cause of heart disease, kidney disease, stroke,
amputation, and blindness.
High blood pressure - is how hard your blood pushes against the walls of
your arteries. High blood pressure (hypertension) usually has no symptoms,
but it may cause serious problems, such as heart disease, stroke, and kidney
failure.
Heart disease and strokes - happens when the flow of blood to a part of your
brain stops, causing brain cells to die. The most common type of stroke,
called ischemic stroke, occurs when a blood clot blocks an artery that carries
blood to the brain.
Sleep apnea - is a condition in which a person has one or more pauses in
breathing during sleep. A person who has sleep apnea may suffer from
daytime sleepiness, difficulty focusing, and even heart failure.
Fatty liver disease - occurs when fat builds up in the liver and causes injury.
Fatty liver disease may lead to severe liver damage or even liver failure.
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Practice relaxation exercises.
Deep breathing, meditation and progressive muscle relaxation are easy,
quick ways to reduce stress. When conflicts come up between you and your
friends, these tools can help you feel less controlled by turbulent feelings and
give you the space you need to think clearly about what to do next.
STAYING SAFE
Staying safe: (Free from harm or risk) are measures to be taken in order to
keep oneself from harm or prevent accident to oneself. Harm can occur due
to: carelessness, forgetfulness, inattentiveness and over-confidence to avoid
these there are some measures been taken. These measures are called safety.
Therefore safety is a way of ensuring that one is safe from harm.
Keeping oneself from harm: one must observe the following safety
precautions:
* Wear goggle to protect the eye when grinding.
* Do not leave anything inflammable near a fire.
* Wear protective clothing when working.
* Use right tools for right job.
* Remove wrist watch when working on machine.
* Do not carry a sharp edge in pocket.
Safety tools and their function
Safety boot - protect the foot from falling objects or compression.
Helmet - protect the head from injury.
Groves - a piece of clothing that is worn to protect the hand.
Goggle - preventing eye injury from chemical splashes, impact, dust
The consequences of not taking good care of one’s body
There are so many consequences of not taking good care of your body or
neglecting the body
-Contract disease and fall ill – refusing to bath, brush your teeth, trim your
finger nails or avoiding staying healthy and safe can cause oneself sick and
contract many diseases.
-Poor-self image - a person with poor self image feels so poorly about him
or herself due to some kind of odor or bad breath. This makes him isolate
himself from others.
-Depression- Is a mental illness that makes a person feed sad or unable to
enjoy anything for weeks at a time. Depression can have many causes
including games, stress, life problem, health problems, unhealthy living, not
sleeping well and using alcohol or drug.
-Sleep related problem- taking not maximum care of one’s self well can
relate to sleep problem in which a person has one or more pauses in
breathing during sleep. Can also lead to suffer from daytime sleepiness,
difficulty focusing, and even heart failure.
-Weight gain – refusing to exercise the body lead to weight gain
EXERCISE I
1. What is meant by staying healthy and safe?
2. Explain the ff terms as applied to healthy living.
i. Mental health
ii. Physical health.
3. State five basic keys for a healthy living.
4. As a basic 7 student, explain to the PTA:
i. the importance of body exercising.
ii. Effect of drug abuse to the body.
iii. Three ways of keeping oneself from harm.
5. State four (4) consequence of not taking care of the body.
6. List six (6) consequences that can cause by excess weight.
7. Write five (5) materials and (2) strategies (ways) used for improving
personal hygiene
EXERCISE II
Class Exercise - Answer the following questions:
1. State two reasons why we have to keep our bodies clean.
2. State two ways we can keep our bodies clean.
3. Explain why we should wash our hands often.
6. What advice will you give to a friend who has contracted cholera?
Homework Task
1. Find out from your locality, the traditional materials used in keeping the
body clean.
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FOOD HYGIENE
Hygiene is the study of the rules for healthy living and how to prevent
diseases. Or Hygiene is the degree to which people keep themselves or their
surroundings clean to prevent diseases. This practices help to maintain health
and prevent spread of diseases.
Food hygiene
In previous sessions you have been introduced to the concept of healthy
living and hygiene, which was defined as the set of practices associated with
the preservation of health. One important aspect of this is food hygiene,
which refers to the conditions and measures needed to ensure safety of food
from production to consumption. or
Food hygiene is the many practices needed to safeguard the quality of food
from production to consumption. This is sometimes referred to as ‘from farm
to fork’ or ‘from farm to table’, because it includes every stage in the process
from growing on the farm, through storage and distribution, to finally eating
the food.
The term ‘food hygiene’ also refers particularly to the practices that
prevent microbial contamination of food at all points along the chain from
farm to table. Food hygiene is vital for creating and maintaining hygienic
and healthy conditions for the production and consumption of the food that
we eat.
If foods can be contaminated at any stage, from production to
consumption, the hygiene of the food is compromised, depending on the
temperature, humidity and pH values of the environment it is stored in, and
the food then becomes potentially harmful to human health. An infection or
intoxication caused by the consumption of a contaminated food or drink is
called food poisoning.
There are many factors serve to undermine food hygiene. The hygienic
quality of the foods is negatively influenced by:
* Purchasing low-quality or stale foods.
* Storing food in inappropriate conditions.
* Cooking large amounts of food, more than is necessary.
* Letting it sit in inappropriate environments.
* Storing raw and cooked foods together and preparing, cooking and storing
food using incorrect methods.
Food Hygiene Practices
* Use clean water for cooking.
* Left over foods must be well heated before eaten.
* Serve food in a clean bowl
* Cover food during preparation to prevent flies from reaching it.
* Avoid purchasing swollen canned foods.
* Do not wipe your hands on your clothing as this can easily transfer
microbes and bacteria.
* Use paper towels to clean up during food preparation and serving.
* Change gloves, utensils and dishes when changing functions. For instance
use one pair of gloves for handling raw meat, and another pair handling
fresh vegetables.
* Prepare precooked frozen foods exactly as the directions/instructions on
the packaging state.
* Have foods ready not any longer than necessary before serving time.
* Prepare and cook only as much food as you intend to use.
* Do not taste foods with any utensil used either to mix or stir food.
* Do not use fingers to sample food. Always use a clean spoon.
* Do not handle food with bare hands – use gloves instead.
* Don’t cough, sneeze, spit or smoke near food and avoid touching your
nose, teeth, ears and hair, or scratching when handling food.
* Don’t brush or comb your hair when you are near food.
Proper storage and preservation of food
Once food has been harvested, gathered or slaughtered, enzymes and
bacteria become active in this food which cause it to deteriorate in texture
and composition until it eventually becomes unfit for consumption. This
deterioration is known as decay and leads to eventual food spoilage. Food
safety and hygiene entail undertaking a series of measures to avoid spoilage
and contamination of food.
Storing food the right way can be a great help in ensuring a household’s
food security. Some foods must be stored in the fridge and eaten within a
short space of time. Other foods, such as flour, pulses, canned foods and
many others, last much longer and can be stored at room temperature.
However, all foods have limits on their storage time and staff should always
follow storage instructions and be aware of “use by” dates.
It is essential to store food properly to ensure the following:
* Food remains in good condition for as long as possible.
* Food is protected from flies, dust and other organisms that can spoil and/or
contaminate food.
* Food is protected from organisms like insects and rats that eat and spoil
food. For instance, proper storage of grains protects it from rats and aphids
which eat and spoil maize.
* Reduction in post-harvest food losses.
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General guidelines for proper food storage
Foods should be stored differently on the basis of how fast they will spoil or
develop off-flavours. Foods can be categorised into 3 groups:
* Perishable (e.g. milk, meat, raw fish)
* Semi-perishable (e.g. vegetables and grains)
* Non-perishable foods (tinned or dried food)
Perishable foods: e.g. eggs, milk, cream, fresh meat. These have the shortest
shelf life and must be used within a few days. These should be stored in a
clean cool place. In the absence of refrigerators, such foods can be placed in
clean containers, saucepans or pots. The containers can then be placed in a
basin of cold water covered with a clean piece of cloth. In all circumstances,
milk and meat should be consumed within 2 days.
Semi-perishable foods: e.g. bread, cakes, fresh fruit and vegetables. Breads
and cakes should be stored in a bread bin or tin. Fruit and vegetables may be
stored in a rack or basket. When put in storage, care should always be taken
to remove and discard the particular foods that start showing signs of
spoilage so as to avoid cross-contamination.
Non-perishable foods: e.g. dry, bottled and tinned foods can be stored in a
cupboard on their own or in airtight containers.
Preservation of food
Food preservation refers to the different techniques that are applied to food
to prevent it from spoiling.
Simple household food preservation techniques
Drying - is spreading out of food stuff in an open sun for the sun to dry the
food.
A number of foods (fruits, vegetables, tubers-cassava, and potatoes) which
cannot be stored for long in their fresh state without spoiling can be
preserved by drying. Before drying, there should be enough sunshine and
foods should be sliced in small pieces for them to dry faster.
Dried fruits can be eaten in their dry state (e.g. dried jackfruit), vegetables
and potatoes need to be cooked by boiling in water while dried cassava can
be ground into flour and used later.
Smoking - is process of drying the foodstuff over a fire or heated charcoal.
Smoking meat and fish is a highly recommended method for prolonging
their storage life. The fish is first cooked over a high fire and then smoke-
dried in one to five days (and nights) over a low fire. Fresh-dried fish keeps
for up to a week, while hard-dried
dried fish (keeping fish in salt for several
weeks) keeps for several months.
Salting-most
most widely use by adding chemical like salt to prevent food
spoilage. Salting is a simple food preservation method that can be used to
prolong the shelf life of food for a few days. When added to foods, salt takes
out moisture and retards microbial growth and replication.
Freezing – is a method of preserving food by storing the food in a deep
freezer.
Use of charcoal – this process absorbs the enzymes and stop them up in the
pores thereby keeping them from spoiling the food.
WAYS OF MAINTAINING PERSONAL HYGIENE
Personal hygiene means taking care of every aspect of your body; or can be
described as the principles of maintaining cleanliness and grooming of the
external body. This includes regular healthy habits of brushing your teeth,
Wash the body often, clean the teeth at least twice a day, wash hands after
visiting the toilet, trim your nails, keeping your clothing clean etc. When
people don’t learn these habits, or they become overlooked, certain
consequences may develop ranging from social problems to serious diseases.
Brush teeth at
Least twice a day Shower daily

Reasons for preserving food

* To improve its taste.
* To prolong the life span of the food. Use PERSONAL
* To save money. HYGIENE Wash hands
deodorant regular
* To make use of the food when it is cheap.
* To prevent food spoilage.

EXERCISE
Shave daily Wash hair
1. Explain what is meant by food hygiene?
regular
2. State 3 factors that undermine food hygiene.
3. State five (5) food hygiene practices you know.
4. You have been ask to buy the following food items from the market Personal care products
i. perishable food ii. Non perishable food. Deodorant, toothpaste, toothbrush, mouthwash, cotton swabs, dental floss,
i. Describe to the class proper storage for those food item
items tweezers, comb, razer, wet wipes, hair gel, hair band, hair spray etc.
ii. four (4) reasons for proper storage of those food items.
5. What is preservation food? Dental floss

Homework Task
1. Research and make a presentation on materials and strategies (ways) that
can be used to improve food hygiene to your class.
2. Find out how to preserve the following foods and report in class: Razer
Deodorant Razer Mouth wash Comb Hair spray
a) Orange
b) Cassava
3. Research into best food hygiene practices and present in class
class.
4. State and explain two ways of keeping food safe.

Hair gel Cotton swab Toothbrush wet wipes

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 How to observe personal hygiene Importance of personal hygiene
* Finger nails should be clean and short. * Having better health.
* Bath twice daily. * Help prevent illness and infection from bacteria or viruses.
* Cover nose when coughing or sneezing. * Maintaining good personal hygiene help you have better self-esteem.
* Teeth should be brushed twice a day. * It enhance self-discipline
* Cuts and wounds should be covered with a waterproof dressing * It makes people admire you.
* Avoid wearing rings, and watches when preparing food * It improves personality.
* Avoid touching face or hair while preparing food.
Personal hygiene mistakes
* Keep fingers away from your face, mouth, hair, skin and other parts of the
* Not covering the mouth when coughing or sneezing.
body.
* Improper disposing if feminine hygiene products.
* Cover or tie back hair and wear a clean apron/cloth whenever you are going to
* Not washing the hands after using the washroom.
prepare food.
* A person who has been ill, especially with food poisoning, should not work * Not flossing the teeth.
with food or be in the food preparation area. * Avoiding post-gym showering.
* Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water and dry them at each of these * Exfoliating the skin too often.
times: * Excursively bathing and hand washing
-Starting work Consequence/effects of poor personal hygiene
-Using the toilet -Body odour - occurs due to the interaction of bacterial and sweats produced
-Handling raw and cooked foods thrive in apocrine glands.
-Taking breaks -Bad breath - It commonly develops from not regularly brushing and
-Eating flossing your teeth.
-Coughing, sneezing or blowing their nose -Prone to infection and illness.
-Touching your hair EXERCISE
-Playing with pets or handling animals 1. What is personal hygiene?
-Handling refuses or waste materials 2. With three (3) examples to explain what is meant by personal hygiene.
-Handling cleaning chemicals 3. List six (6) ways of maintaining personal hygiene.
When washing your hands try to; 4. List four (4) critical times for hand washing.
* Use a soap dispenser rather than a bar of soap. 5. As a student given the opportunity to speak in an occasion on personal
* Wash in a sink that has hot and cold running water. hygiene, explain
* Wash in a sink that is separate from one that is used to wash foodstuff and i. the proper hand washing technique.
utensils. ii. personal hygiene mistakes people make.
* Dry your hands with paper towels. iii. three (3) effects of poor personal hygiene
6. State four (4) importance of personal hygiene.
Procedure to washing your hands properly 7. Ama is in class five and a student of Kwamekrom Basic school. She is
* Wet your hands suffering from bad breath and body odour.
* Rub your hands and wrists with soap i. Suggest three (3) ways Ama should do to prevent such problem.
* Lather the soap for 20 seconds ii. List six (6) personal care products for Ama.
* Rinse thoroughly 8. Describe how to care for the following
* Dry with paper towels or a hot air dryer (remember that wet hands can i. Finger nails ii. Teeth/mouth iii. Hair
carry and transfer more germs than dry ones) 9. Discus the importance of hand washing to prevent disease transmission.
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 PERSONAL, WORKSHOP AND FOOD LABORATORY BURNS AND FIRE
SAFETY Burns is when one comes into contact with open fire, acid and heated metal.
ACCIDENTS IN THE WORKSHOP/FOOD LABORATORY Causes of Burns and Fire
* Scalding liquid.
* Spattering grease.
* Hot cooking utensils.
* Malfunctioning electrical appliances.
* Carelessness around hot surface and open flame.
Prevention
* Keep flammable items away from stove.
* Do not leave food unattended while cooking.
* Do not wear loose cloths or jewellery that dangers.
Burn and Scald Cut Fainting * Do not hang flammable materials near the range.
* Use a pot holder or an oven mitt when lifting the lid off of a streaming pot.
* Lift lids away from your face to avoid stream.
* Stand to the side of oven when opening.
* Store towel and paper products in location away from the stove.
* Never taste by dipping your finger into food that is hot or cooking.
If a burn occur in the kitchen
* Have an extinguisher handy.
* Stop, drop and roll.
* Run burned area under cold water.
Shock Fall
* Do not apply ointment or grease of any kind.
Accidents in the workshops are injuries that occur in the workshop * Do not break blisters.
unexpectedly or unintentionally. Workshop is a place of many potential * If a fire occurs inside microwave, disconnect and keep down closed.
accidents, but since we frequent it on regular basic, we often forget how * Grease fire – cut off oxygen, use baking soda or salt. Do not use water.
dangerous it can be. Many workshop accident and injuries are preventable * Paper fire – use water.
with caution and common sense; If burn occur to a person
The best way to avoid an accident is to be smart, stay calm and think through * Run under cold water.
a situation. Or the most important thing you can do to prevent accidents is to * Apple ice and seek medical attention.
pay attention to what you are doing at all times.
SHOCK
Types of accidents that occur in the workshop
* Burns - when one comes into contact with open fire, acid or heated metal. Shock is when someone touches naked wire.
* Falls - occur when someone is too far off-balance. Prevention
* Scalds - is a burn injuries caused by hot liquid, hot vapour or stream. * Do not plug in or open electric items near water.
* Cuts - being injured by knife or sharp object. * Hold onto plug not the cord when disconnecting.
* Shock - is when someone touches naked wire. * Repair damage cords immediately.
* Fainting - when someone do not work under appropriate height. * Avoid touching wire with wet hand.
* Choking - when someone swallows a hard object. * Never stand on a wet floor or work on a wet counter.
* Don’t run cords under rug/carpet.
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 Treating electrical shock Prevention
* Use non conduct material to pull victim away from the source. * Keep young children out of the kitchen or cooking area during meal
* Rope, long piece of cloth, wooden pole. preparation.
FALL * Use an oven guard to limit heat from oven door.
* Install a stove guard to prevent children pulling object off the cook top.
Fall occur when someone is too far off-balance. * Control the temperature of your bathroom hot tap.
Types of falls
Trip and fall – occur when there is an object, often unexpected in the POISON
walking path. Some of the more serious accidents are poisoning involving children. To
Stump and fall – {step and fall} is when the walker encounters some type of make your home safe from poisoning. Identify any potentially harmful
impediment in the floor that causes him/her to lose balance. substances and either lock them away or store them way or store them
Slip and fall – when the interface of the shoe and the floor fails to support somewhere out of children’ reach.
the walker. Some of the most poisonous household products
Prevention * Dish washing detergent. * Ammonia.
* Wipe up spills. * Window cleaner. * Bleach.
* Avoid slippery throw rugs. * Insect spray. * Gasoline.
* Use a step stool to reach high places. * Paint. * Lotion.
* Store heavy pot and pans on low shelves. * Vitamin supplements. * Medicine.
* Keep kitchen floor clean and dry. How do poisons enter your body
* Wear proper shoe or sandals. * Nose + lungs: inhale.
CUTS * Mouth: eat or drink.
* Skin: touch.
Cuts - being injured by knife or sharp object.
Safety points to prevent poisonings
Prevention
* Read directions & warnings on package.
* Do not leave pins and needle about.
* Use sprays in well-ventilated areas; point nozzle away from you & others.
* Keep knives sharp – dull blades can slip.
* Wear rubber gloves & face mask.
* Keep fingers away from beaters, blender, food processor, etc.
* Never mix household cleaning products.
* Never pick up broken glass with your bare fingers.
* Avoid use of insect killers in kitchen.
To treat a cut
* Don't trust childproof caps.
* Cover the wound with a sterile cloth.
* Store products in containers in which they came.
* Apply firm pressure to the wound.
* Keep plants out of children's reach & away from food.
* Wash minor cut with soap and water, apply antiseptic and bandage.
How to be ready to help victims who are poisoned
SCARDS * Post poison chart in kitchen.
Scalds is a burn injuries caused by hot liquid, hot vapour or stream. * Have phone contact of poison control center in phone.
Causes of scald * Get med help right away if someone is poisoned.
* Hot drinks such as tea and coffee.
* Water being boiled for drinks. CHOKING
* Hot cooking oil and liquid. Choking – when someone swallows a hard object.
* Hot food.
* Running hot tap water and hot bath water.
15 16
 How to prevent choking KEEPING THE WORKSHOP AND FOOD LABORATORY
* Take small bites; chew well. SAFE
* Sit down to eat.
* Avoid eating in the car Regular keeping the workshop clean and safe should be an integral part of
* Avoid giving children food that can choke them: grapes, carrots, popcorn, the safety practices to ensure the well-being of individual. Clean workshop
nuts, hot dog, hard candy & marshmallow /food laboratory environment encourages a positive workplace atmosphere,
accurate inventory management, increased efficiency, along with fewer
FAINTING accidents.On the other hand, a dirty, cluttered shop has more chances of
Fainting – when someone do not work under appropriate height. accidents happening. Moreover, it leads to a negative employee attitude
Prevention towards the organization. They pay less attention to small details when
* Work in a good condition. performing important tasks because they are off-put by their surroundings.
* Work under appropriate height. This topic covers personal safety measures in the workshop/food
laboratory, how to keep the tools and equipment safe to prevent accidents in
Main causes of Accidents the workshop /food laboratory and ways of minimizing accidents in the
Accident may occur in the workshop due to: workshop/food laboratory.
* Carelessness.
* Forgetfulness. Personal safety measures in the workshop/food laboratory.
* Inattentiveness Safety measures are measures to be taken in order to keep oneself from
* Over-confidence. harm or prevent accident to oneself. Harm can occur due to: carelessness,
* Ignoring Safety Procedures – not putting on the correct work shoes and forgetfulness, inattentiveness and over-confidence to avoid these there are
clothes. some measures been taken. These measures are called safety. Therefore
* Distraction – when you are not concentrating on the task at hand safety is a way of ensuring proper use of protective wears in the workshop
* Excessive haste – too much hurry can cause one to miss a step or knock off and laboratory and adherence to safety rules and regulations.
a hot object and lead to accident in the kitchen. General Safety Rules
* Using faulty equipment – not using correct equipment and tools for * Wear goggle to protect the eye when grinding.
different tasks. * Do not leave anything inflammable near a fire.
* Wet and slippery floor – leaving spilled liquids, banana and other peels on * Wear protective clothing when working.
the floor causing surface to be slippery. * Use right tools for right job.
* Poor arrangement of equipment – not arranging the kitchen equipment and * Remove wrist watch when working on machine.
tool properly can lead to kitchen accident. * Never talk anyone while working on a machine.
* Poor ventilation and lightening – improper ventilation can cause * Do not carry a sharp edge in pocket.
suffocation and improper and insufficient lightening in the kitchen * Learn the right way to do your job.
* Follow all instructions-ask if you do not know.
* Correct and report all unsafe conditions.
* Use the correct protective equipment.
* Report all accidents.
* Use the right tool for the job.
* Keep your work area clean.
* Make sure floors are clean and dry.

17 18
 Unsafe Acts/Unsafe Conditions BASIC SKILLS IN APPLYING FIRST AID TO SELF AND
* Wiping or cleaning moving equipment. OTHERS
* Failing to wear proper protective clothing.
* Smoking in a no-smoke area.
* Failing to follow safety rules and signs.
* Lifting too heavy a load by yourself.
* Removing or not using machine guards.
* Taking chances.
How to keep the tools and equipment safe to prevent accidents in the
workshop / food laboratory.
Proper storage of food
When storing food, store the food in such a way that – it is protected from First aid is an immediate treatment given to a victim or injure person. Or it
the likelihood of contamination; and the environmental conditions under is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury.
which it is stored will not adversely affect the safety and suitability of the When an accident occurs, a person may have a bruise, sprain, and cut or
food. Potentially hazardous food should be store under temperature control break bone. When this happens, it becomes necessary that something have
and if it is food that is intended to be stored frozen; ensure the food remains be done to help the injured person before taken to hospital, First aid is the
frozen during storage. immediate help that is given to such person who has been injured in an
Materials, tools and equipment accident or has been taken ill suddenly.
Always handle tools and equipment like knives and other sharp equipment Importance of First Aid
with care. Accidents involving knives are common in the food laboratory, * It saves the life of a victim.
and usually involve cuts to a person non-knife hand and fingers. * It prevents the injured person condition from becoming worse.
Store them in a special knife rack or wooden block. This way you can help * Promote recovery.
keep the blades sharp by keeping the edges away from hard objects that can Content of First Aid Box
dull the blades. Keep tools and equipment clean, sanitized and grease free, First Aid Box - is a small box labelled and marked with a big red cross that
all of these will help you have a firmer grip. we kept things needed to treat minor accidents.
Ways of minimizing accidents in the workshop/food laboratory
* Never ignore safety procedures and always follow instructions.
* Avoid excessive haste and rushing through work
* Do not use faulty equipment.
* Clean any wet and slippery floor.
* Properly arrange of equipment and tools.
* Good lightening and ventilation,
* Work systematically and carefully. First Aid Box should have the following items: Cotton wool packs, Blade,
* Paying maximum attention to whatever you are doing. Tweezers, Bandage, antiseptic, Detol iodine, savlon, plaster, scissors, gauze,
* When lifting, bend your knees. safety pin, gentian violet, liniment, thermometer, tincture benzoin,
methylated spirit, Eye drops, pain killing tablets e.g. paracetamol, aspirin,
ointment.
19 20
 How to administer first aid to persons affected with any of the following:
Cuts -Rinse the cut with water and apply pressure with sterile gauze,
a bandage, or a clean cloth
Scissor - Clean with slat solution. Apply iodine or methylated spirit
and dress wound or cut.
Burns -After holding the burn under cool, running water, apply cool,
Plaster
Bandage wet compresses until the pain subsides
- Apply skin cream (Vaseline) on the affected part.
Blade Scalds Cool the burn with cool or lukewarm running water for 20
minutes – don't use ice, iced water, or any creams or greasy
Ointment substances such as butter.
- Sit down and pour cold water many times on the burn. It will
stop the pain.
Paracetamol Falls Place a cold compress or ice pack on any bumps or bruises.
Antiseptic Fainting let the person lies down flat and raise his/her feet. Let him
Detol iodine have enough fresh air.
Safety pin Nose - lie flat on the floor. Put a wet pad or any cold metal such as
bleeding key across the bridge of the nose. This will make the place
Gauze cold and stop the blood from coming.

EXERCISE I
Eye drop 1. Define what an accident is?
2. State any four causes of accidents in the food laboratory.
3. State four types of food laboratory accident you know. Explain them.
Bandage - to hold the gauze in place or folded into a bandage or sling 4. State four (4) causes of the ff accident. {i} Burns {iii} Scalds
Scissors - to cut the bandages into the right length or casuality clothes to 5. Outline three (3) ways of minimizing accidents in the workshop and food
access the wound laboratory
Gauze - to use as padding 6. Describe how to treat the following; a. a cut. b. electric shock.
Safety pin - to hold dressing and bandages in place 7. List six household’s poisonous product you know.
Gloves – to prevent infection and contact with body fluids 8. List three (3) ways poison can pass through to the body.
Bandage – to support joint injuries, put pressure on wound, hold dressing in 9. State the importance of keeping the workshop/food laboratory safe.
place 10. State the proper uses of the following protective wears.
Antiseptic (i) Nose mask (ii) helmet (iii) boot
Detol iodine 11. Write five (5) ways of minimizing accidents in the workshop/food
Savlon Laboratory
Plaster
Thermometer EXERCISE II
1. Define First Aid?
Cotton wool packs
2. List eight (8) items found in the First Aid Box.
Tweezers
3. State three reasons why it is necessary to learn First Aid.
Methylated spirit
21 22
4. Copy and complete the tab le below. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Accident First aid treatment
Cut or open wound THE CONSTITUENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Snake bite Environmental Health presents the interaction of man and his environment
Fainting as it affects his physical and mental health as well as social well-being.
Dog or Cat bite The environment in which we live greatly affects our health. The household,
Nose bleeding workplace and outdoor environments can pose a variety of health hazards
5. Explain how to administer First Aid to a person suffering from burns. from contamination of the air we breathe, the water we drink and the food
6a. Identify the ff first aid essentials.. we eat, to the risk of accidental injury from vehicles or unsafe housing.
(d)
Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical and biological
(b) factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviours.
(a)
It encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors
that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease
(e) and creating health-supportive environments.
Examples of environmental health include: exposure to hazardous
(c) substances in the air, water, soil, and food.
(h) (f)
Constituents of environmental health
(i) Factors according to the four pillars of environmental health include: disease
(g) control, water, sanitation and hygiene, built environment, occupational
health and food safety and hygiene.

Disease control – Activities designed to protect the environment from actual

b. state the uses of the above first aid essentials
or potential health threats and their harmful consequences. Disease
prevention covers measures not only to prevent the occurrence of disease,
such as risk factor reduction, but also to arrest its progress and reduce its
Home work
consequences once established.
1. Make a chart of five (5) items that you can keep in a First Aid box.
Lack of disease control is the main cause of many transmitted disease
2. Explain two personal safety measures to be taken in the workshop/food
including cholera, malaria, trachoma and diarrheal disease, which remains
laboratory.
the second leading cause of morbidity and death among children.
3. List two ways to keep tools and equipment safe to prevent accidents in
There are several important reasons for maintaining a proper disease control:
the workshop /food laboratory.
it reduces human disease transmission, and creates a healthier living
4. Make a chart of traditional and modern items for treating various
environment.
accidents in the workshop.
To improve healthy environment and preventing diseases. We must use
clean technologies and fuels for domestic cooking, heating and lighting to
Project work
reduce acute respiratory infections, chronic respiratory diseases,
Interview parents/guardians and people in the community on how to prevent
cardiovascular diseases and burns. Increasing access to safe water and
frequently-occurring accidents in the workshop and laboratory, and report to
adequate sanitation and promoting hand washing would further reduce
your class.
diarrhoeal diseases.
23 24
Clean water – water covers more than 70% of the earth’s surface. It was with construction of buildings, high levels of dust are generated when land is
water that life on earth started, so it is not surprising that all living things on disrupted and existing buildings demolished.
our blue planet need water. Clean water is, in fact, many things: it is a vital Other air pollution includes:
need, a home, a local and global resource, a transport corridor and a climate
regulator. * Cigarette smoke.
For us humans, clean water is not simply a vital need for our bodies, it is * Particulates from candles and incense.
also a resource we benefit from every day. At home, we use it for cooking, * Irritating perfumes.
cleaning, showering and flushing. To continue enjoying the benefits of clean * Odors from harsh household cleaners.
water and healthy oceans and rivers, we need to fundamentally change the * Craft and office supplies, such as paints, glues and toner ink.
way we use and treat clean water. * Fumes from dry cleaned garments (many solvents used are carcinogenic).
* Allergens, such as mold, pollen, pet dander and dust mites.
Sanitation – is a way of cleaning and disinfection the environment to stop the * Wood-burning fireplaces or stoves.
transmission of infectious agents. It involves inactivating or destroying * Improper ventilation in homes (can increase levels of radon and carbon
disease-causing microorganisms. Cleaning and disinfecting does not have to monoxide gas).
be complicated or get in the way of work to be done. Sanitation is an * Gas stoves that are not well ventilated with hoods to outside (can increase
important part of our plans, for the prevention of diseases and to know what exposure to nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and formaldehyde).
to do when diseases are present.
Hygiene - The greatest benefit of practicing hygiene is the reduction in
disease transmission and improved health. The maximum benefits of
hygiene are achieved, if improvements in hygiene are concurrently made
with improvements in the food industry, water supply, and sanitation
coupled with other interventions such as improved nutrition. Good hygiene
practices are among the essentials of the survival and development of
children. Without hygiene, the lives of millions of people especially children
and the vulnerable populations would be at risk of suffering from water,
sanitation, and hygiene-related diseases which are one of the leading causes
of death among children, despite being preventable
Causes of environmental health
Air Pollution – Air pollution refers to man-made emissions that are released
into the atmosphere. Poor air quality is a global health hazard. Common
activities that contribute to air pollution include:
-Use of plant and vehicles- The majority of air pollution comes from
construction machinery, plants, vehicles and generators that run on diesel.
The diesel engine exhausts of plant and other vehicles is large contributor of
air pollution, this is referred to as diesel particle matter (DPM) and contains
sulphates and silicates that add to the pollutants in the atmosphere.
-Land clearing and demolition-. Air pollution comes from dust from site
activities such as demolition. As land often has to be cleared and made
suitable for construction or road to take place, As well as with the
25 26
Water pollution - Water pollution happens when toxic substances end up in
water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans. This pollution may be visible,
either on the surface or deposited on the bed, or invisible to the human eye,
such as chemicals that dissolve in water. Construction activities often
involve the use of toxic chemicals and pollutants that can end up in the water
table if not managed well.
Common construction sources that contribute to water pollution include:
diesel and oil, cement, glues, paints and other toxic chemicals.
All of these contaminants have the potential to end up in water as a result of
runoff from construction work. Pollutants can enter the water system in a
number of ways, such as through drains, seeping into soil, or runoff directly
into rivers or lakes.
Other water pollution includes:
* Open defecation in water bodies.
* Littering in water
* Disposal of plastic bottles and bags in water bodies
* Human liquid waste disposal.
* Urinating in water bodies.
27
Soil pollution – is when human introduce harmful objects, chemical or
substance, directly or indirectly into the soil in a way that causes harm to
other living things or destroy soil. Soil pollution is caused by the presence of
man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This
type of contamination typically arises from the:
* Break of underground storage links.
* Application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer.
* Percolation of contaminated surface water into the soil.
* Oil and fuel dumping,
* Direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil.
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
* Petroleum hydrocarbons.
* Solvents.
* Pesticides.
* Lead and other heavy metals.
Land pollution – is a result of dumping waste, garbage and toxic material on
the land making it contaminated or polluted.
Chemical exposures - It is likely that you will use hazardous chemicals on
construction sites. This may include paints, glues, oils, thinners and plastics,
which all produce noxious vapour.
28
 The consequences of poor environmental health Soil Arsenic, heavy metals (especially
Air Pollution pollution in agricultural chemicals)
Air pollution can penetrate deep into the lungs of those who inhale it. Poor Factories, construction work, road - Headache
air quality due to pollution can cause the following health problems as such Noise traffic, trains and aircraft, late-- Insomnia
as pollution night commercial operations, - Depression
- Coughs, wheezing and shortness of breath. advertising - Hearing loss
- Cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. - Impaired development
- Lung cancer and Strokes. Factories, construction work, road - Dizziness
- Exacerbation of asthma. Vibration traffic, trains and - Discomfort
Water Pollution aircraft - Structural damage to
-Can make fresh water unusable for drinking or irrigation. homes
-Transmission of diseases such as typhoid and polio and exacerbates
stunting. EXERCISE
-Disrupt the entire ecosystem of animals and plants. 1. What is environmental health?
-Damage the nervous system, liver and kidneys. 2. Write short notes on four things that constituent the environmental health.
Soil pollution 3. List four causes of environment health.
- Decrease in soil fertility. 4. State four ways of polluting the air (indoor).
- Soil erosion. 5. Explain the effects of open defecation in water bodies.
- Toxic dust. 6. List four common chemical that can cause soil pollution.
- Makes the soil poisonous for plant and animals. 7.Copy and complete the table below.
Category One major causes Two effects
Land pollution Soil pollution
* Cause problem in the human respiration system.
Land pollution
* Cause of various cancers.
Air pollution
* Breathing in polluted dust or particles.
8. Explain how the environment can be kept clean.
* The toxic materials that polluted the soil can get into human body directly
9. What do you think about the current filth in the environment?
by/into contact with the skin.
10. State four (4) illnesses that are caused by dirty environments.
* Acid rain kills trees and other plants.
11. As an environmental health student, explain the effects of the illustration
* Pesticides can damage crop, kill vegetation and poison birds, animal and
Below.
fish.
Category Major causes Major symptoms
Smoke, dust, exhaust fumes, - Asthma.
Air toxic substances (such as sulfur - Bronchitis
pollution dioxide and nitrogen dioxide) - Lung cancer. - Strokes.
Polluted waste water, waste - Noxious odors
Water fluids (such as petroleum), - Poisoning
pollution sludge, household sewage, - Cholera
sewage discharge, general waste, - Diarrhoea
agricultural chemical (a) (b)

29 30
 PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF ENVIRONMENTAL To minimize or prevent soil pollution:
HEALTH * Avoid the disposal of plastic and polythene to the soil.
* Trees may be planted on barren slopes
There are many things we can do to protect the environmental health and
safety of our community. To minimize or prevent Land pollution
To minimize or prevent air pollution: * Trees should be planted everywhere.
* Avoid smoking indoors (but quitting smoking is the best answer for overall * Waste matter should be disposed immediacy to avoid drilling land for
health). underground water.
* Use craft supplies in well-ventilated areas. * Avoid using fertilizer and pesticides for farming.
* Make sure your gas stove is well-ventilated. * Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in
* Minimize clutter. landfill site.
* Remove carpeting if possible. * Create dumping ground away from residential areas.
* Use a dehumidifier and/or air conditioner to reduce moisture.
* Keep trash covered to avoid attracting pests.
* Remove shoes at the door. HOME WORK
* Have car emissions tested regularly. 1. Use ICT tools and other sources to find out the causes of the following:
* Minimize air freshener use. a. Air pollution
* Test your home for radon. b. Water pollution
* Use carbon monoxide detectors. c. Land pollution
* Dust surfaces and vacuum frequently. 2. Suggest ways of preventing the above pollutions.
* Wash bedding weekly in hot water.
* Make sure exhaust fans are functioning in your bathrooms and kitchen PROJECT WORK
* Keep a lid on scented candles. Plan an educational campaign in the community aimed at eradicating the
* Taking some simple precautions can help boost air quality in your home above-mentioned pollutions.
and improve your health.
* Avoid burning of used lorry tires to extract copper wires for sale;
* Avoid the dismantling and burning of used electronic gadgets to extract
valuable metals for sale.
To minimize or prevent water pollution:
* We must protect natural resources and avoid polluting water bodies.
*Avoid littering.
*Avoid defecating indiscriminately.
*Avoid inappropriate disposal of plastic bottles and bags in water bodies.
* Avoid inappropriate human liquid waste disposal.
* Avoid improper land reclamation in the mining industry.
* stop dumping chemicals and waste into the environment.
* Invest in sanitation and raise awareness on the best hygiene practices.
* restore ecosystem to secure access to safe water.
* Fix water leaks.

31 32
 MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION Watercolour – Available in absorbent, smooth, hot-pressed or the more
COMPLIANT MATERIALS textured cold-pressed and heavily textured rough. Used for watercolor
painting
Compliant materials are materials that have recognised, predictable and Treated paper - Plain paper with a clear binder or dye layer applied to help
consistent properties. Paper/card, fabric/textiles are said to be compliant hold the image on the paper surface and brighten the image. Surface sheens
materials because they can conform to a known performance criteria, or such as high gloss or matt available. Used for Photographic printing
paper and card are compliant materials, meaning that they are suitable for Cartridge paper - Off-white paper usually with a slightly textured surface.
scoring, cutting and folding to produce items such as packaging. Used for sketching, rendering in pencil, ink and pastel, Can be used for
Papers and boards are used for a variety of purposes from writing, drawing, printing.
packaging and model making. They are made from cellulose fibres found in
wood or grasses which are all renewable. Paper & boards can be plain, Types of paper Uses
textured and can be laminated with other materials like plastic to make them Layout paper -Sketching.
waterproof. Paper and board is measured is sizes from A0 to A6 and in -Technical drawing.
weight by grams per square metres (gsm). Boards (card or cardboard) are -Facing
always greater the 200gsm. Bleed proof -Spirit-based marker rendering
Examples of each class of compliant materials; Watercolour -Watercolour painting
* Paper – copy paper (tracing paper), construction paper, watercolour, etc. Treated paper -Photographic printing
* Card – solid white board, corrugated card, bleached card, duplex card, etc. Tracing paper - Copying image when sketching
* Fabric/Textile – cotton, nylon Cartridge paper -Sketching
-Rendering in pencil, ink and pastel
Types of compliant materials
-Printing
Compliant materials are classified under their types;
* Paper. CARD
* Card.
Thicker than paper as it is made up of a number of layers, glue or laminated
* Polymer based sheets.
together.
* Fabric/Textile.
Examples of card
PAPER
Solid white board – is a quality cardboard, made from quality bleached wood
Papers and boards can be described as compliant materials, meaning that pulp. It is suitable for printing on to and consequently, it is used for hard
they can be scored, folded and cut with basic tooling to form items such as backed book and general expensive items. 200 to 500gsm.
nets for packaging. The original source of paper is wood pulp, which is grey Corrugated board – often used for packaging large items. These boxes brown
in colour. During manufacture, bleaches are added to transform the grey pulp in colour, protect the content from damaging. Corrugated board is strong
into whiter paper. The natural source makes paper and boards suitable for
because it is composed of a top and bottom layer and in between there is a
recycling, or if left in landfill they will naturally biodegrade.
triangulated section. A triangular section is very strong, compared to its
Examples of paper weight 1000 to 5500gsm
Layout paper - thin translucent paper with a smooth surface. Used for Types of cards/board
Sketching, quick ink, technical drawing, facing etc. Types of cards Uses
Bleed proof - Similar to cartridge paper but has a bleed-proof layer on one -Making gift boxes.
side so colours do not run. Use for spirit-based marker rendering. Metal effect card -Packaging.
Tracing paper - translucent paper slightly thicker than layout paper. For -Business cards.
copying images when sketching.
33 34
 Solid board -Packaging frozen foods, ice cream, pharmaceutical POLYMER BASED SHEETS
and cosmetics They are materials manufactured from polymer and are produced in sheet
-Greeting cards. form of varying thicknesses for purposes from model making to packaging.
Bleached card -High-quality packaging. In terms of sustainability, they have different features: some, such as
-Protective packaging. cellulose acetate which comes from a natural source, will biodegrade; others,
Corrugated card -Model making. such as fluted polypropylene (PP), can be recycled.
-Prototyping ideas.
-Food packaging such as take-away boxes. Examples of Polymer based sheets.
-Presenting artwork, Types of cards Uses
Mount board -Picture mounting Foam board -Mood board backing
-Presentation boards
-Modeling
-Modeling.
Duplex card -Food packaging such as juice or milk cartons
Fluted/translucent -Signs (such as construction site signs, sale boards)
-Disposable cups polypropylene -Storage box construction
-Plates. -Portfolio cases
Foil backed and -Drinks packaging. -Small models Acetate
laminated card -Milk cartons. Styrofoam -Product modeling.
-Take-away box lids. -Laminating modelling foam.
-Disposable coffee cups
Selecting Paper & Card -Cushioning material in packaging
The type of paper & board used to make a product depends on the following Plastazote foam -Protective packaging.
factors: -Swimming floats, gym and exercise mats.
* Aesthetics. -Sound and pipe insulation
* Size of product. -Stage props.
* Where and how the product will be used?
* Stability. FABRIC/TEXTILE
* Cost.
* Size. Fabrics/Textiles are clothing material, composed of individual thread or
* Weight. yarns that are made of fibres and are woven, knitted, bonded, crocheted,
* Finish required. felted, knotted or laminated. Most are either woven or knitted. The degree of
* Lifetime of the product. stretch, absorbency, water repellence, softness and durability are all
* Desired properties. individual qualities of the different fabrics. The quality of a fabric depends
upon the type of fibre used for the treatment used on it.
Terms used in paper/card proprieties Examples of fabric/textile
Gloss – this refers to the surface luster Natural fabric – are fibres naturally obtained from plants and animals.
Glare – refers to the way light reflect on the paper Examples are: cotton, wool, silk etc.
Smoothness – refers to the absence of surface irregularities. Synthetic fibres - are artificially produced within the industries. Examples:
Finish – refers to the general characteristics of the surface. Nylon, Acrylic, Polyester. Synthetic fibre is quite strong, wrinkle- resistant
Porosity – refers to the density of the paper/card and its ability to allow and quick drying. These are used in making different materials; like clothes,
liquid through it neck-ties, sails, sweater, shawls, carpet and blankets. They are also used in
making boats, skating boards, etc.
35 36
 EXERCISE
HOW COMPLIANT MATERIALS ARE OBTAINED 1. What is meant by Compliant Material?
Most materials used for packaging are paper /card based. Card and paper are 2. List four examples of compliant material you know.
made from wood pulp and waste paper. When paper is examined through a 3. Define the four examples of compliant material listed above.
microscope the fibres that form the material can be seen. The fibres are made 4. State the application of the types of compliant material.
from cellulose which is extracted from the wood pulp and recycled waste (i) Layout paper (ii) Copy paper (iii) Styrofoam (iv) Acetate
paper. (v) Bleed proof paper
HOW PAPER IS PBTAINED/MANUFACTURE 5. Copy and complete that table below.
Compliant material Weight
-Paper is made from wood; a tree is cut down and the trunk is fed into a
chipping machine where it is cut into very small pieces.
-The wood chips are boiled in water to form a thick wood pulp. 6. Describe as a series of stages, the manufacture of paper.
-Chemicals/ingredients such as starch and bonding agents are added. 7. How is card manufactured?
-The pulp is poured over a fine mesh and the water escapes leaving the 8. Name three compliant materials and three polymers based compliant
cellulose fibres behind. This forms the paper. materials you know
9. State three properties of laminated card/shinny card (drink cartons)
10. What is pulp in the paper-making process.

EXERCISE II
1. What is yarn made of?
2. Name the two natural fibres
3. Where does cotton wool come from?
4a.What is spinning
b. Name two hand operated devices used for spinning.
5. Name the process used to prepare fabric from yarns
6. What is knitting?
7. List the steps involved in the preparation of fabric
8a. What are natural fibres? Explain with examples.
b. What were the materials used by people in ancient times in place of clothes.
9. State; the following statement are true or false by giving T and F.
HOW FABRIC/TEXTILE IS OBTAINED a. The output of fibres are called yarn
-The raw material which is fibre is harvested and spin into yarn and threads. b. The piece of fabric is made from weaving of yarn
This can done by hand or by spinning wheel. c. The stem of the plant gives silk fibre
- After spinning, yarns are used in making of fabrics. Weaving and knitting d. The natural fibre is polyester
e. Coconut outer cover is jute
are two main processes used for making yarn to fabric.
f. Spinning- is a process of making fibres.
-When two sets of yarn are involved, yarns are woven on loom to make a
10. What are the fibres from a tree called?
fabric. -When a single yarn is used, the fabric is prepared by knitting.
HOMEWORK
Design and make a pop-up card; or design and make a decorative mat to put
under a hot cup.

37 38
 RESISTANT MATERIALS TYPES OF RESISTANT MATERIALS
Resistant materials are materials that are not pliable or flexible and cannot be PLASTICS
easily compressed with bare hands (plastic, wood, metal, ceramics, and
There are two basic types of polymer chain formation and each behaves
glass)
differently when heated. This difference allows us to separate plastics into
Resistant materials require particular basic techniques to be used to enable
two main groups;
materials to be measured, cut, shaped, joined and finished when making
* Thermoplastics.
products. Advanced and complex techniques are required to craft special
* Thermosetting.
features of a high standard in a product and rely on the consistent application
THERMOPLASTIC
of accepted conventions to achieve a desired effect.
These plastics are made up of lines of molecules with very few cross
In summary of the explanation and sorting out resistant materials, we say
linkages. This allows them to soften when heated so that they can be bent
that:
into different shapes, and to become stiff and solid again when cooled. This
Plastics - are synthetic organic materials formed by the application of heat
process can be repeated many times and three quarters of the plastics used
and are capable of been formed to shape under pressure. The ability of
are thermoplastics. Examples are; nylon, PVC, polythene ‘low and high
plastics to return to its original state/form when heat is applied is known as
density, Acrylic, Polystyrene, Cellulose acetate etc.
Plastic memory
Wood - is a natural material which is grown all over the world and has been THERMOSETTING
used for building work, furniture and decorative items for thousands of These plastics are made up of lines of molecules which are heavily cross-
years. The wood fibres grow along the length of the tree or branch (grain) linked. This results in a rigid molecules structure. Although they soften when
and these fibres consist of hollow cells (tracheids) supported by lignin resin. heated the first time, and can therefore be shaped, they then become
Timber is strong in the direction of the grain (along the grain) and weaker permanently stiff and solid and cannot be reshaped. Examples are; polyester
across the grain. Prior to most use, wood is converted (sawn into useable resin, phenol formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde, Urea formaldehyde.
pieces) and then seasoned (removing the excess moisture, 80–90 per cent).
Metal - is a naturally occurring material and is mined from the ground in the Thermoplastic Thermosetting
form of ore. Approximately 25 per cent of the Earth’s crust is made up of nylon, PVC, polythene ‘low and polyester resin, phenol
metal ores. Bauxite is the most common ore, followed by iron. The raw high density, Acrylic, Polystyrene, formaldehyde, melamine
metal is extracted from the ore through a combination of crushing, smelting Cellulose acetate formaldehyde, Urea formaldehyde
or heating, with the addition of chemicals and huge amounts of electrical The following chart shows some simples tests:
energy. Most metals can be recycled, saving natural resources and limiting Thermoplastic Thermosetting
the amount of materials imported from abroad. * Cut clearly. * Produce powdery chips when cut
Ceramics - is a mixture of clay, quartz ferrous sand materials and water. The * Become flexible at 2000C or less. * Bubble.
clays are mined from earth, shaped and then coloured. The clays are then * Melt to a viscous liquid if heating * Decompose before softening.
dried and subsequently fired at very high temperature in kilns. Ceramic tile continuous. * Cannot be reshaped.
comes in two forms: glazed and unglazed. The primary portion of the tile, * Can be reshaped or remelted. * Undergo chemical change.
known as bisque, can be naturally coloured with highly designed surfaces * Cannot undergo chemical change. * Become permanently hard.
which can be glazed either in a high gloss or matte finish. Glaze is a liquid * Does not become permanent hard * Rigid molecule structure.
glass that is baked onto the bisque. Most ceramic tiles have either a white or * Bent to different shape.
red body colouration underneath the glazed finish. * Become stiff solid again when
cooled.

39 40
 WOOD METAL
Basically, there are two types of trees; Metals - are hard substance made from ores which are obtained or mined
* Soft wood (Angiosperms) from the earth, and are used by metalworkers to make an item
* Hardwood (Gymnosperms There are two types of metals. Namely:
Note: The names softwood and hardwood describe the leaves, seeds, and *Ferrous Metals –examples are; - pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron and steel.
structure of the trees, and not necessarily the timber produced. *Non -ferrous Metals - examples are; - copper, lead, tin, aluminium, zinc.etc.
Soft wood (Angiosperms) *Other types include: alloys and smart
These trees produced by conifers (cone bearing trees). They are usually
evergreen with needle-like leaves, and grow mainly in colder and cooler Difference between ferrous and non ferrous metal
temperature climates. They grow quickly (30 years) and are therefore Ferrous Metals Non-Ferrous Metals
cheaper, softer, and easier to work than hardwood. The seed are not * Contain iron. * Do not contain iron.
enclosed, but are held in cones. Common examples include: pine, spruce, fir, * Rust * Do not rust.
cedar, larch, giant redwood. * Can pick up with a magnet. * Cannot pick up with a magnet.
Hardwood (Gymnosperms)
These trees keep their leaves all the year round, and therefore grow more Ferrous metals
quickly and to a greater size. They are usually softer and harder to work than Ferrous metals are metals made mainly of iron with small amounts of other
softwood. They grow mainly in tropical and sub-tropical climate. metals or other element added, to give the required properties. Almost all
Commonly examples include: rosewood, ebony, iroko, sapele, mahogany, ferrous metals can be picked up with a magnet and therefore rust due to the
teak, African walnut, balsa, etc. present of iron if the surface is not well protected. Examples are; pig iron,
wrought iron, cast iron, and steel.
Hardwood Softwood Non-Ferrous metal
American white wood Duglas fir They are metals which do not rust because they do not contain iron.
Mahogany Red wood Examples are copper, lead, tin, aluminium etc.
Sapele Red cedar
Iroko Parana pin Alloy
Beach wood Larch Alloy is a mixture of two or more pure metals, or one or more pure metals
mixed with other elements. Alloys are made in order to create materials
Difference between hardwood and softwood which have combinations of properties not all available in the pure metals,
Hardwood Softwood and to fulfill needs for which no pure metal is suitable.
Grown mainly in cold to temperate Grow mainly in cold tropic For example, while pure aluminium is soft and ductile, the addition of small
climate. climates. amounts of other elements can produce aluminium alloys which are stronger
Gymnosperm class. Angiosperm class. than mild steel, have improved hardness, and are corrosion resistant while
Leaves usually needle like mainly Broad leaves may be evergreen or retaining the lightness of aluminium.
evergreen. deciduous.
Grain generally straight except in. Grains may be straight sloping or Smart
Species having numerous knots. interlocked depending on species. Smart are metal alloys which can undergo solid-to-solid phase
Branches frequently arise in whorls. Branches usually grow at different transformation and can recover complete when heated to a specific
ie. more than two at the same time. level at the month two at the same temperature.
level.
41 42
 CERAMIC HOW EACH OF THE RESISTANT MATERIALS IS
The word ceramics is derived from the Greek word “keramos” which means OBTAINED
‘potter’s clay’. However, many compounds which are classified as ceramics
PLASTICS
today contain no clay.
Modern Ceramics - can be defined as the compounds of metals and non- Sources of plastics
metals. They generally have ionic atomic bonding between them. A few plastic are made by modifying natural substances with already have
Traditional ceramics - include insulating materials, glass, refractories, large molecules but most of those used today are man-made, and are
abrasives and enamels. They include metal oxides, carbides, borides, nitrides therefore known as synthetic plastic.
and silicates. Natural sources
Examples of ceramics Natural sources - Plants (cellulose), trees, animals, insects
Earthenware, Porcelain, Silicon carbide, Zinc oxide, Zirconium dioxide, By-products:- table tennis balls, acetate films, wrapping; rubber, roads,
Titanium carbide, Silicon nitride, Ferrite, Lead zirconate titanate, paint, decoration, glues, polish.
Magnesium diboride, Sialon (Silicon Aluminum Oxynitride)
Advantages of ceramics Animal Horn.
* Very hardness. Milk casein (glue).
* High melting point which makes them excellent refractory material. formaldehyde (glue).
* Good thermal insulators.
* High electric resistivity. Insects Lac – shellac (French polish).
* Low mass density which results in lightweight components.
* Durable.
Disadvantages of ceramics Plants Cellulose celluloid (table tennis balls).
cellulose acetate ( cloth, photographic film, handles).
* Brittle in nature.
* Zero ductility. Bitumen (road, flat roofs).
* Poor tensile strength. Latex (rubber).
* Difficult to shape and machine.
Trees Gutta percha (golf ball casing).
Properties of ceramics
* High hardness. Rosin – resin (paint).
* High melting point. Amber (semi-precious decoration)
* Good Thermal insulator.
* Highly electricity resistance. Synthetic sources
* Low mass density. Synthetic plastics – Crude oil, coal and natural gas
* Brittle in nature. By-products:- Chemically produced plastics – Polymerizing Vinyl Chloride
* Zero ductility. (PVC), Polystyrene, Polyethylene, Acrylic
* Low tensile strength.
Home work
Applications of ceramics
Activity 2. Find out information from different sources including online, on
* They are used as cutting tools.
the two types of plastics and give examples.
* They are used as refractory materials.
E.g.
* They are used as thermal insulator.
* Thermoplastics- Polythene, PVC, nylon
* They are used as electrical insulator.
* Thermosetting plastics- Urea formaldehyde, polyester resin, epoxy resin
* They are used in space industry because of their low weight.
43 44
 Table, matching products to the types of plastics they are made from. Thermosetting plastics
Thermoplastics Material Products
Polythene {High Milk creates, Bottles, Barrel, Watering can, Polyester resin Car bodies, Roofing sheet, Switch, Canoes,
density} Machine parts, Poly tanks &pipes, Buckets etc. Boat.
Polythene {Low Plastic sack, Sheets, TV aerial lead Insulation, Rain Phenol Formaldehyde Cistern, Cooking knob, Bottle top, Electric
density} coat, Bucket, Drinking cups, Electrical cables. {Bakelite} fitting, Door handles.
Nylon Toothbrush, comb, Packaging film, Gears wheel, Urea Textile, (white) electrical fittings, adhesives
{polyamide} Bearings, Washer, Net, Automotive. Formaldehyde{UF} (wood)Door handles, Bottle top, Electric
Acrylic {Perspex} Car light, Safety glass, Wind screen, Plastic lenses fittings, Insulator.
PVC {Rigid} Plumbing fittings, Upholstery, Drain pipes, Bottles, Melamine Formaldehyde Door handles, Formica, Synthetic resin paint.
Bucket.
PVC (Plasticised) Table top covering, Hosepipes, Floor covering.
Polystyrene Food containers, Plates, Cutlery, Kitchen ware,
Refrigerator linings.
Cellulose acetate Tool handles, Toothbrush handle, Car steering wheel
Switch
Items made from Thermoplastics Car body
Roofing sheet

Tools handle
Bottle top
Comb
Barrel Bottle Rain coat Bucket
Cistern Door handle
Boat

Car steer Car light Car wind screen

Drain pipe Socket

Hosepipe Electrical fittings Cooking knob
Watering can Plastic lenses

Canoes

Tooth brush Drinking cup Takeaway bowl

45 46
 WOOD
How wood is obtained
Wood is obtained from a matured living tree. Tree basically has three main
parts, the roots, the trunk {stem or bole} and the crown. The trunk supports
the crown and it is from the trunk that the logs which are converted to
commercial sizes of timber are obtained.
The process is when a mature living tree is felled, the branches are cut off to
obtain the log, which is then converted (sawn) to standard sizes, then
seasoned.
Common types of solid timber
* Plywood – made by gluing veneer together.
* Block board – built up from strip of solid wood.
* Particle board – composed of flakes or chip of wood glued together.
* Fiber board –made
made from vegetable or wood fibre composed together.

Solid timber
Man-made board

Weight of products made from:

The weight of a wood is guide to its performance. e.g, light, heavy etc.
Solid timber
* Heavier in weight
* Less flexible
Man-made
Man boards
* Lighter in weight
* More flexible

METAL
How metals are obtained
The raw material is mined from the earth; it undergoes
underg processes such as
Difference between solid timber and man-mademade boards crushing, washing and grading; several other processes are carried out to get
Solid timber is made from harvested trees or similar natural sources, whereas it in a refined form. For examples:
man-made boards are often produced from small pieces of wood or waste Aluminium
wood. It is also called manufactured board, built up or composed of wood Aluminium ore, known as bauxite, is mined or quarried from crush and dried
product. They vary in their structure, weight and size according to their before being refined into alumina. This is done by dissolving the bauxite in a
manufactured. hot caustic soda solution, filtering out impurities and collecting the
The main advantages over solid timber are: aluminium oxide which remains in precipitation tanks.
* They can be made in large.
* has a flat sheet which is more stable than solid timber
* They do not “work” warp or check.
* They can be worked and cut to size easily.
* The smooth machine finished surface enables them to be veneered.
* Polish and paint with less preparation than solid timber.
47 48
 Products made from each category of metals
Ferrous metal le
c ab
Cooking pot, engine block, bench vice bodies, box iron, wire, rivet, thin tri
c
ec
sheet, bolts, screws,, hammer head, axle, rope, gear, springs, cutting tools El
such as chisel, drill, file, screw drivers, knives, sheet, tubes, nuts and bolt, Soldering iron
louvre frame

Bench vice Box iron

Cooking pot Engine block
Radiators water pipe
G'clamp Knife
Alloys metal and smart metal
l
h ise Alloys - Sculptures, statues, ornaments
Gear C
Axle

Nuts
Bolt

Hammer head Screw Coal pot

Non-ferrous metals
Car engines, cables, piston, roof sheets. louvre frame, electrical cable, water Sculptures statues ornaments
pipes, radiators, soldering iron, soldering flux, corrugated iron sheet, Smart - Shape memory alloy (SMA)
tinplate, soft solder, clashing, covering for power and telephone cables,
protection against x-ray and radiation.

Car engine cables roofing sheet

49 50
 BUILDING
Building materials are group into two, namely:
* Natural building material
* Artificial building material.
Natural building materials
Natural building material includes: sand, stone, clay, laterite etc.
SAND
Sand is made up of small grains of particles of stones. The grain look like
granulated sugar and has a large air space which allow water to pass
through quickly. Sand particles, called grains, are smaller than gravel. The
grains can be described by their size, color, and shape as well as the way
they feel to the touch. Some grains are hard, while others are softer. Some
are jagged or rough.
Sources
Sand also called fine aggregate. It is obtained from:
Pit sand; - It is obtained from sandy ground. It is course in texture and
mostly used for laying or moulding block and concreting.
River sand; - This type of sand is obtained from river ‘belts’ it is course and
very clean from impurities because of the continuous washing by the water.
Used – for moulding blocks and concreting, and also good for mortar.
Sea sand; - This type of sand has a very fine course in texture and also
contains salt. It used for general purpose work. The salt can be removed by:
Washing with fresh water or leaving it in the open air to be washed by rain
water.
STONE
The longest lasting building material available is the one that’s been here for
thousands of years: stone. In fact, the most ancient of buildings still in
existence in the world are made of stone. It has many advantages, though
engineers and architects must make some special considerations when
planning a building using stone.
Sources
Consist of gravel, cracked stones which are obtained from quarries by
blasting and wedging the blocks away from the solid mass. The minimum
size is 5mm or equal to the largest grains of the sand. Stone should be hard,
tough, and free from loam, clay or organic matter.
CLAY
Clay is a special kind of earth which is made by the decomposition of rock
through the action of weathering. Or clay - is a soil component consisting of
51
extremely fine particles. Clay is distinguished from other fine grained soil by
differences in size and depending on the content of soil, clay can appear in
various colours, from white to dull gray or brown to a deep orange –red.
Laterite
Laterite- is red tropical soil: a reddish mixture of clayey iron and aluminium
oxides and hydroxides formed by the weathering of basalt under humid,
tropical conditions.
Its disadvantage is the tendency of the timber rooting as they get contact
with the ground and the need for regular annual maintenance to combat
erosion of the plaster.
Artificial building materials
CEMENT
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets, hardens and can bind other material
together. It is made from limestone and clay. Portland cement is by far the
most common type of cement in general use around the world.
Sources
This cement is made by heating limestone{calcium carbonate} with small
quantities of other material such as clay in a kiln in process known as
calcinations, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the
calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide or quicklime which is then blended
with the other material that have been added in the mix . The resulting is
hard substance called “clinker” is then grounded with a small amount of
gypsum into a powder to make “ordinary Portland cement’ the most
commonly used type of cement often called OPC.
LIME
Lime - is obtained from quick lime by burning a limestone or chalk at a high
temperature of 9000C.
Sources
Lime is produced from quality limestone; calcium carbonate is heated until
burnt in a kiln or kiln pit at the temperature between 800 – 9000. The
remaining substance {quicklime} is unstable and reacts with water to
produce heat and resulting in the formation of calcium hydroxide. Slake lime
is white solid produce when lime reacts with a sufficient amount of water.
Quicklime is produce by heating rock or stone containing calcium carbonate.
{limestone, marble, chalk, shell} to a temperature of/ around 10000C for
several hours in a process known as “calcining or sometimes simply
burning.
52
 EXERCISE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SMART AND MODERN
1. What are resistant materials? MATERIALS
2. List examples/types of resistant material you know.
3. Write the various types of resistant materials under their categories. Smart materials - (intelligent or responsive materials) are designed
4. State five (5) advantages of using ceramic materials materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly
5. Mention three (3) uses of ceramic changed in a controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, moisture,
6. What is smart memory alloy? electric or magnetic fields, light, temperature, pH or chemical
7. State six properties of ceramic. compounds.
8. Explain with examples the main types of metals. The need for new generation of advanced materials in modern application
has led to be the development of the smart material. The idea of smart
EXERCISE materials originated in mid-1980s. Their perception implies an ability to the
1. Explain how the following resistant material is obtained; clever, active, and sophisticate. Smart materials are unique in that they
i. Plastic ii. Wood iii. Metal iv. Ceramic exhibit different properties when there is change in their environment. They
2. Explain with examples the two sources of plastics. react to change in temperature, stress, moisture, pressure, light, electric or
3. List five (5) examples of thermoplastic product you know. magnetic field. This peculiar property makes them useful for certain
4. List ten (10) items made from thermosetting. application. Their degree of smartness is dictated by their responsiveness to
5a. What is thermosetting? environment stimuli. Structures that are made from smart material are
b. List ten (10) products made from thermoplastics referred to as smart structure.
6a. Distinguished between solid wood and man-made board Smart materials are often composite material. They have several advantages
b. State four advantages of solid timber over man-made board over conventional material. These include lighter weight, no corrosion, and
c. State common types of solid timber you known increase in lifespan of the structure that use them. They have an active role
7a. Explain how aluminum is obtained to play in shaping our world, whether in designing clothes, infrastructure, car
b. State five (5) products made from or airplanes.One of the most common smart materials is a shape memory
alloy (SMA), called nitinol.
HOMEWORK TASK Uses of smart material
1. Sketch one product made from a resistant material. Dental braces, self-closing windows, aeroplane wing flaps, bioengineering
2. State the type of resistant material used. such as stents, bone plates and screws, room thermometers, medical
3. Design and make a simple mock-up of the product from any resistant thermometers for children, bath water thermometers, colour change mugs
material. and kettles, baby feeding spoons, battery charge indicator strips, Fire exit
4. Copy and complete the table below by stating the name of a resistant signs, masks, night lights, airbag sensors in cars, lighters for barbecues,
material and one product made from it. vibration damping in tennis racquets, musical greetings cards, pressure
Name of resistant material Name of one product each sensors etc.
1. Aeroplane wing flap
2. Bath water thermometer
3.
4.
5. State two examples each of the following resistant materials: Dental brace Pressure sensor
i. Wood ii. Metal iii. Plastic

Feeding spoon Fire exit sign

53 54
 Nitinol wire

Bend to any shape

when cold

Battery charge indicator strip Night light Musical greeting card

er
et
om Drop into cold water
r m
he
lt
ica
e d
M Airbag sensor in car Heat water and nitinol wire
Bone plate and screw zip back to its original shape
Change mug and kettle at a characteristic temperature

Types of smart material

Nowadays, there are different types of smart material and new ones arise Photochromic pigment:: These pigments change colour in response to light.
every day, among them, are: A great example of this is glasses which become tinted and turn into
*Thermochromic pigments. sunglasses when you go out into the sun.
*Shape Memory alloy. Piezoelectrical materials: are materials that convert mechanical energy into
*Photochromic pigment. electric energy and vice versa. They change their shape in response to an
*Magnetorheological materials. electrical impulse or produce an electric charge in response to an applied
Thermochromic pigments: colours changing additives that changes with mechanical stress.
heat. These can be used in baby spoons, mugs, battery power indictor, and Magnetorheological materials – they change their properties when exposed
forehead thermometers. to a magnetic field. For examples they are currently used in shock absorbers
Colour change of spoon to prevent seismic vibration in bridges or skyscrapers.
touching hot coffee
Modern Material
Modern materials - They are materials developed through the invention of
new or improved process to have improved properties and use for
sportswear, medical and safety wear, and fashion clothing.
clothing
Modern materials will continue to evolve as technology advances. They are
developed through the invention
nvention of new or improved processes, for example
Colour of mug containing as a result of man-made
made materials or human intervention. Modern materials
hot coffee are not ‘smart materials’ because they do not react to external change.

Shape Memory alloy:: These have the ability to remember an original shape Uses of modern material
when heated. Used in glasses if you accidently bend them - they can pop Body armour, cut-proof gloves andan aprons, aerospace applications, surfboard
back
ck into shape when you dip them in hot water. Or switches which can turn components, puncture-resistant
resistant bicycle tyres, Jewellery, decorative items,
on when a specific heat is reached. small sculptures, fobs, 3D modelling, prototypes etc.
55 56
 * Phosphorescent pigment - Absorbs light energy during the day and ‘re-
emits’ the light energy when it is dark. Application include: jewellery,
emergency exit sign and toys.
* Photomechanical materials -to to change shape when exposed to Light.
* Piezoelectric material - Gives off a small electrical
e charge when deformed.
Fob Increases in size
ize (up to 4 per cent) when an electrical current is passed
Cut-proof gloves Metal form
through it.
Body armor
Effects of temperature on smart and modern material and products
* Thermochromic materials -change
change in colour depending on temperature.
Application include: thermometers, baby feeding products, kettles, steam
stea
iron, hi tech Jewellery.
* SMAs - Changes shapeape in response to a change in temperature.
* Electroluminescent materials glow when electricity is passed through
Jewelery Fiber optic cable Surface board them.
Bicycle tyre
Difference between smart material and modern material How moisture affects products made from smart and modern materials
All Smart and Modern materials are amazing, but it’s important you learn * Graphene oxide (electrical insulator) based materials bend when exposed
the difference between the two. to moisture.
Smart Materials change when an outside force is added.
Thermochromic ink changes colour with heat. EXERCISE
Electroluminescent materials glow when electricity is passed through 1. Briefly explain smart and modern materials.
them. 2. Give two examples of smart and modern materials.
materials
Photochromic ink changes with UV rays. Can be used for protective 3. State two properties of smart and modern materials.
clothing in children’s wear. Home work
Conductive ink can have an electrical current passed through it. 1. Copy and complete thee table below by providing the type of material and
Modern Materials have specific properties at all times. effects on the given factors:
Fluorescent
orescent materials are bright enough to show up in the dark. Factors that affect smart Type of material Effect(s)
Reflective materials reflect light. and modern materials
Phosphorescent materials glow in the dark. Temperature
Light
Factors that affect the properties of smart and modern materials Moisture
Light
2. Complete the table below, by providing
providin the properties and uses of the
Temperature (hot/cold/warm)
products:
Moisture
Product One property each One use each
Effects of light on smart and modern material and products Fiber optic cable
* Photochromic materials change colour when exposed to lightlight. Application Bulletproof amour vest
include: sunglasses, anti-flash visors, sun-blocking
blocking products and radiator Metal form
indicator.

57 58
 FOOD COMMODITIES (PLANT & ANIMAL SOURCES) Point to consider when buying fish
* Gills should be bright red. * Bright eye. * Plenty of bright scales.
FOOD COMMODITIES * The tails and fin should be erect.
Food -is any edible substance either solid or liquid which when eaten is used Storage of fish
by the body to maintain life. Or * Can be steamed.
Food -is anything (solid or liquid) substance that we eat to provide the body * Wrap in a polythene bag and keep it in a fridge.
with heat, energy and promotes growth. It is also any substance, liquid or
solid that provides the body with heat and energy, growth and repair worn- POULTRY
out tissues and regulates the body process. Domestic fowls such as chicken, turkeys, and ducks that are rise for meat
and eggs, and are used as food.
FOOD COMMODITIES Type of Nutritive value Methods of Methods of
Food commodities -generally refer to ingredients needed to produce different poultry preservation cooking
varieties of food. Or Food commodities - are major ingredients or food stuffs Chicken *By freezing * Roasting
used for cooking food. or edible material that maintains life and growth. Turkey Protein, Fat, Vitamin *By freezing * Frying
Duck Calcium & *By freezing * Boiling
Examples of common food commodities in the community Guinea fowl phosphorus *By freezing
Examples of food commodities are: fish, cassava, okro, orange, milk, meat,
Factors to consider when purchasing/buying poultry
egg, milk, poultry, fruit and vegetables.
* Have pleasant smell.
Classification of food commodities * Should be plumb.
Animal sources: fish, meat, milk, egg, poultry, etc. * Should be pink and white.
Plant sources: fruit, vegetable, Cassava, Okro, etc. * Bounce back when press.
MEAT
ANIMAL SOURCES The flesh of an animals or birds as food or animal fleas that is eaten as food.
FISH Types of meat
Types Examples Methods of Methods of Nutritive value There are two types of meat. Namely;
of fish Preservation cooking * Red meat. examples are pork, lamb, and beef.
* White meat. examples; chicken, rabbit, guinea fowl. etc.
* Tilapia By drying Frying * Protein
Oily * Tuna By freezing Boiling * Fat Animal Meat Colour Colour Methods Methods Nutritive
fish * Salmon By smoking Poaching * Calcium and of of of Of food
* Sardine By canning Steaming phosphorus lean Fat preservation Cooking Value
* Mackerel By canning * Vitamins Pig Pork Pink White By pickling Stewing Protein
A, B and D Sheep Mutton Brown White By Boiling fat, iron
White Dolphin, freezing Frying calcium
fish Cod, Sole Cow Beef Red/brown Cream By canning Smoking, Vitamin
Whiting Lamb Lamb Pink/brown Cream By Grilling A,B,&D
Crab, oyster, Smoking
Shell snail, lobster Factors to consider when buying meat
fish cockles, prawn * Colour should be bright red. * Flesh must be firm to tough.
shrimp * No unpleasant smell. * Fat should be firm.
59 60
 Storage of meat Function of parts of an egg
* Keep in refrigerator. -Shell - which is a hard protective covering made of calcium carbonate.
* Can be stewed and left partly covered in a bowl. -Shell membrane - protect the content of the egg from bacteria and prevent
* Wrap it in a polythene bag. moisture from leaving the egg too quickly.
-Albumen – provide the liquid medium in which the embryo develops.
How to soften meat -Yolk – is the source of food for the embryo and contains all the fat in the egg.
* By cooking. -Chalazae - made of twisted strands of many fibers that are a special form of
* Beaten with rolling pin. protein. It holds the yolk in the centre of the egg.
* Keep in lemon juice. Uses of egg Nutritive value Methods of Storage
* Left in a mixture of spices. cooking
MILK * Binding agent * Protein Frying, steaming * Store in
Milk is a white liquid produced by mammary glands of mammals. * Emulsifying * Fat Boiling, Baking, refrigerator
Types of milk Uses Uses of milk Nutritive * Rising agent * Vitamin etc. Poaching * Should be
value * Glazing placed in a
* Condensed milk *For milk product, * Preparation Protein * Coating suitable tray
* Evaporated milk eg, yoghurt,cream of butter Carbohydrate
Uses of egg
* Skimmed milk * for glazing * Making milk Fat
* Use as raising agent.
* Natural whole * Preparation of products eg Water.
Butter cream,yoghurt * To enhance the nutritional value of the other food.
* Binding substance and coating.
Storage of milk
* Keep in a cool dry place. * Thickening agent.
* Emulsifying agent.
* Always covered it and left it in standing water.
* Never store milk with strong scented food. * Glazing and sealing
* Controlling crystallization.
* Keep in refrigerator.
* Adding colour and flavouring.
EGG
An egg – is an oval or round object laid by female bird, reptile, and fish Factors to consider when buying eggs
which is used as food. Popular choice for egg consumption are chicken, * Fresh egg should be heavy.
duck, quail, roe, caviar, but the egg most often consumed by human is the * The yolk should be float on top of the thick when broken.
chicken egg. Testing for egg freshness
The chicken egg consist of a protective, oval egg shell, the albumen{egg
white}, the vitallus {egg yolk} and various thin membranes.
Container/bowl
Nutritionally eggs are considered a good source of protein and chlorine.
Egg white contains approximately 40 different proteins with {ovalbumin Fresh water
54%} (brine) egg
Parts of an egg * Fill a bowl with cold water.
yolk * Place the egg in the bowl.
Shell
Shell membrane
* If the egg sink to the bottom and lay on it sides, it is very fresh.
Air space
* If it floats/suspend to the surface, it is no longer fresh.
chalazae
Difference
white or albumen * Good egg dropped under brine * Bad egg half way suspend in the brine
61 62
 PLANT SOURCES
Nutritive food value of vegetables
Plant sources: fruit, vegetable, Cassava, Okro, etc. * Vitamin A, B and C.
FRUITS * Protein.
Fruit is the sweet and fleshly product of a tree that can be eaten as food. * Carbohydrate.
Types Examples Methods of Nutritive food * Iron.
Of fruits preservation value * Calcium.
Hard fruits Pear, apple, pawpaw, * Sulphur.
mango * By freezing * Water Storage of vegetable
Soft fruits Strawberries * By canning * Fat * Store in a cool dry place.
Blackberries * By drying * Vitamin A& C
* By bottling * Carbohydrate REASONS FOR EATING FOOD
Citrus Lemon, orange,
fruits tangerines, grape fruit. * To satisfy hunger and pleasure.
Tropical Banana * Build the body.
fruits Guava. * Provide heat and energy.
Points to consider when buying fruits * Promotes growth.
* Should be clean and free from diseases. * Protect the body against diseases.
* Appear fresh.
* No port holes or bruises on them.
Effect of Cooking Fruits EXERCISE I
* Destroy Vitamin C. 1. What is the difference between food and food commodities?
* Kill bacterial present in the fruit. 2. What are food commodities?
* Make it soft and easy to eat and digest. 3. State six examples of food commodities.
Storage of fruits 4a. Give three reasons why we eat food.
* Store or keep in refrigerator. b. What happens if we do not eat food?
* Store dried fruits in an airtight container in a cool dry place. 5. State with three examples the two types of meat.
6. Copy and complete the table below.
VEGETABLES Animal Meat Colour of Colour of Method of
Vegetable is an edible plant or it is part of plant intended for cooking or lean fat preserving
eating raw. Pig White
Part of plant Vegetables Red/brown Cream
Leaves Kontomire, cabbage. Sheep Cunning
Fruit Pepper, garden egg, tomatoes. Lamb Smoking
Root Yam, cassava, carrots. 7. State four ways of softens meat.
8. Group the ff funder the three types of fish.
Bulbs Garlic, onion.
{crab, oyster, tuna, snail, lobster, cod, sole, tilapia, salmon, whiting, sardine,
Flower Cauliflower. mackerel, dolphin, cockles, prawn}
Points to consider when buying/chosen vegetables Types Of Fish Example
* No holes in the leaves. Shell fish
* Should be fresh. Oily fish
* Should be well ripe and firm. White fish
63 64
9. State two ways of storing fish. MEASURING AND MARKING OUT
10a. State four classifications of fruits you know.
b. List three nutritive values of the following; MEASURING AND MARKING OUT TOOLS AND
Item Nutritive value EQUIPMENT FOR PRODUCTION
i. Fruit
Measuring and marking out tools and equipment are items used for marking
ii. Vegetable
and measuring various stages at workshop or laboratory.
11a. State two points to consider when buying fruit from the market.
Proper development of an item in the engineering world can be determined
b. Copy and complete the table below;
from the marking-out and how the operator has used it. Marking-out and
Parts of plant 2 examples of vegetables
measuring is a crucial stage that can never be left behind when developing
i. Roots
an item for production. They also include those that are used in the kitchen
ii. Leaves
for cooking and serving.
iii. Bulb
iv. Fruit
Examples of place of work include:
12a. State three effects of cooking fruit.
* Food laboratory (kitchen).
b. State four methods of preserving fruit. * Sewing workshop/laboratory.
c. Copy and complete the table below. * Building site.
Food commodities 3 factors to look for when buying. * Wood workshop.
i. Fish * Metal workshop.
ii. Meat
FOOD LABORATORY (KITCHEN)
iii. Vegetable
iv. Fruits Measuring tools
13. Group the ff under hard fruit, soft fruit and citrus fruit. * Weighing equipment- used to measure the weight of an item.eg. scale
{Blackberries, strawberries, pear, apple, pawpaw, mango, lemon, orange, * Measuring equipment - for measuring volume of liquid eg. Cup, jug, etc.
Tangerine} * Ladles - for stirring and serving food.
* Scoops – used to measure dry foodstuff, such as rice, flour, or sugar.
HOMEWORK TASK * Bowls or soup plate.
Using pictures of the various food commodities, Classify food commodities
under their sources (plant and animal), in a chart form.

Scoop spaghetti measure measuring spoon

Measuring/weighing scale Measuring jug

65 66
 Marking out tools
SEWING WORKSHOP/LAB
Measuring tools:
Tape measure – is a flexible ruler consists of ribbon of cloth, fibre glass, and
plastic used for measuring.
Yard rule or meter stick – is a measuring rod, marked with subdivisions.
Seam gauge – is a small metal ruler used to measure small areas
Hem gauge – multipurpose measuring tool. Has a curved hem-shape side
that is used to mark standard hem depths and the straight side is used like a
ruler
Skirt marker –it is a combination of pin and chalk marker used to measure
skirt hem length evenly from the floor.
Marking out tools
Tailor’s pencil - is one of the most used marking-out tools reason because it
can be easily clean. The right way to use it is to sharpen its edge very lightly
in order to give thin light lines.
Tailor’s chalk – most commonly used marking tool and it is made of either
clay or wax.
Tracing wheel –It is used with or without dressmaker’s carbon paper to
transfer pattern marking onto the fabric. Tracing wheel is about 15cm in
length, having a wheel with saw-like periphery, which is connected by
means of stem and at the rear end with a convenient handle.
Bar soap slivers – a silver of bar soap used to mark fabric.
Hot notcher – special marking tool used in large scale garment
manufacturing, used to make small but visible notches on multiple layer of
fabric.
Pounce – just like a chalk powder filled muslin bag, used when you have a
lot of surface stitching like embroidery and you will be working quickly.
These pouncer bags are used with stencils, in embroidery.
Tailor's pencil

Tailor’s tape
r' s chalk
Tailo

Tailor's pencil
Yard rule

Seam gauge

Bar soap sliver Hot notcher

Skirt marker Tracing wheel
Hem gauge
67 68
 BUIDLING SITE WOOD WORKSHOP
Measuring tools Measuring tools
Surveyor’s tape – it is made of strong and stretch
tch resistant reinforced glass Tape measure - is an instrument that contains a thinning sheet in a rubber
fibre with tough ABC case. case labelled with numbers on it. It can measure at least 5m long, making it
Profile board – used to establish foundation width applicable on large projects. If care is not taken while using, the flexible
Mould box – for batching sand sheet becomes twisted and can break.
Head pan – to batch sand, cement, and clay Folding rule - it is folded into shorter length and used in woodwork.
Builder’s square- for checking corner or squareness of a wall.
Straight edge - It is a piece of wood used to test the straightness of wall

Tape measure
Folding rule

Profile board
Marking tools
Surveyor’s tape Straight edge Pencil- is one of the most used marking-out tools reason because it can be
easily clean. The right way to use it is to sharpen its edge very lightly in
Builder’s square order to give thin light lines that won’t engrave the workpiece.
Marking knife - Marking knife- is used to mark lines on wood, usually across
the grain. A knife cuts a thinner and more accurate than a pencil. To use the
marking knife, hold it like a pencil and cut with the long point of the blade.
Head pan Mouldbox Mortice and marking guage - Marking gauge - is a tool used to mark the line
parallel to the face-side and face--edge along the grain.
Marking tools: Try square - the try square is used to draw perpendicular lines on a material
Peg – are made of wood or metal and comes with different sizes and to mark out on a workpiece. The purpose of try squares is to ensure paths are
coloured tops, used to mark boundaries and indicate points and position of a parallel to each other and helps to draw the line at right-angles to an edge.
site. Sliding bevel - the sliding bevel is used to mark out a part, adjusted to create
Chalk- the required angle. A pencil is then used to mark the line on the material.

Try square Sliding bevel

Mortice gauge
Pegs Chalk

Marking knife
Pencil

69 70
 METAL/PLASTIC WORKSHOP Importance of measuring and marking out tools.
Measuring tools Accuracy: the ability of the measuring and marking out tools measure and
Tape measure - is an instrument that contains a thinning sheet in a rubber mark accurate value.
case labelled with numbers on it Avoidance of waste of material:
Dot punch - Has a point angle of 600. Used to locate the centre of circle, radii Achieving desired results:
and arc when marking out.
Marking tools
Steel rule - Steel rule: made of steel used in a flat surface to produce a rigid
straight line. It can measure at least 300 mm in length.
Pair of compasses -
Scriber – It contains a sharp point and acts as a pencil to engrave a fine line
on surfaces like metal or plastic, where pens might not correctly work.
Calipers -is used to mark lines parallel to a true edge and find the centre of a EXERCISE
bar, mainly in metalwork 1. Explain what marking out and measuring tools are?
Wind Compasses - is used to mark out circle and arcs, and to step off equal 2. List four areas of work where marking out and measuring tools is needed
length along a line. for production.
3. State three (3) importance of measuring and marking out tools.
tools
4. State 2 materials used for making tape measure.
5. What is tracing wheel.
6. Sketch and label the following tools
er
rib

i. Tape measure
Sc

ii. Mould box

le iii. Try square.
l ru
7. Identify from list below,, tools and equipment used for measuring and
ee
St marking out:
Surveyor’s tape, yard rule,, measuring cups, calabash, tape measure
head pan, builder’s square, folding rule, weighing scale, marking knife,
profile board, Mould box, straight edge, pair of compasses, steel rule,
rule
try-square, spoons. caliper, peg, scriber, bar soap, hem guage, scoop

HOME WORK
1. Sketch and label parts of measuring and marking out tools and display
a. Metal workshop- tape measure, steel rule, pair of compasses
b. Wood workshop - tape measure, folding rule, try-square,
try marking knife
Tape measure c. Building site – tape measure, builder’s square, head pan, straight edge
d. Sewing workshop/laboratory - tape measure, yard rule

Dot punch 2. Make a freehand sketch of a tool or kitchen equipment used for taking
Wind compass measurements and label two parts.

71 72
 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MEASURING AND
MARKING OUT TOOLS
Without properly functioning of measuring and marking out tools, you may
not be able to get the job done right, so it’s crucial that you keep your tools
and equipment in optimal condition. Some of these kinds of tools can be
very sensitive, and slight variations in conditions can cause them to
malfunction and deliver inaccurate results. It’s essential that you follow
proper care and maintenance procedures with all of your measuring tools.
Food laboratory (kitchen)
* Use the appropriate cleaning material for cleaning.
* Do not soak wooden tools in water because they will absorb the water and rot.
* Clean equipment and tools immediately after used.
* Grease cast iron item to prevent rusting.
* Clean stainless steel and non-stick pots and pans with ordinary sponge and
soap.
CLEANING AGENT
Another essential aspect of gage maintenance is keeping your tools and
equipment clean. There are different cleaning recommendations for different
types of tools and materials. Be sure to follow the guidelines for your
specific tools to ensure you thoroughly clean them and avoid damaging
them. Conscientiously cleaning your devices is crucial, as any residue that
remains on your device may impact the accuracy of your measurements.
The material your device is made of plays a significant role in the cleaning
method you should use. If a tool is mostly aluminum, for example, avoid
using alcohol, as it can cause aluminum to deteriorate. For brass, it’s best not
to use anything except for a clean cloth that you’ve dampened with distilled
water.
Cleaning Agent is chemical substance used in washing, removing stains from
equipment and tools. Examples are soap, vim, salvo, fine sand, sifted wood
etc

Materials used to clean and maintain tools and equipment

Sewing workshop/laboratory
Commercial Abrasive
* Kept in a safe place. Commercial Abrasive Item used on
* Silvo Silver items
Building site * Vim Aluminium utensils or items
* Should be washed or clean after use. * Brasso Brass items
* Should be used for the right job. * Scourers Steel wool items
* Surveyor’s tape – be clean and rolled into its box after use and kept in a
safe place.
Wood workshop Local Abrasive
Local Abrasive Item used on
* Marking gauge - do not pack it with other tools to avoid damage to the pin.
* Fine sand Wooden items or utensils
* Try square - hang it to avoid damaged to the blade.
* Tape measure - rolled into its box after use and kept in a safe place. * Sifted wood ash Aluminium utensils, galvanised item
* Cloth for cleaning and dusting on any item
Metal workshop
* Scriber - the point must keep sharp. Store in it box. The importance of tool maintenance
* Steel rule - It should be cleaned and oiled after use. Why is the proper care of measuring tools so important? Some of the
* Calipers - They must not mix with other tools and must be hung. benefits include the following.
* Tape measure - rolled into its box after use and kept in a safe place Increase accuracy: If measuring and marking out tools don’t receive proper
* Centre Punch - the point must keep sharp and protected. Oil or clean care and maintenance; they’re more likely to take inaccurate readings. Some
after use. Store in it box of these tools take exact measurements, so even small changes can impact
the accuracy of measurements.
73 74
A wide variety of factors can impact the accuracy of marking and measuring
tool, from improper storage temperature to excessive vibrations to physical
damage due to dropping it. Because damage or improper maintenance can
affect accuracy, it’s crucial that you’re careful to maintain them properly.

Extend life: Caring for precision tools properly also helps extend their life.
With proper care, many tools can serve you well for a long time. Without
adequate maintenance, however, your tools will break sooner, and you’ll
have to replace them earlier. Improper care increases the risk of a tool failing
in the middle of a job or gradually becoming less effective, reducing the
efficiency and accuracy of your work.

Lower costs: Following the right care and maintenance procedures can help
you reduce your costs over the long term. It can help you avoid costly
breakdowns, more extensive repairs and downtime. It also means you’ll have r
to replace your tools less often, meaning you get more out of your ste
investments in quality instruments. e
sem
1. What is cleaning agent?
Exercise
irst
f
of
2. List six cleaning agent you know.
3. Write down two (2) materials used for cleaning the following production
tools nd
a, meat cleaver E
b. cooking pot
c. galvanized item
d. pestle
4. State how to care for the marking tools.

HOME WORK
Answer the following questions by supplying the words to complete the
sentences:
1. The method of measuring the quantity of flour for baking cake is known
as …………
2. The most suitable tool for taking short measurements on a piece of wood
is ………….
3. The method of measuring cement and sand for making mortar is known as
4. The most suitable tool used for creating a pilot hole in a metal piece
before drilling is …...........

75 76
 CUTTING AND SHAPING
CUTTING AND SHAPING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED
FOR PRODUCTION
Production requires a variety of tools and equipment. One of such tools and
equipment is cutting and shaping. Cutting tools can be classified into the
following categories:
* Food laboratory/kitchen –kitchen knife, paring, chopping knife, mould etc.
Cake tin
* Sewing workshop – scissors, shears, seam riper, French curve etc. Biscuit cutter
* Woodwork – saw, files, chisel, plane, spoke shave, rasp file, etc.
* Building site - Bolster, brick hammer, mould box. etc. SEWING WORKSHOP/ LAB
* Metalwork – hack saw, chisels, files, etc. Scissors - Scissors are hand operated cutting instruments. They are 5 to 6
* Plumbing work – coping saw, junior hacksaw, files, drills etc. inches long, used for light cutting, trimming, clipping corners and cutting
Using this tools help increase the accuracy of a product, save time and also curves.
simplify tasks. Knowledge of the equipment is very important to Shears - For neatening the raw edge of fabric which do not fray. Examples
communicate effectively in the workroom and to minimize errors. are dress making shear, bent-handle shear, electric shear, pinking shears,
serrated blade shears, etc.
FOOD LABORATORY Seam ripper -Used to rip seams.
Kitchen knives – for cutting, shredding and chopping food items. French curves – like the traditional drawing aids they are modeled after, and
Pairing – use for dicing smaller fruits and vegetables, and also mincing it serves as template to draw various curved lines.
garlic cloves.
Kitchen shear – used for chopping fresh herbs and vegetables to slicing dried
and even meat. Scissor
Chopping – used for chopping, slicing and dicing fresh herbs. r

r
ea

pe
Sh

rip
Bread knife – for slicing bread.

am
Biscuit cutters – made from stainless steel, used to cut biscuit.

Se
Cake tins – is a metal container used to bake cake. French curve
Scoops for ice cream- used to serve ice cream.

Boning knife WOOD WORKSHOP OR LABORATORY

Cutting tools - comprises of those tools which cut by taken away small
particle at a time. Examples are saws, chisels, spoke shave, rasp, files,
SAW
Saw are use for cutting timber to size and shape with a minimum amount of
Ice cream scoop waste and effort. It is made up of sharp teeth and a thin blade. Saws may be
divided into two groups.
Bench Saws or Hand Saws. - Cross-cut saw, rip saw, tenon saw, dovetail
saw.
Curve cutting Saws - coping saw bow saw, pad saw, piercing saw.
Paring Chef Meat cleaver Bread knife
77 78
 Cross-cut saw Chisels for wood work
Cross-cut saw – it has between seven to nine teeth per 25mm. It is used for Firmer chisel – are general purpose chisel. Strong enough for cutting with
cutting or sawing across the grain of the wood. hand pressure called paring or with light mallet blows.
Rip saw Bevel-edge chisel – similar to the firmer chisel except that the blade corners
Rip saw – use for cutting along the grain of wood. It has between five to six are beveled for cutting into acute corners such as in dovetail.
teeth per 25mm. Mortise chisel – for heavy duty work such as cutting mortises. Made to
Tenon saw withstand heavy mallet blows and the levering out of waste.
Tenon saw – it is also known as a ‘backed saw’ because of the steel or brass
re-enforcement
enforcement along the back of the blade. It is used for cutting tenon
tenon. Grinding angle 25 handle
sharpening angle 35 handle (boxwood)
blade handle ack
skewb (ash, beech wood)

teeth Grinding angle 30

tang sharpening angle 35
heel blade
toe Cross-cut
cut saw Rip saw
Stiff blade handle
bevel Thicker
Cutting edge blade
edge
Firmer chisel Bevelled-edge
Bevelled chisel Mortise chisel

teeth Tenon saw Dovetail saw

CHISEL
Chisel consists of hardened steel blades which have soft tangs at their ends,
onto which are fixed the wooden handles. The handle are fitted with brass
ferrules to stop them splitting when hit. Chisel is cutting tools use for
removing recesses. These are tools
ools use for cutting and shaping wood where
planes cannot be used especially for cutting joint.
Paring – is the method of cutting thin slices of wood using a hand
hand.
Mortising or chopping - The method of cutting deep hole in a wood using
mallet with chisel.
FILES
Files are used for shaping and smoothing metal, wood and hard plastic. It
consists of a hardened steel blade with a tang at one end onto which a
wooden handle must be fitted.
Filling: The process of removing an unwanted metal from a piece of work.
The amount of material removed depends on the type and grade or cut of the
teeth.
Parts of file

Part of chisel
Types of Files
Ferrule Handle Hand file – has parallel sides and oe safe edge without teeth for filling into
corners where the vertical edge must not be touched.
Flat file – has the end of the blade tapered for one third of its length and
blade
teeth on both edges like most files, so that it can be used to enlarge small
Cutting edge
opening.
79 80
Rasps – are used for rough shaping of wood and other soft materials. PLUMBING WORKSHOP
Coping saw -
File teeth Junior hacksaw - is for straight cuts on small, light work. The blade is held in
Handle tension by the sprung steel frame.
Teeth Files -
Drills - used for cutting circular holes in wood, metals and plastics.
blade rasp teeth

Spoke Shave
Spoke shaves is used to smooth curves.

Handle

Gear
Crank
BUIDLING SITE
Bolster - This is used for accurate cutting of blocks. To care for this tool, Gear wheel
make sure the head should not be allowed to become ‘mushroomed’
Club hammer -This
This is used in conjunction with the bolster or cold chisel to
cut blocks. Chuck
Cold chisels - These are used with a club hammer when cutting holes or Jaw
chase.
Mould box ( shaping tool) - for moulding brick or block
METAL WORKSHOP/LABORATORY
Hack saw
Hack saw – used by a fitter to cut metal to shape before finishing off by
filling. The blade is held in tension in the frame with the teeth facing
forward.
ox Junior hacksaw
b
ld Junior hack saw – is for straight cuts on small, light work. The blade is held
ou
M in tension by the sprung steel frame
Sheet hacksaw
Sheet saw - is used for sawing most materials including wood, sheet metal
Block hammer and plastic.
Bolster Cold chisel Types of Hack Saw Blade
* Hard Blade – it is stiff and easy to break.
* Flexible Blade – very strong and can bent without breaking.
81 82
 Material for making hacksaw blade EXERCISE
* Low tungsten steel. 1. State the categories of cutting and shaping tools for production. Give three
* High carbon steel. examples.
* High speed steel. 2. State the difference between scissor and shear.
Tips when using hack saw 3. What is seam ripper?
* Do not tension the blade. 4. List and explain the two method of chiseling wood.
* Keep the saw steady. 5. Sketch and label cross-cut
cut saw.
* Do not saw very fast. 6a.what is filling?
* Never force the saw. b. state three(3) materials used for making hacksaw blade.

HOME WORK I
1. Match the correct cutting/shaping
shaping tool in Box A with the appropriate area
of work in Box B.
Box A BOX B
Firmer chisel Food laboratory
Paring knife Sewing workshop
Hand file Wood workshop
Coping saw Building site
Pinking shears Metal/plastic workshop
Pair of snips
Chisels Brick hammer
Cold chisels are used to cut, shear, and hip cold metal. Seam ripper
* Flat chisel – general purpose chisel for cutting sheet metal, cleaning Rip saw
castings and trimming metal to size. Biscuit cutter
* Cross-cut – for cutting keyways and grooves.
* Diamond point – square end with a cutting edge at one corner for cleaning 2.. Sketch and label the parts of the following cutting and shaping tools and
out sharp corners. display
* Round nose – for cutting rounded grooves and cleaning out rounded a. Sewing workshop – scissors, shears, seam riper,
corners. b. Wood workshop - saw, files, chisel, plane,
plane rasp file.
c. Building site – Bolster, brick hammer, mould box.
d. Plumbing work – coping saw, junior hacksaw, files, drills.
dr
e. Food laboratory/kitchen –kitchen
kitchen knife, paring, chopping knife.
f. Metalwork – hack saw, chisels, files,
files

3.. Write down one tool each used in carrying out the following operations:
a. Cutting a sheet metal ……………
b. Cutting a piece of fabric …………………
c. Cutting bread …………………………
d. Cutting a piece of wood along the grain ……………
Flat chisel Cross-cut chisel Diamond point Round nose
83 84
4.. Indicate the appropriate tool from the given list of tools that would be SKILLS IN CUTTING, CHOPPING, SLICING, DICING AND
used in performing the activities below: SHAPING PRODUCTS
List of tools: paring knife, coping saw, tenon saw, square file, seam ripper.
Activity A: Techniques in cutting, chopping, slicing and dicing in food production
1. Enlarging a square hole in a metal piece……………………………….….. Any successful cook needs to know the basics of how to chop, mince, and
2. Peeling cucumber to prepare vegetable salad……………………………… slice with effective proficiency to be able to make creating delicious dishes
3. Removing the waste from a halving joint for drawer construction……..… efficiently prepared.
4. Opening up a stitch in a baby’s dress…………………………………….... Understanding your knife
Knives are a vital tool
ol for food production in term of cutting, chopping, slicing,
5. Shaping a curved pattern in a can opener…………………………………..
and dicing.. They’re used in almost every recipe, and in almost every facet of the
Activity B:
kitchen.Knives come in all shapes and sizes. Some are versatile, some task‐s
State how to care for and maintain each of the tools identified in (A) above
pecific. Some are straight, some serrated. Some are metal, some ceramic.
using the table below:
Understanding how knives are constructed and why those differences exist
Name of Tool How to Care for and Maintain the Tool
will help you pick the right tool for the job.
Paring knife
Coping saw
Tenon saw
Square file
Seam ripper.

How to hold the kitchen knife

The most secure way to grip a knife is by gripping the top of the blade firmly
between your thumb and forefinger as shown in figure 1.1. 1. Place your
middle finger just behind the heel. This grip may take some getting used to,
but it gives you maximum control over your knife and allows you to pivot
from the wrist when chopping.
It is also acceptable to grip the knife handle with all four fingers, with your
forefinger just behind the heel of the blade, as shown in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.3, Placing your thumb on the spine of the blade pushes your wrist
upward into an awkward position. You do not have much control over the
angle of the blade, so it is mostly likely to slip during use.
85 86
Never hold a knife only by the handle as shown in figure 1.4. Instead of Slicing method
pivoted from the wrist, the heel of the knife becomes the pivot point. This Slicing is cutting your food into long, thin pieces. Slicing is the cutting of
motion is very difficult to control and it more likely to result in injuries food into thin, relatively broad slices. Slice may be used as they are or
processed further to produce other specifically cuts.
To slice food:
* wash and peel the vegetables.
* Cut in ½ lengthwise.
* Cut straight through in the thickness desired.

METHOD OF CUTTING
Cutting food can be very trying on your body if you don’t hold the proper
stance. Keep your body facing directly towards the cutting board, use a
wood, polyethylene plastic or bamboo board whenever possible, and
consider either a taller cutting board if you’re tall or a stool if you’re
short so that your cutting board will be at a comfortable height.
The best knives for chopping, dicing, mincing and slice are usually the
larger knives, such as the 8″ blade (Chef) knife. This knife is an all around
knife. The 10″ blade (Carving) knife is great for larger jobs. The 4″ to 6″
Paring) knives are great for smaller jobs.
Chopping Technique
The chopping technique is used in the cutting up of a food item when no
specific shape is required. Chopping may be coarse or fine in which case it Dicing method
should be specified in the recipe. Dicing is a technique that is usually used on foods that are of a non-flat
For chopping vegetables: shape to make them into cubes that can cook consistently. To do so, first
* Wash and peel; slice the ingredient in a way that makes it flat on one side, such as slicing
* Cut into 1/2 or strips or slices, place onto a cutting board hold pieces an tomato down the middle. Lay the food down on the flat side and
together and cross-cut the food by making horizontal slices across the entire length of
* Cut crosswise into food, make even pieces. the food. Then, holding the food in its original shape with your “claw,”
slice vertically. Your food is now diced into cubes that will cook
uniformly.
To dice small vegetables:
* Trim the vegetable so that sides are straight, making it easier to produce
even the cuts.
* Slice the vegetable length wise into ¼ inch slices using a series of parallel
cuts.
* Cut each slice into baton net shape ¼ inch wide.
* Using a series of parallel cuts, cut the batons into ¼ inch cubes.

88
87
 Julienne method
To julienne your food is to cut it into short, match-stick sized pieces. To
do so, we typically recommend first thinly slices your food vertically into
long slices. Then you can stack your slices and cut them horizontally into
slices that are about two inches long. This long, thin cut will allow your
ingredients to cook rapidly and evenly, as well as making it a delicate
garnish if you just want to add a touch of flavor.
Procedure
* Peel and wash the vegetable, then regularize its shape into a rectangle or
square by topping and tailing it and squaring off the sides.
* Then cut into 5cm (2inch) long pieces.
Mincing method * Then cut each to those pieces into 1-2mm thick slice. Stack those slices.
* Then cut them lengthwise into 1-2mm wide sticks.
Mincing – is a food preparation technique in which food ingredients are
finely divided into uniform piece. Minced food is in smaller piece than diced
or chopped foods, and is often prepared with a chief’s knife or food
processor.
Mincing does take some time, but for some recipe it’s important to do it. Not
for the texture, but also because it helps the flavor of the vegetable to meld
better with the other ingredient.
For a Mincing hold the tip of the knife down with one hand, while using the
handle to move the knife up and down over the food until evenly minced.
For mincing vegetables:
* Wash and peel the vegetable.
* Cut into 1/2 or strips or slices, place onto a cutting board hold pieces
together and Slicing Dicing
* Cut crosswise into food, make even pieces.

Mincing Chopping

89 90
 TECHNIQUES IN CUTTING, PARING, MOULDING IN WOOD, The stance – left foot in line with the saw, right foot slightly behind and
METAL AND BUILDING apart to give a firm comfortable position. The right arm should be in line
Cutting in wood with the saw.
Cutting in wood starts with felling (process of cutting down of trees). It can
be done by using tools called handsaw machine. Now a day’s chainsaws are 4. When starting - use the thumb to guide the blade as it is drawn back to
mostly used. After the tree has been fell, it is then convert into boards. The start a small cut.
process of sawing logs into usable sizes is called conversion. Logs which is 5. When sawing – use the full length of the blade. Use long steady strokes
prepared ready for conversion is termed as round timber. (one per second) and release the pressure on the return stroke. The spare
hand is used to grip the other end of the saw.
Technique in cutting
Live Sawing {Through and Through Sawing} 6. When finishing a cut – support any waste material to prevent it from
This is simplest, cheapest and quickest method of sawing logs into sizes by a breaking off before it is cut cleanly through.
series of parallel saw cut without turning the log.
7. Sawing to the line – where a sawn finish is required, saw on the waste side
Back Sawing (Tangential Sawing) of the line and leave the line just showing with no waste between the line
In this method the log is sawn such that the width of the boards is always and the kerf. Where a planed or filed finish is required leave 2mm waste
tangential to the growth rings; hence it is called tangential sawing. The log between the line and the kerf.
being sawn is turned and re-turned to new position for sawing to produce the
tangential cut.
Quarter Sawing
Quarter sawing is the slowest and difficult method of sawing logs, and
wastes a lot of wood. Quarter sawing produces board with short annual rings
which are less liable to warp and shrink, are stronger and show the figure of
the wood.

Live sawing Back sawing Quarter sawing

How to cut or saw
1. Arrange - the work so that you always saw vertically
2. Support - the work firmly and as close as possible to the kerf.
3. Stand - correctly and grip the saw correctly.
The grip-thumb and first finger of the right hand guide the saw (left hand for
the left-handed), the other three fingers grip the handle.
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 Paring in wood
Paring – is the method of cutting thin slices of wood using a hand. Paring is
chiseling using hand pressure only. The wedge shape of the cutting edge is
driven between the fibre of the grain.
To pare;
* Hold the chisel in the palm of the hand,
* Rest the hand against the bench if possible, and guide the blade through the
clenched hand.
* When chiseling vertically always work on a protective chiseling board.
Exercise
1a. Explain the following techniques as applied to food production.
(i) Dicing (ii). Mincing (iii) slicing (iv) chopping
b. Akosua is a new house help at Mr. Owusu’s house at Juaben. In a step
order, explain to this house help:
i. the correct way of holding a knife.
ii. how to dice and mince a vegetable.
iii. suggest the right tool for dicing and mincing vegetable.
c.
2a. State three (3) techniques in cutting wood.
b. Sketch to show the methods/technique in wood cutting.
c. List two tools used to convert timber into board.

3. Explain the difference between figure 1 and figure 2

MOULDING IN WOOD

93 94
 CARE FOR AND MAINTAIN CUTTING AND SHAPING BUIDLING SITE
TOOLS/,MATERIALS USED FOR PRODUCTION Bolster - make sure the head should not be allowed to become
‘mushroomed’
FOOD LABORATORY Brick hammer- Should be washed or clean after use. Make sure the handle is
Kitchen knives - Keep knives sharp. A sharp knife is easy to control, where a well fitted before use.
dull knife may skim over food and lead to injury. Mould box- Should be washed or clean after use. Oil inside when using it to
Cake tins – wash in warm soapy water. avoid sand sticking into it.
Scoops for ice cream – hand by hand. Not dishwasher-safe.
METAL WORKSHOP
SEWING WORKSHOP Saws
Scissors, Pinking shears, Seam ripper, French curves * Oil the tool after use.
* Keep your cutting tools clean. Wipe each of them with a clean dry soft * Hang it in the tool cabinet.
cloth if you feel it is dirty or has lint on it. * Do not pack it with other tools to avoid damage to the teeth
* Keep them in their casing when not in use. These tools are really sharp if * Do not tension the blade.
they are any good and can harm kids and pets if not stored safely. * Never force the saw when using it.
* Oil them to prevent rust. Do not forget to wipe off excess thoroughly off Files
the tools with a dry cloth. * Do not use file without handle.
* Sharpen them professionally or yourself if you know how to if you feel * Cleaned or oil the tool properly after use.
some dullness in the blades. Dull blades can damage fabric * Do not mix with other tools to avoid damage to the teeth.
* Keep them from children when not in use. Chisel
* Avoid dropping the chisel to avoid breaking it.
WOOD WORKSHOP * Should be hanging up after use.
Saws * Should be well sharpened before use.
* Use correct screw driver to tighten the screws. Importance of caring and maintenance of cutting and shaping
* Oil the tool after use.
* Hang it in the tool cabinet. * Improve equipment and system reliability
* Do not pack it with other tools to avoid damage to the teeth * Reduction of unexpected breakdown
* Decrease in expensive part replacement
Chisel
* Extended equipment life
* Avoid dropping the chisel to avoid breaking it.
* Should be hanging up after use. * Improved resale value
* Should be well sharpened before use. * Better parts inventory management
EXERCISE
Spoke shave 1a. List three cutting and shaping tools/equipment under the following which
* Must be cleaned properly after use. need care and maintenance for production.
* Do not mix up with other tools to avoid the teeth being damage. (i) Tailors workshop (ii) Mr. Opoku plumber shop (iii) carpenters workshop
b. State how to care for and maintain the tools/equipment mentioned above.
Rasp file
2. Explain to a metal worker proper handle of hacksaw.
* Do not use file without handle.
3. Give three reasons for daily care and maintenance of cutting and shaping
* Cleaned or oil the tool properly after use.
tools and equipment.
* Do not mix with other tools to avoid damage to the teeth.
95 96
 JOINING AND ASSEMBLING WOODWORK
JOINING AND ASSEMBLING MATERIALS, TOOLS AND Glue (material)
EQUIPMENT USED FOR MAKING ARTIFACTS/PRODUCTS Glue is a liquid base substance used to bond two surfaces together. Or Glue
is any adhesive that is applied in liquid form and dries hard to hold materials
Joining and assembling are process in which two or more parts or material is together.
joined together. Joining include welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive Glue is one of the oldest and most versatile adhesives. From the white glue
bonding of materials, sewing etc. The joining materials include include: glue, used in household crafts to the commercial-grade
commercial glues utilized in furniture
thread, epoxy resin, cement etc, and the tools
ols include needle, hooks, sewing and even automobile manufacturing, glue is part of your everyday life.
pin, mallet, clamps, soldering bit, bolts and nuts, rivets,, screw driver etc.
Classification of joining and assembling material and tools under: Uses of Adhesives
* Sewing and crocheting work - thread, needle, crocheting hook, sewing pin. * Use for furniture construction, inlaying and veneering.
* Woodwork - glue, mallet, clamps, screws etc. * For fixing joints permanently together.
* Metal work - soldering bit, bolts and nuts
nuts. * For plywood and particle board manufactured.
* Plastic work - epoxy
poxy resin, rivets, mallet, screw driver
driver. * Gluing hardboard and plywood to frames.
* Building work - cement, lime etc.
Preparation for gluing
SEWING AND CROCHETING * The wood should be dry.
* Free from dust, dirt and grease.
Thread - special types of yarn which is used for sewing and crocheting
crocheting.
* The parts should fit perfectly together.
Needle -{Fire needle}-for fine fabric, {Bigger needle} -for
for sewing thicker or
* Clean up the internal part of the job before assembling.
heavy fabric
* Various cramps wedges should be ready and adjusted for assembling.
Crocheting hooks – for crocheting.
* Remove all surplus glue before it has set hard.
Sewing pin – for holding piece of fabric together when cutting or sewing.
Sewing machine - used to stitch fabric and other material together with thread
thread.
Wooden mallet
This is used in woodwork for striking chisels and when assembling jobs. The
shaft and the mortise through the head are tapered
tape so that the head cannot fly
off. The striking face is sloped so
o that they strike the chisel squarely.

head
Crochet thread crochet hook yarn needle crochet bag (beechwood)

shaft
(beechwood)

Clamps
Bench Vice - It consists of two cast metal jaws which are moved along two
Sewing pin sewing thread sewing needle crochet marker guides by lead screws. Some types have quick release lever to allow easier
adjustment. The vice must be fitted with ‘wooden checks’ to make sure the
material being worked on does not get damaged.
97 98
G’clamp – used to hold work down onto the bench and to cramp small Uses of screw
pieces of glued wood together. * For securing pieces of timber.
Bench holdfast - This clamp work firmly down onto the bench top. The * Strengthening joint.
work must be protected by a piece of scrap wood. * Fixing metal fitting such as hinges, catches locks to wood.

Bench hook - This clips over the edge of the bench or in a vice and is used METAL WORK
to hold wood while sawing. The bench hook helps to hold the work steady, Soldering bit, bolts and nuts
prevent
ent the wood from splitting by supporting it under the kerf and protects Bolt and Nut
the bench top. They are used to join wood to wood, metal to metal, metal or wood to other
Sash clamp - This is used for clamping over a larger distance. It has two materials. .
shoes for holding the job or work piece.

Sash clamp Bench holdfast

Bolt and nuts nylon nutt hexagonal wing square

Soldering Bit
Soldering bit is used for supplying heat to melt the solder and raise the
temperature of the metal being joined.
frame

swivel Hatchett bit

shoe

Bench vice G’ Clamp Bench hook

Straight bit

Screws
PLASTICS
Screws are fasteners used for holding pieces of wood and metal fittings such
as handles, hinges etc that can be removed or separated easily without Epoxy resin, rivets, mallet, screw driver
damaging the parts. Slot Epoxy resin
Head Epoxy resins are used as food-contact
contact surface coatings for cans, metal jar lid,
Shank coatings and finishes, automobile parts, adhesives,
aerospace applications, and as a coating for
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) water pipe walls.
Thread
Advantages
* Excellent gap filling properties.

99 100
 Rivets
Riveting is a process of joining a piece of metal to together permanently by/
using rivet. Rivets are used to make permanent joints in metal, to join metal
to soft materials and for joining soft material to each other. It also serves as
hinge pins for joining parts which ch have to slide for example a pair of
scissors, pliers. Rivets can be made of steel, brass, copper and aluminium.
Parts of rivet
head
Types of Rivet Joint
There are two main types of joint used in riveting; namely:
* Lap joint.
* Butt joint.
Riveting tools
Rivet set – used for setting or pressing together metal plate and make sure
that the rivet is pulled all the way into the hole.
Rivet snap – is used to support the head of a round head rivet while riveting,
and to finish a round rivet to the correct shape.

shank
Snap
Set
Types of rivets
A rivet is normally named according to the shape of its head. The common Procedure for riveting
shapes are; * Locate the rivet.
* Snap head *Pan Head * Countersunk head *Flat head *Mushroom head * Set the plate and the rivet.
* Hammer the rivet first with hammer face and then with the ball pein.
* Draw file smooth.
Plastic mallet
Are made from plastic and are used to drive chisels or hammer joints
Factors to consider when choosing rivet together or used in place of metal hammer to prevent damaging the finish.
* Type of work. .
* Thickness of the pieces.
* Type of joint.
* Pieces to be joined.
* The shape of the head.
* Material from which it is made.

Materials used for making rivet

* Mild Steel.
* Brass. Screw Driver
* Copper. Is a tool used for driving screws into a piece of wood. It consists of an alloy
* Aluminium. steel blade or bar and handle made tough hardwood or shatter-proof
shatter plastic.
Uses of rivet Types of screwdriver
* To join metal to soft materials. There are numbers of different types of screwdriver but the two main types
* For joining soft materials to each other. use with screws are the;
* It used as hinge pin for joining parts which have to slide. E.
E.g scissors, plies * Cabinet pattern screwdriver.
etc. * London patttern screwdriver.
101 102
 Cabinet pattern screwdriver Low heat Portland cement - This is required for thick concrete work, where
This has a circular cross section blade which is flattened where it enters the the heat generated by ordinary cement would be excessive and lead to
wooden handle. The handle has a very comfortable shape which is very serious cracking.
useful for driving in a large number of screws.
Hydrophobic cement - The particles of this cement are coated with a water-water
London pattern screwdriver repellant film and it can be store in damp condition for a long time
tim without
These have a flat blade which is designed to give it a greater turning deteriorate.
potential. The wooden handle is normally flattened on two sides. PAPER – GLUE
Is non-toxic,
toxic, clear liquid glue that is suitable for all school and office paper
and cardstock projects. Or Paper Glue - is a clear water-based adhesive for
bonding paper, cardboard and some textiles. The glue is water soluble and
easy to clean.
London parttern Engineer’s Understanding how glue is made and the differences between glue types can
help you decide on the best material for your applications. If you are looking
to produce glue of your own, understanding the way it's made will also help
you to choose the right glue mixing equipment to suit your needs.
Cabinet Electrician’s Advantages
* Easy to apply
BUIDLING WORK * Low cost and availability.
CEMENT * Excellent water repellent.
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets, hardens and can bind other material * No toxicity problem
together. It is made from limestone and clay. Disadvantages
* Poor compression resistance
Uses * Low shears and peel resistance.
- For binding particles of sand, gravel and stone to form a solid body.
- Vital binding agent in concrete, mortars, and renders.
- For the production of walling block and roofing tiles. EXERCISE I
Types of Cement 1. What is joining and assembling tools?
2. List four types of joining and assembling tools you know.
There are various types of cement but the common ones are:
3. State four materials for joining artifact together.
Rapid hardening Portland cement - This cement sets at the same rate as
4. State the uses of the following sewing tools.
ordinary Portland cement but being more finally ground, it develops strength
(i) Sewing pin (ii) thread (iii) crochet hook
more rapidly and is useful where early stripping of formwork and loading of
5. State the difference between sewing pin and needle
structure is required.
6. List five (5) joining and assembling tools at dressmaking workshop.
Sulphate resisting Portland cement - This cement has reduced tricalcium
aluminates content and is therefore better, able to withstand chemical content EXERCISE I
arising in wet condition. 1. What is glue?
It is suitable for use in concrete which is dense and otherwise of good qualit
quality 2. State three uses of glue.
in ground water having a concentration of sulphur trioxide. 3. List six (6) joining
ining and assembling tools at carpenter’s workshop.
Water Portland cement - This is manufactured from white china clay and 4. Sketch and label G’clamp
white limestone in a special kiln and is consequently expensive.
103 104
 Learner Resources:
5. Mr. Mensah, an apprentice who has been sent to buy glue at market. As a Learner Resources: Charts outlining the processes involved in joining/
career and technology student: assembling products in the sewing workshop, metal/plastic workshop, wood
i. Suggest to this apprentice two things he must look at before buying the workshop, building site.
glue. Sample Chart:
ii. What are the preparations before gluing? *Arrange the parts to be joined (ensuring they are clean).
6a. identify the tool below. *Select
Select the needed tools and materials.
b. name two materials used for making the tool *Trial-assemble
assemble the parts (to ensure parts are cut to desired sizes).
c. which category of workshop can the tool be found *Apply
Apply the required material (e.g. white glue) on the surfaces to be joined.
7. List three (3) joining and assembling tools at metal workshop *Put
Put the joining surfaces together.
8a. Sketch to show a soldering bit. Label the parts *Clamp
Clamp work pieces till they set.
b. State one material for making soldering bit
HOW TO CARE AND MAINTAIN JOINING AND ASSEMBLING
EXERCISE IV MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED FOR MAKING
1a. What is epoxy resin glue? ARTIFACTS/PRODUCTS
b. State four areas of applying epoxy resin glue.
c. Give reasons for using epoxy resin instead of other glue. How to care for and maintain joining and assembling materials, tools and
2a. Explain the term riveting? equipment for making artifacts/products in:
b. What is rivet used for? Sewing and crocheting
c. Sketch to show the following rivet head Tools care and maintenance
(i) Counter sunk (ii) flat (iii) snap Thread *Not
Not expose to sun.
sun
d. State 4 materials used for making the rivet *Do
Do not store in a damp room.
room
Needle *Keep
Keep it in a tool
too box
EXERCISE V *Keep
Keep them dry to avoid corrosion
1. Write the appropriate joining material used for the following tasks: Crocheting *Store
Store init original box.
box
i. Fixing melamine surface to a chipboard to be used in the kitchen. hook *Do not drop..
ii. Gluing mortise and tenon joint on a coffee table. *Use
Use mild soap and water to rinse off the hook.
iii. Attaching a plastic name plate to a brass sports trophy. Sewing pin *Keep
Keep it in a tool box or pin cushion.
*Keep
Keep them dry to avoid corrosion.
corrosion
iv. Joining parts of garment to get a dress.
Sewing *Oil
Oil the machine frequently.
frequently
v. Decorating the cement-mortar wall of a nursery class.
machine *Feed
Feed plate should be covered.
*Service
Service the machine at least one a year.
GROUP HOMEWORK
1. Make a visit to tradesmen and women in your community. Engage them in Woodwork
a conversation on how they join/assemble their products. Tools care and maintenance
2. Prepare notes on joining/assembling materials, tools and equipment used Glue *Keep
Keep them in cool dry place.
in the following areas from your visit: Mallet *Never use it in driving nails or tool with metal handle.
handle
i. Sewing laboratory *Clean it after use.
ii. Wood workshop *Store it in cabinet box when not in use.
iii. Metal workshop Clamps *Clean or oil after use to prevent rusting.
iv. Building site *Do no drop them
3. Present the outcome of your visit in a table/chart
le/chart in class. Screws *Keep it in tool box when not in use.
105 106
 Metal work KITCHEN ESSENTIALS
Tools care and maintenance
Soldering bit *Make
Make sure you plug the iron into the correct type of BASIC KITCHEN ESSENTIALS
outlet with the proper voltage. Kitchen Essentials - are indispensable/vital tools and equipment
*Don’t drop or bang the iron. needed/necessary for meal preparation and service, 0r they are the various
*Never use sandpaper or anyny abrasive material to clean a items that are used for food preparation, cooking and serving
tip. Examples of Kitchen Essentials are: working table, cooking pans, range,
Bolts and nuts *Use correct size of spanner for tighten nuts/bolts
nuts/bolts. fryers, sinks, utensils, crockery,
crockery mortar, soup tureen, blender, saucepan,
*Always
Always lubricate the thread of screw/bolt with oil before plate, can opener, colander, cutting board, vegetable peeler, etc. These tools
inserting them into the hole. and equipment increase efficiency and save time.
Plastic Material for Making Kitchen essentials
Tools care and maintenance Materials used for making kitchen essentials are;
Epoxy resin *Keep them in cool dry place. * Wood eg. Pestle, spoons, tables, cupboard, mortar, rolling pin.
Rivets * Aluminium eg. Spoons, cups, saucepan, and frying pan etc.
Mallet *Never
Never use it in driving nails or tool with metal handle * Cast iron eg. Coal pot, cooking pot.
*Clean it after use. * Steel eg. Cups, knifes, frying pan.
*Store it in cabinet box when not in use. * Clay eg. Earthenware, pots, dishes
Screw driver *Keep it on a tool box. Identification of kitchen essential by their material
*Keep the blade ground accurately to shape. WOOD
*The
The blade should exactly fit the length and width of Wooden spoons - Used for dipping and pounding and often used to serve
the slot in the screw head soups, punch gravies etc. For stirring food.
Brick/block work Cupboard – for keeping food commodities and kitchen utensils.
Tools care and maintenance Mortar and pestle– is a tool used to crush, grind solid substance into fine
Cement *Not expose to sun. powder. The substance to be ground is place in the mortar and ground,
*Should be from dust, dirt and grease. crushed or mixed with the pestle.
Clay Rolling pin – used to roll out pastry, biscuit, or cookie dough.
Cutting board - They are used for cutting and chopping food.
Materials used in cleaning joining and assembling tools
Abrasives- braso, silvo, ground sifted egg shell, powdered charcoal, steel
wool and scourers.
Wooden spoon
Mortar and pestle

le
ad
nl
de
Cutting board

oo
W
Rolling pin
Cupboard
107 108
 METALS CLASSIFICATION OF KITCHEN ESSENTIALS
Spoons - Used for dipping and pounding and often used to serve soups,
In this unit, we shall classify Kitchen Essentials according to sizes, small
punch gravies etc.
large, and mechanical with their examples, how they function, how to
Type of spoons
choose and finally how to care, maintain and store them.
Dessert spoon -For eating.
Table spoon -For eating. Classification according to sizes.
Perforated spoon -For
For stirring and removing food from hot oil. * Small - spoons, can opener
Measuring spoon -For measuring volume of liquid. * Large - refrigerator, cooker, broilers, cupboard
* Mechanical - blender, food mixers
Shears - Used for food preparation and for trimming vegetable and herbs.
Frying pan - Used for frying and searing. TOOLS/ SMALL EQUIPMENT
Colander – is a perforated bowl used to drown fruits, vegetables and pasta They are sometimes referred to as tools. They are small, easy to carry about
after cooking. and very important in the cooking business. They include utensils, knives,
Sieve - Used to shift dry ingredient like flours, icing sugar etc, to remove rolling pins, spoons, mortar, pestle, colander, sieve, grater, openers, etc.
impurities and humps.
Shredder or grater - Used to grate andd shred food items such as cheese,
carrots, okro, cabbages etc.
Fork - Used to transfer heavy or large chunks of meat and poultry from
fire and roasting pan onto the platter. Mortar and pestle earthen dish pot sieve
Knifes - for cutting, shredding and chopping food items.
Types of knife
Boning knife - To cut up meat into smaller parts.
Filleting knife - To remove flesh of meat from bones.
Bread knife - For slicing bread.
Palette knife - For mixing food. Grater ladle masher peeler whisk
Kitchen knife - For chopping, slice and shred food.
Cutting board
Ladle Rolling pin
Colander sauce pan ro
Potato masher spatula Skimmer
Wo
Pot Grater ode
Colander n spo
on
Sieve

Knife
Ladle Turner
Turner Potato masher Draining spoon
spatula Ladle
Skimmer Draining spoon Saucepan
110
109
 LARGE EQUIPMENT Peeler - Used to cut or remove the outer skin of fruits and vegetables.
vegetables
These are the equipment or items that are big and sometimes fixed in the
kitchen. They are heavy and clumsy to move about easily. Examples are
cupboard, oven freezer, dish washer, working table, cooker, cooking range,
boiling pan, steamers, fryer, sink, etc.

Cooker peeler kettle blender liquidizer

Burner working table sink

Mixer toaster micro wave masher

Fryer steamer deep freezer

Dish washer fridge cooking range

Range dish washer cupboard EXERCISE

Uses 1. What are kitchen essentials?
Sink - For washing hands and dishwashing 2. List ten (10) kitchen essential tools you know.
Fryer - For deep frying 3a. State five materials used for making kitchen essentials
Dish washer - For cleaning dishes and eating utensils. b. Give three tools under each material mention above.
Range - For baking, cooking etc. 4. Sketch to show the following kitchen essential
Dish washer - For cleaning dishes and eating utensils. (i) Mortal (ii) rolling pin (iii) cutting board (iv) colander (v) ladle
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT 5. Name four types of knives you know. Write down their uses
6. List three (3) foods items that can be shred or grater
Mechanical equipment is also called labour saving equipment – they are
equipment which uses electricity to operate. Examples are rice cooker, EXERCISE II
toasters, mixer, liquidizers, slicers, coffee makers, food processor, electric 1. List three classifications of kitchen essentials.
kettles, masher, food slice, peeler, refrigerator, washer, blender, etc. 2. Under each classification, give six tools.
Blender - Used to puree, emulsify, chop and blend food. 3. What is labour saving equipment?
Whisk - Used to beat, mix and incorporate air into mixture. 4. Explain the three classifications of kitchen essentials.
essentials
Liquidizer - For cutting and pureeing vegetable, or used to mix or chop or 5a. Describe how you will clean a plain wooden table you have used for
liquefy food. particles work.
Mixer - Used to combine ingredient. b. List the materials needed for cleaning the table
t in (b) above
111 112
 FINISHES AND FINISHING Wax polish
Wax polishes are waxes made into a paste by dissolving them in turpentine.
FINISHING AND FINISHES APPLIED TO PRODUCTS/ or Is a polish which produces a dull gloss finish and shows the natural grain
ARTIFACTS of the wood.
Finishing -is the final surface treatment given to products/ artifacts to Types of wax polish
improve their beauty, attractiveness and protection. * Common waxes polish.
Finishes - are the substances applied on the surfaces of products/artifacts. * Commercial wax polish.
Surface finishes are applied to protect the surface of the work from weather, Reasons for using wax polish
insect attack, heat, liquid and dirt, and to improve the appearance of the * Wax gives a pleasing dull lustre to the surface.
work. * Used as a protective polish over other finishing material.
Types of finishes * As a finishing material over sealed bare wood or stained and sealed wood.
There are various types of finishes. The commons ones are;
* Polishes. Varnish
* Paints. Vanishing is transparent coating material consisting of resin dissolved or
* Ceramic tiles. dispersed in a solvent. This type of polish produces a hard, durable,
* Stones. waterproof, glossy and transparent finish, and it is used on internal and
* Plaster of Paris (P.O.P) external joinery, but not usually on furniture.
* 3-D floor. Types of varnish polish
* Wall paper. * Spirit varnishes.
POLISHES * Oil or synthetic varnish.
The function of polishes is to fill the pores and holes on the surface of wood. Reasons for using varnish
It is applied by using brush or sprayer. * Produce a film surface which is easy to dust and keep clean.
Types of polish * Preserve and protect the wood surface from moisture, dust, stain and wear.
* Lacquer. * Produce gloss and lustre of the surface.
* Wax polish.
* Varnishes. Oil paint
Oil paint produces a good natural finish. It is especially suitable for naturally
* Sanding sealer.
oily timbers. Examples, Teak and iroko. It is suitable for inside and outside
* French polish.
use but requires regular recoating.
* Oil paint.
How to apply
Lacquer polish
Rub in well with a cloth and wipe off the surplus, allow 1 week between
Lacquer is a quick drying clear finishing material consisting of a suspension
coats.
of natural and synthetic resin in volatile solvent and thinner.
Types of lacquer Sanding sealer {shellac}
* Cellulose lacquer. Sanding sealer is a finishing material used on bare wood to seal the pore and
* Plastic lacquer. stiffen the fibres.
Reasons for using lacquer Reasons for using shellac
* Dry very quickly. * Easy to apply.
* Produce a hard surface. * Dries quickly.
* Fair moisture resistance. * Produces a hard surface.
* Good durability.
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 PAINT STONE
Consists of finely divided solid colouring substances pigment suspended in a A natural stone finish is a system comprising no less than substrate,
liquid vehicle. Or it a fluid which dries hard when applied on a surface. adhesive, stone, grout and movement joints. To achieve good stone finishes,
Types of paint it is critical to take into account the material selection besides proper
There are several types of paints available installation and quality control. It is important to understand the
but the common ones are; characteristics of the selected materials as well as their compatibility with
* Emulsion paint. one another to achieve optimal performance
* Water paint.
* Oil paint.
Emulsion Paint
Consist of pigment bond in oil and resin and mixed or emulsified in water so
that they can be applied easily by brush, or spray.
Water paint
They are flat paint suitable for internal wall and ceiling.
Oil Paint
Consist of pigment {solid colouring matter} suspended in a drying oil
vehicle linseed + dries and thinned with turpentine.
Methods of applying oil paint.
Primary coat – It is the first coat of paint to be applied over the surface. And
it purpose is to fill the pores of the wood. PLASTER OF PARIS (P.O.P)
Under coat – It forms the base for the finishing coat and also builds up the Plaster of Paris is a white colour powder made up of gypsum. It is often
thickness of the film. used as a protective coating on the walls and ceiling before painting is
Finishing coat – It is the final coat and it gives the colour and brightness as it
done. Alongside this, it offers a smooth surface and aids in fire-proofing
desire.
as well.
CERAMIC TILES
Ceramic tile is one of the most common types of tile found in the home
because it’s suitable for many applications. “Increased durability makes
ceramic tile perfect for any room in the house, such as kitchens, bathrooms,
or even entryways.
“It’s easy to install, clean, and comes in hundreds of styles that can fit any
design.

How is Plaster of Paris prepared

Manufacturing of Plaster of Paris takes place by heating gypsum in rotary
kilns at a temperature of 300 degrees Fahrenheit. It is partially dehydrated.
When you heat gypsum at 300 degrees Fahrenheit, it loses the water
molecules and turns into calcium sulfate hemihydrates. At this point, it is
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called the Plaster of Paris. When you mix water with dry Plaster of Paris, it
turns back into gypsum. The hardening process of the plaster starts around
10 minutes after blending and takes about 45 minutes to complete. The
mixture is completely set in 70 to 75 hours
3-D FLOOR
A 3D floor consists of a three-dimensional image that is coated with
synthetic resin.
WALLPAPER
Wallpaper is a revolution to home-décor to provide spectacular effect to
living-room and bedroom. 3D wall covering bring your room to life. 3D
wallpaper enhances the look of your whole room and add-up depth and
unique to give a 3 dimensional effect to the wall. It provides a magical effect
to your room by crafting an illusion.
Advantages:
* Excellent resistance to wear.
* Ease of cleaning with standard detergent.
* A long period of service and complete safety
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SOLVENT
Solvents used to thin finishes
* Turpentine – is used to thin oil and alkyl-based paint and also used to clean
brushes.
* Thinner – used to dissolve another substance to create a solution.
Cleaning brushes
* Thinner for lacquer polish, vanish and cellulose paint.
* Turpentine for oil paint, wax polish and oil base paint.
* Water for emulsion paint.
* Solvents make mixture flow easily.
* Methylated spirit for French polish.
EXERCISE I
1. Define to show the different between finishing and finishes?
2. List the types of finishes you know.
3. State two reasons for applying finishes on artefacts.
4. List three materials that can be used in finishing artefacts.
5. State two tools needed for applying finishes on artefacts.
6. State two (2) reasons each for using: (i) lacquer polish (ii) sanding seller
7a. What is paint?
b. List three common types of paints
c. Explain the following terms as applied to painting.
(i) Primary coat (ii) Under coat (iii) Finishing coat
8. Use the under listed materials to complete the table below:
Materials: Thinner; Turpentine; Water
Type of finish Type of thinning material to use
Oil paint
Emulsion paint
Lacquer
9. What is Plaster of Paris (P.O.P)
10. State the uses of the following finishes
(i) Ceramic tile (ii) stone (iii) wallpaper
11. State the advantages of using wallpaper over painting
HOMEWORK TASK
Your Career Technology Teacher has assigned you in groups to design and
make the following projects. Suggest a suitable finish that you can apply on the
projects to make them more attractive.
i. A wooden stand to be used in the washroom.
ii. A swing in the children’s playground.
iii. A ceramic flower vase for the head teacher’s office.
iv. An acrylic plant holder for the staff common room.
v. A garden seat at the back of the classroom block.
vi. A fixed broken wall at one side of the science lab.
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 BASIC PROCESSES FOR FINISHING RAW EDGES OF Binding
ARTICLES IN SEWING A binding is made from a bias strip that covers the raw edge and is visible on
both the right and wrong side of the garment.
Edge finishes is a processes worked on raw edges to neaten them. Or Edge
finishes is a type of finishing used to neaten the raw edges of fabrics, articles
or garments particularly after sewing to prevent them from fraying.
Types of Edge Finishes
Facing
Facing - involves finishing the raw edge of fabrics or garments with a piece
of fabric. There are different types of facing; they are:
* Shaped facing: It is usually used for the necklines and armhole.
* Straight facing: It is used for neatening the edge of a pocket, a square neck,
a hem edge of a straight cut skirt. Uses of binding
Uses of Facing * For strengthening the raw edge.
* To neaten garment raw edges * For decorating the raw edge.
* For reinforcement on the edge of a garment * It is used as a finish around neck and sleeves when there are no collars or
* To decorate garment edges. cuffs to be attached.
* It can also used to finish sections of the garment such as collars, cuffs
and hems.
Method of applying binding:
The choice of binding depends on the following factors:
* Width
* Fabric: Single bias is suitable for firm fabrics while double bias for sheer
fabrics.
Hem * Shape of the edge: Curved edges can be finished with bias and fitted
A hem is an edge finish given to a garment. Though it is the final step in facings.
garment construction, due consideration is to be given while finishing it. The Bindings can be of two types:
purpose of a hem is to finish off the raw edge of the garment and help the * Single bias binding - Single binding is cut 3/4th inch wide and is used on
garment hang better. A hem on the fabric edge can either be made in a single heavier material. After it is stitched to the edge, the other raw edge of the
fold (suitable for bulky fabrics) or on a double fold. Hem - is used to neaten bias strip is finished with hemming.
the lower edges of skirts and sleeves. * Double bias binding or French bias - The double binding is cut 1 inch
wide. Double binding is easier to apply than single. While attaching to a
deeply curved edge the bias strip can be slightly stretched and applied for a
neat finish.
Difference between facings and bindings
Both facings and bindings are used to neaten the raw edges. Bindings are
visible on both the sides while facings are visible either on right or wrong
side, but never on both sides.

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 Rolling the edge EXERCISE
Rolling the edges; this is the process of folding the edge of sleeves or other 1. What is edge finishes?
edges of garments so that they become shorter. Rolling can also be of 2. List types of edge finishes you know.
decorating purpose. 3. Describe the following types of facing edge finishes.
(i) Shape facing.
(ii) Straight facing.
4. What is hem finishes?
5. State four factors to consider when finishing an edge of a garment.
6. State the different between facing and binding edge finishing.
7. Give four (4) reasons why an edge of a pillow is finished.

HOME WORK
Piping Replace the numbers in the spaces with the appropriate words provided
Piping is used for edge finishing and decoration. It could be used on hem, below:
sleeves, necklines, etc. Words: types, finishing, seams, process, over casting, garments.
Edge Finishing is the …………1…….. of neatening the raw edges of articles
or garment. Necklines, hems or low edges, open ………2………., waist
lines of ……………3…………… and skirts require different
…………….…4…………… of finishes.
The edge ………5…….. processes include pinking ………6…….. edge-
stitching, zigzag finish and bond finishing.

Reasons why edges of articles are finished

* Prevent edges from fraying. HOME WORK II
* Neaten raw edges. Complete the table by supplying the type of article/garment to be finished
* Strengthen raw edges. Edge Finish Edge of article/garment to be finished
* Decorate raw edges. Scallops
Blanket/loop stitch
Identifying edges of articles that require finishing
Edge stitching
Necklines – sleeves, t shirt.
Turning a hem
Armholes -
Hem – skirt, sleeves.
Factors to consider when finishing an edge
* Design and texture of fabric.
* Finished effect required.
* Style of garment.
* Shape of the edge.

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 SIMPLE STRUCTURES & MECHANISM, ELECTRIC AND Structure members
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS Structural members are the different parts of a frame structure. How well a
structure member resists the forces acting on it depends on:
USES OF STRUCTURES IN FRAME CONSTRUCTION * The material it is made of.
Structure in construction is a method of supporting loads (triangulation, * The size.
truss) to prevent collapse. Structure is an element composing of many * Its shape or section.
components such as beams, columns, roofs, slabs, foundations and Some of these members are:
basements. Without beams and columns, no structure is able to stand on * Wire (cables) – they resist tension successfully.
ground. But these structures also damage due to temperature conditions they * Column and pillar; is a vertical structural element that transmits, through
expose, mismanagement during construction and lack of quality of control in compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements
construction. below.
Functions of structure * Tie – is a part of a structure in tension for keeping two objects from
In short, all structures do one or more of these things: spreading or separating. Ties are usually thin.
* Support to hold something upright and steady.
* Span a distance or reach across a gap.
* Contain or protect something.
* Shape objects, machines and buildings.
Triangulation structure -means using triangles arranged together to form a
frame or part of a frame, with increased rigidity. Structures made from
triangle are strong. Examples are Eiffel tower, pylon. etc.
Truss structure – is a framed structure that is very familiar in roof
construction, and is typically used to span across wide gaps.

Column and pillar

Tie

Eiffel tower steel structure Tie

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 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES UNDER NATURAL AND Shell structure - are made of a thin outer layer of material that surrounds a
MAN-MADE volume examples are eggs, shellfish, snail etc.
A structure is something that has evolved in nature or has been designed by
man to resist loads or forces. Natural and man-made structures surround us,
and because these “work” without problems for most of the time we tend to
take them for granted. In this lesson we shall look at the two types of
structures: natural and man-made.
NATURAL STRUCTURE
Natural structures are structures created by nature to provide support.
Examples of natural structures are spider web, honeycomb, tree, mushroom, Mass structure – they are simply made of clump material, filling the body
feathers, caves, mountain, beaver dams and human skeleton. completely. They are made of low quality material but the structure is
Types of natural structure normally thick. Examples are mountains and coral reefs.
There are three types of natural structure, namely:
* Frame structure - spider web, skeleton, trees etc
Spider webs
Spider webs - are made of stretching silk. Spider silk is a protein fibre spun
by spiders. Spiders use their silk to make webs or other structures, which
function as sticky nets to catch other animals, to suspend themselves.
Skeleton – human skeleton is an amazing structure. It supports the mass of
our body as a static load (sitting or lying down) or as a dynamic load
(moving about).
Honeycomb -
Coral reef
MAN-MADE STRUCTURE
Man-made structures are structures made by man to provide protection and
support load. Examples are chairs, helmets, suspension bridge, Eiffel tower,
pylon, fishing net, wall, umbrella, beads. etc.

Types of ma-made structures

Spider web tree SHELL STRUCTURES
Shell structures – can be defined as curved structures capable of transmitting
load in more than two directions to supports. These structures are made or
assembled to make one piece. Commonly examples are Tin cans, bottles and
other food containers. Large things such as aeroplane bodies, washing
machine, Body of motor car, cardboards boxes, balloons.etc
Disadvantages
* A tiny weakness or imperfection can cause the whole structure to fail.
Bird net Honeycomb skeleton
* Flat material is difficult to form into the rounded shell shale.
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 FRAME STRUCTURES
Frame structures – are structure made from many small parts ccalled
members, joined together. Bridge, building, crane, electricity pylon are just
few examples.
A lot of frame structures use triangle to achieve their strength. A rectangular
structure increases
ses its strength by adding diagonal members named trusses.
SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
Suspension structures hold an element by cables that are held from the top of
a tall column. The space between one column and the next is called span
Advantage: good for covering a very large span.
Disadvantage: expensive to build.

Bridge Steel building

MASS STRUCTURES
Mass structure – they are simply made of clump material, filling the body
Crane completely. They are made of low quality material but the structure is
normally thick. Examples are sandcastles, dam, load-bearing
load walls.
Pylon

Dam

Sandcastle

Uses of structures in construction

* Carrying loads for which they were designed without toppling over or
collapsing
* Supporting the various parts of artifacts.
artifacts
Wooden structure Eiffel tower
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 Difference between natural and man-made structures CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL FAILURE IN CONSTRUCTION
Natural structure Man-made structure
* Not made by people * Man made
* May be biotic or abiotic * Often based on nature
* occur naturally in the environment * often modeled after nature structure

EXERCISE
1. Explain what is meant by structures.
2. List the components of a structure in construction.
3. State the functions of the ff structural members
(i) column/pillar (ii) tie (iii) wire
4. Name the two classifications of structure
5. List three examples each under the classifications stated above.
6. Explain the two classifications of structure.
7. Under Man-made structure, defined the:
(i) Shell structure
(ii) Frame structure
(iii) Suspension structure
(iv) Mass structure
8. In a table form, group the following under the types of man-made
structures:
Sandcastles, bridge, dam, washing machine, body of motor car, bottles Structural failure in construction -is when a structure collapses or fails to do
cardboards, crane, boxes, load-bearing walls, electricity pylon, aeroplane its job. Or structural failure in construction - is when a structure loses its
bodies, building, balloons, tin, cans, food containers. ability to perform its intended design function.
9. State the difference between natural and man-made structure. Construction failure - is inability to construct a structure in accordance to
drawing and specification, prevailing standard and sound engineering
GROUP ACTIVITY practice.
Activity: Make sketches of both frame and shell structures and prepare photo Technically a failure is defined as “an unacceptable difference between
albums to use as materials for learning structures. expected and observed performance. The process of implement a damage
- Display photo albums for appraisal detection and characterization strategy for structure is referred to as
Structural Health Monitoring. (SHM)
Structures are designed to support certain loads without deforming
excessively. The loads are the weights of people and objects, the weight of
rain and snow and the pressure of wind--called live loads--and the dead load
of the building itself. With buildings of a few floors, strength generally
accompanies sufficient rigidity, and the design is mainly that of a roof that
will keep the weather out while spanning large open spaces. With tall
buildings of many floors, the roof is a minor matter, and the support of the
weight of the building itself is the main consideration. Like long bridges, tall
buildings are subject to catastrophic collapse.
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 Types of structural failures
*Cracks – The causes of cracks in structure can be incorrect design, faulty
construction or overloading, corrosion of reinforcement, isolated settlement
of foundations, creep and shrinkage. Four types of cracks developed in
structure are diagonal cracks, horizontal cracks, splitting cracks, corrosion
cracks. Crack in structure is a serious problem and it may lead to the loss of
strength, stability, and durability.
*Splits – Splitting failure in reinforced concrete columns is described as the
formation of vertical cracks along the column height. Columns with
Insufficient steel reinforcement and low concrete quality are susceptible to
experience such types of cracks. Splitting cracks in concrete columns
initiated as a result of reaching its maximum load carrying capacity.
*Breakage – occur when the material is stressed to its upper strength limit
causing break or extreme deformation. The ultimate strength of the material
is limit of the load bearing capacity.
Areas structural failures occur in structures
Buildings, furniture, bridge, dams, towers, radio masts/aircraft. etc.
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BUILDING
Building failure and collapse all over the world had been attributed to two
phenomena: natural and man-made. The natural phenomenon aspect is
triggered off by natural occurrences such as earthquakes, typhoons, and
tsunami, etc. and when occurred is regarded as the natural disaster. The
manmade aspect is borne out of man’s negligence in areas of soil type test,-
building design and planning for extra loads and stress from strong wind and
earthquakes for tall buildings, foundation works, quality of building
materials, lack of inadequate monitoring of craftsmen and poor quality of
workmanship. Common causes of building failure have been traced to:
* Bad design.
* Faulty construction.
* Foundation failure.
* Extraordinary loads.
* Use of unqualified contractors.
* Poor project monitoring.
* Lack of enforcement of building codes by the relevant authorities and /or
industry professionals.
FURNITURE
Wood is a unique construction material which is mainly composed of
organic cellular grained structure. Wood is hence an anisotropic material.
But wood material is assumed as orthotropic material, along three principal
elasticity directions along radial, tangential and longitudinal directions of the
material. Most of the failures found in this material are associated with the:
moisture content, density, splits, shakes, knots and checks.
Other failure experienced by the wood material is due to the deterioration
and the degradation of their properties mainly due to the following reasons:
* Simultaneous saturation and drying repeatedly.
* Termite and beetle attack.
* Wood exposure to heat and fire.
* Attack of different fungi species which will result in the degradation
and decomposition.
BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of
water, valley or road for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
Bridges are impressive feats of modern engineering, seemingly so solid and
strong that we often think of them as being permanent and impervious to
time, wear, and the elements. Every time a bridge collapse occurs, we are
reawakened to the fact that our nation’s most iconic structures need constant
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 vigilance in the form of maintenance and attention. Bridge failures, although
they happen in a moment, are rarely an instantaneous event. The sequence of
events that sometimes lead to a bridge collapse often begins with improper
design and construction.
Maybe the engineer made a slight miscalculation regarding the proper
mixture of cement or cable size. Maybe those responsible for building the
bridge used inferior materials in order to save money on costs. Or maybe the
bridge, originally designed to carry a small number of cars per day, is now
required to carry many times that number without any reinforcement or
reengineering. A small mistake during design, a material change during
construction, or overuse over time might not cause a bridge collapse right
away; however, such negligence inevitably leaves the bridge vulnerable to a
failure at a sudden and seemingly random moment in time.
CAURSES OF STRUCTURAL FAILURE
Poor or bad design - does not mean only errors of computation, but a failure
to take into account the loads the structure will be called upon to carry,
erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate data, ignorance of the effects of
repeated or impulsive stresses, and improper choice of materials or
misunderstanding of their properties. The engineer is responsible for these
failures, which are created on the drawing board.
Faulty construction - has been the most important cause of structural
failure. The engineer is also at fault here, if the inspection has been lax. This
includes the use of salty sand to make concrete, the substitution of inferior
steel for that specified, bad riveting or even improper tightening torque of
nuts, excessive use of the drift pin to make holes line up, bad welds, and
other practices well known to the construction worker.
Poor or faulty material – Structures failures have become quite frequent due
to poor and faulty material been use. Using poor-quality materials may result
in a variety of problems, such as lack of durability.
Weak joints - joint failure (crack through the joint) occurs when the
construction joint is inclined at an angle greater than or equal 45° with
vertical axis.
Fatigue - is the name given to failure in response to alternating loads. Three
factors are necessary to cause fatigue failure.
* A sufficient large number of cycles of the applied stress.
* A large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress.
* A maximum tensile stress of sufficient high value.
Other host factors are:
133
Stress concentration, corrosion, temperature, overload, residual stresses and
combined stresses which tend to alter the conditions of fatigue.
How static and dynamic forces can cause structures to fail
A structure has forces acting on it all the time. A structure must be able to
resist the force acting on it without collapsing. The effect of force acting on
a structure is called the load. The two kinds of force are static force and
dynamic force.
Static force – stationary force due to the structures own weight or the load
being carried.
Dynamic forces -moving force produced by wind, sea, waves, vehicles and
people.
EXERCISE
1. Explain what is meant by structural failure in construction?
2. What is structural health monitoring (SHM)
3. State four types of structural failure.
4. List area where structural failure may occur.
5. State two (2) natural phenomenons which may occur to structure.
6. Mention five (5) causes of structural failure.
7. List and explain the two types of force acting on structure.
8. State three (3) things that can cause a building to fail/collapse.
9. Suggest three (3) effects of the collapse of a building.
10. What advice will you give to your friends in class who want to build a
house in future to avoid collapse/failure.
PROJECT WORK
1. Move out of the classroom to find out some structures that have failed in
your locality.
2. State the causes and effects of the structural failures.
3. Recommend solutions to the structural failures.
4. Make sketches and or take pictures of the structures that have failed.
5. Make a photo album and display in class for appraisal.
HOMEWORK TASK
1. Identify some structures in your home and group them into frame and
shell structures.
2. On your way to school, count the number of structures that have failed
and describe the nature of failure.
3. Discuss with your parents and siblings, the reasons why some structures
fail.
4. Discuss with your parents/siblings some causes and effects of structural
failures. some measures to take to avoid structural failures.
 DESIGN AND MAKE SIMPLE STRUCTURES
One approach to understanding and designing structures is to create models.
Test them to the point of failure, and work out why failure took place.
Compliant and resistant materials, tools and equipment for making
structures. E.g: Paper, cardboards, wood, metal and plastic
GROUP PROJECT WORK 1
Cardboard bridge.
Build a suspension bridge out of compliant and resistant materials that can
hold a heavy weight.
Prototype
Students should make a sketch of their design, or build a prototype using
compliant and resistant materials. They should bring in their prototypes and
sketches to discuss on the next day.
Classroom wrap-up.
Students will display their final cardboard bridge for a peer review in which
the strength and weaknesses of each design are discussed.
CLASSROOM PROJECT WORK 2
Making mock-ups of simple structures
Mock-up is a full sized structural model built to scale chiefly for study,
testing, or display.
Group can construct/build any of these structures.
Examples of structures are car bodies, types of roofing, chairs, aircraft, train,
radio, cupboard etc.
Group should answer the following questions
* Name the mock-up of the group project structure.
* List the compliant and resistant materials for the mock-up of the group
project structure.
* Name the Tools and equipment for making the structures.
* Test and evaluate the mock-ups by indicating the strengths and weaknesses
of the structures and make modifications.
* (Individual) Explain your feeling to work as a group for the structure.
* Display the mock-ups for appraisal.

Share
First, students should discuss the experience of sketching or prototyping
their bridge idea. How did building with compliant and resistant materials
differ from each other? Then, student will stack books on each bridge to test
its ability to support weight. Discuss the strength and weakness of each
design and see which bridge can hold the most.

Student will discuss how they prepare working drawings and its dimensions

134 135
 COMMUNICATION DESIGN
DRAWING MATERIALS, INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
USED FOR GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
Before drawing may start, there are certain material and equipment that you
may need. Some of these tools, equipment and material are; pencil, Drawing
board, cello tape, plain paper, sets square, divider, etc.
In this lesson, we shall learn about identification of various tools, materials
and their uses.
Identification of drawing materials, instruments and equipment
-Pencil - is used for general purpose work in technical drawing; it can also
be used to create very professional result in drawing. The material used for
making pencil is called lead. There are different grades of pencils ranging
from hardest to softest and the softest is sometimes called EE means
extremely soft.
Types of pencils
Hard grade – used where extreme accuracy is required. Soft grade (right)
used for line work on engineering drawings. Draw very light lines
Medium grade - General purpose work. Softer grades (right) used for
technical sketching, lettering, freehand work. Harder grades (left) used for
line work on machine and architectural drawings
Soft grade- very soft leads smudge easily. Used for art work of various kinds
and full size details in architectural drawing.

9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7H
Hard medium soft
Sharpening a pencil
Any of these pencils can sharpening to {conical tip} or {flat or chisel edge}
depending on the type of the work. But the harder grade is usually
sharpening to chisel edge point and for drawing visible lines.

136 137
-Drawing board - This is a flat board in the form of a table used to house Protractor - a semi-circular
circular instrument divided into 180 equal parts, each of
the drawing sheet for all drawing to be made. which is called degree. It is used to determine gradations of the degrees
when measuring arcs, angles and circles

-Compass –ThisThis drawing instrument is used when drawing arcs and circles.
- Tee square – is use to draw horizontal lines. To work accurately the blade
It is used in a similar way to a divider. It is composed of one with the pen leg
and butt must be join rigidly at 900 and the drawing edge of the blade must
and the needle point leg being held together with a handle.
be absolutely straight.
-Divider - used for stepping off measurement and also transferring
measurement.

- Set squares – are use on the blade of the tee square to produce vertical
lines at right angle to the tee square and for drawing lines at common angle -A cello tape - used to fasten the drawing sheet on the drawing board.
to the tee square. There are two types, one with angle 300, 600, and 900 and -Eraser - This is used to clean the dirt off the drawing.
other with 450and 900 angles. The 300 is used for isometric drawing and the
450 is for oblique drawing.

-Drawing sheets - are plain paper on which all drawings are made.
Types of drawing sheet
90 30 * Cartridge paper.
* Layout paper.
Size of paper
* A6 - 105mm 148.5mm.
* A5 - 148.5mm 210mm. A2
-Rule – is possibly one of the most important pieces of drawing equipment. * A4 - 210mm 297mm.
Ruler is used for measuring distance or size and are available from 150mm * A3 - 297mm 420mm. A1
to 300mm
* A2 - 420mm 594mm. A4
* A1 - 594mm 841mm. A3 A6
* A0 - 841mm 1189mm. A5

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 Uses of drawing materials tools and equipment TYPES OF LINES USED IN GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
Drawing board - house the drawing paper.
A line is described as a straight or curved path made by a moving point.
Drawing paper - drawing are made on it.
Thick and thin lines are used for drawing in order to produce the important
Tee square - for drawing horizontal lines.
element of contract, which gives visual interest. They make drawing clearer.
A pair of compass - used to draw circles and arcs.
Technical artist and illustrators mostly use thin technique. The rules to
A pair of divider - for transferring measurement.
decide which line to use is as follow;
Set squares - used to draw accurate angles.
Thin line is used where two surfaces meet and where both surface can be
Rule - for measuring distance or size and are available
seen. Thick line is used where two surfaces meet and where only one surface
from 150mm to 300mm.
can be seen.
Protractor - for measuring or setting out angles which cannot be
Line used in communicating ideas include: Horizontal lines, vertical lines,
constructed with the set square.
inclined lines, arcs, continuous thick and thin lines, short dashes,
Clip - used to hold the drawing paper in position.
Features and uses of the lines
Manipulation (handling) of drawing materials, instruments and equipment * Horizontal lines
We need to take care of our drawing instrument in order to prolong their * Vertical lines
service life. * Inclined lines
Drawing board * Arcs
* Keep the surface of drawing board clean and neat. * Short dashes
* Do not use pins for fastening your paper to the board. Use tapes or clips * Continuous thick lines
* Do not use blade or knife to cut something on the surface of your drawing * Continuous thin lines
board.
* Always cover the surface with cardboard or thick paper. vertical
Diagonal Thick continuous line
* Keep the drawing board in a safe place when not in use. {outline drawing}
T-square
* Never use the tee-square as a walking stick or as a cane. Thin continuous line
Parallel {for projection lines}
* Do not use pen-knife or blade along the edge of the tee-square
* Always hand your square when not in use. Short dashes line
Horizontal line
* Always keep your tee-square clean { hidden line}
Compass and divider Thin long or short chain
* When not in use, keep them away in a safe container. { for center line}
* Never use compasses or dividers as paper holders.
* Do not use their needle points to punch holes Thin line with arrow

Other Instruments converging Diverging

All other instruments should be kept in their packets after use. A cupboard
should be made available for complete storage of the drawing boards and all Zigzag
other instruments. Thin 45 angle line Concentric
* Use a clean tissue to wipe the surface of the instruments {For hatching lines}
wavy
* Do not drop instruments
* Don’t throw instrument to another person when drawing.
* Keep the screw tight e.g compasses and dividers.
140 141
 Applications of lines in drawn objects MAKING SKETCHES OF LINES, CURVES, OBJECTS, AND
Illustration Name Application LETTERINGS
Short dashes Center line, locus line,
MAKING SKETCHES OF LINES
Thick continuous line Outlines, visible edges,
Now that we understood the meaning of line and various types of lines. We
margin lines.
move on to how to sketch them. Most of the lines in an average sketch are
Dimension lines, extension
straight lines. Your straight lines will naturally improve when you keep
Thin continuous line lines, pointer lines, boarder
practicing it.
lines, construction lines
One advantage of sketching is that it requires only pencil and paper.
Thin continuous with Long break lines Knowing how to grip the pencil is the important thing in sketching.
Zig-zag
Thin line with arrow Dimension lines How to hold the pencil
0
45 angle line Hatching lines There are two ways of griping pencil. These are
* Standard grip (fig.1)
Thin long or short For centre line Hold the pencil with thumb + index finger. The pencil rests on middle finger
chain
* Alternate grip (fig 2)
Continuous thin with Short break lines or irregular Hold the pencil with thumb + index and middle fingers. The pencil rests on
wavy boundary lines ring finger.
Long chain thick Cutting plane lines
Long chain with arrow Section line, cutting line

EXERCISE
1. List ten (10) instruments used in graphic communication.
2a.What is drawing paper or sheet.
b. Write the size of the following drawing papers. (i) A4 (ii) A3 (iii) A5 Fig 1 fig 2
3. Name the two types of paper used in graphic communication.
4. Copy and complete the table below. Sketching of lines
Instrument Uses Care and maintenance * Mark the end points of the line to be sketched.
Pencil * Observe the two points carefully and make some trial movements between
Compass the points without sketching any line.
Tee square * Sketch light and thin trial lines connecting the two points.
Drawing board * Complete the straight line by drawing a straight and dark line over the thin
Protractor line.

.
.
. .

.
5. Define line as used in graphic communication
6. List six (6) examples of lines used in graphic communication
7. Copy and complete the table below.
Type of line Application Illustration . .
Long chain with arrow
. .

.
.
.
Short dashes
Continuous thin with wavy
142 143
 Sketching of Circle
Circles can be sketched using one or two strokes, without blocking iin any
construction lines. Circle templates also make it easy to sketch circles of
various sizes. Using your hand like a compass, you can create circles and
arcs with surprising accuracy after a few minutes of practice.
In the following sketches a cube is drawn in five different ways. each
method of drawing gives a different view of the cube and has advantages and
disadvantages over the others. Therefore, you must become familiar with
when and how to use each method, so that when sketching you can choose
the best one for each purpose.

Methods for Sketching Circles

Enclosing Square Method
* Lightly sketch an enclosing square and mark the midpoint of each side.
* Lightly draw in arcs to connect the midpoints.
* Darken the final circle.

Centerline Method
* Sketch the two centerlines of the circle.
* Add light 45° radial lines and sketch light arcs across them at an estimated
radius distance from the center.
* Darken the final circle. LETTERING
Lettering – is the art of writing alphabetic symbols in word. Lettering is the
use of appropriate tools to write letters without construction e.g. pencil,
brush, chalk, crayon etc. letters should be readable and uniform in
characteristics.
Lettering should be legible and easy to create, and should use styles
acceptable for traditional
raditional drawing and CAD drawing.
drawing For this reason it is
important that a simple straight forward letter type is used.

MAKING SKETCHES OF OBJECTS

Before you begin to draw the outline of an object, consider its overall shape
and the relationships between its parts. Construction lines can help you
preserve the overall dimensions of the object as you sketch.
Bear in mind that at you should be thinking in terms of basic shapes whether
you are sketching by hand or using a CAD program. Because basic curves
and straight lines are the basis of many of the objects that people create,
practice in creating the basic elements of a drawing
ng will help you sketch with
ease.

145 146
 Hand lettering style Tips:
There are numerous kinds of lettering. Learning to recognize the different * All start at the top.
types of lettering and how to apply them to your work can help you deliver * All are the same height.
massage effectively. * All occupy the same vertical space.
Common ones are: roman, italic, text, gothic, serif, san serif, calligraphy, * All are easy to recognize and identify (compare A, B, D, G, P, Q with
graffiti etc. a, b, d, g, p, q).
Roman –The modern styles of letters were derived from the design of * All are big, bold and familiar.
Roman capital letters, whose origins date all the way back to Egyptian
hieroglyphgic. The term Roman refers to any letter that has wide downward. Lower case letters – a written or printed in a size smaller than and often in a
form differing from its corresponding capital letter. Lower case letters – a, b,
ABCDEFGHIJKLM c, d.
abcdefghijklm
Italic –all slanting letters are classified as italic- these may further designated
as Roman-Italic, Gothic Italics or Text Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLM
Abcdefghijklm
Serif - lettering styles that have tails on them.
San serif– lettering style that has no tails on the letters. These letters are
made of straight lines. Eg. Ariel, Gill Sans and Courier. Tip:
* Lowercase letters start in four different places (a, b, e, f)
* Lowercase letters are not all the same size:
* Gothic style- lettering style that has a very sharp edge. Gothic lettering is - 14 letters are half the size of capitals.
often used for headlines and title. - 12 are the same size as capitals
* Lowercase letters occupy three different vertical positions: small, tall,
descending.
*Calligraphy style– lettering style that has thin and thick line. This type of * Lowercase letters are more difficult to recognize because of subtle
style is similar to gothic, but with smoother edge and fewer points. Used differences (a, b, d, g, q)
primarily for headlines.
Principles of Lettering
* Never mix uppercase and lowercase letters.
* Graffiti– fat, round and sharp edge lettering style. * Avoid thick and thin strokes.
* Titles should be 8mm high.
* General information is usually about 6mm high.
LOWER AND UPPER CASE LETTERS * Titles and dimensions are written in upper case.
Upper case letters - is a plain and straightforward lettering style that is * Use guideline to prevent irregularity.
characterized by letters that are very large and written in all capitals. upper * Background areas between letters should appear equal and not too empty
case – A, B, C, D or too full.
* Space between words should appear equal and not be too large or too
small.
147 148
 Practical tips: lettering with a pencil
* Use a soft pencil, such as an F, H, HB. Lettering should be dark and sharp,
not gray and blurred.
* Keep your pencil sharp.
* Sharpen wooden pencils to a needle point, and then dull the point very
slightly.
* Turn the pencil frequently during lettering to wear the lead down
uniformly and keep the lettering sharp
* Use extremely light, 1/8-inch (3.2-mm) horizontal guidelines to regulate
the height of letters. Use a few light vertical or inclined lines randomly
placed to help you visually keep the letters uniformly vertical or inclined.
* All pencil lettering will be reproduced; the letters should be dense black.
* Draw vertical strokes downward or toward you with a finger movement.
* Draw horizontal strokes from left to right with a wrist movement and
without turning the paper.
* Draw curved strokes and inclined strokes with a downward motion.
Setting out drawing paper and preparing of title block.
Setting of Drawing Sheet
* Place the drawing paper on the drawing board.
* Place the T-square on the drawing board. Make sure the stock is fixed
against the edge of the drawing board with left hand.
* Make sure the edge of the paper flushers (in line) with the edge of the T-
Square.
* Remove the T-square a bit from the paper and hold the paper with your
cello-tape or clip.
Drawing of Border Lines
The border lines are 10mm or 1cm to the edges of the drawing sheets. They
are drawn with the use of a set square and T-square.
Drawing of Title Block
The title block is normally drawn at the right hand of the drawing sheet. The
information required is; Name, Class Date, Title, Scale.
Border line
NAME:
CLASS: Title Block
DATE:
TITLE:
149
FREEHAND SKETCHING
Sketching - A quick way of putting ideas down using freehand with a pencil
or any other marker.
Freehand sketching is uses of hand to draw without any guide such as
drawing instrument.
Freehand sketches are a helpful way to organize your thoughts and record
ideas. They provide cost way to explore various solutions to a problem so
that the best choice can be made. Investing too much time in doing a scaled
layout before exploring your options through sketches can be a costly
mistake. Sketches are also used to clarify information about changes in
design or provide information on repairing existing equipment. The term
freehand sketch does not mean a sloppy drawing. Freehand sketch shows
attention to proportion, clarity and correct line widths.
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it requires only pencil, paper
and eraser. Small notebooks or sketch pads are useful in the field. Graph
paper can be helpful in making neat sketches.
Sketching materials
Sketching tools and materials are paper (isometric grid paper, oblique grid
paper, and orthographic grid paper) pencil (HB,F) and eraser is required for
freehand sketching.
Scale: generally drawn not to scale but in correct proportion.
Important skills to keep in mind for sketches and drawings:
Accuracy. No drawing is useful unless it shows the information correctly.
Speed. Time is money in industry. Work smarter and learn to use techniques
to speed up your sketching and CAD drawings while still producing neat
accurate results.
Legibility. A drawing is a means of communicating with others, so it must be
clear and legible. Give attention to details. Things that may seem picky and
small as you are drawing may be significant and save money or even lives
when the product is built.
Neatness. If a drawing is to be accurate and legible, it must also be clean.
150
 Techniques of sketching objects in two dimensional (2-D) D) plane figures PLANE FIGURES
Identify Two-Dimensional Shapes Plane figures are figures haven two dimensional and have length and width;
Let’s look at these objects. Can you tell the shapes of these objects? they are usually flat level shape in an area enclosed by lines.
lines
Examples of plane figures are:
* Triangle (3sides) -equilateral,
equilateral, scalene, isosceles etc.
* Quadrilaterals (4sides) -square,
square, rhombus, parallelogram,
parall trapezium.
* Polygons (5 or more) -pentagon,
pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.

Triangle
Triangle - is a plane figure bounded by three straight lines which meet at a
point known as vertex. A triangle is often classified by their angles or sides.
* The first object is a triangle.
* The second is a coin and is a circle, and Sketching a triangle
* The third is chessboard and is a square.
These are some examples of two-dimensional shapes! Why are they called A
two-dimensional shape? Because they havee a flat shape and two
measurement.
What is two dimensional shape?
Two dimensional (2-D) - is flat shape which has only two measurements -
length and width.
Most 2D shapes are made up of lines and corners. These parts of a shape
have some special names. The line segments that make a 2D shape are called
Vertex
its sides.. A corner at which two sides of a 2D shape meet is called a vertex.
Two or more corners are called vertices (not vertexes!).
A measure of the turn between the two sides that meet at a vertex is called B C
the angle between the sides.
Examples of 2D shapes are circles, triangles, rectangles etc.
Types of triangles
Isosceles triangle – is a type of triangle that has two of its sides equal and
the angle.. For an isosceles triangle with only two congruent sides, the
congruent sides are called legs. The third side is called the base. And the
angle opposite the base is called the vertex angle. And the angles opposite
the legs are called base angle.
Triangle rectangle circle square pentagon
Scalene triangle – is a triangle in which all three sides different in length
and no interior angles are equal.

Equilateral triangle –isis a triangle that has all its sides equal in length. An
equilateral triangle is also called equiangular triangle since its three angles
Hexagon heptagon nonagon rhombus trapezium are equal to 60

151 152

A A
A
B C B C
Techniques of sketching objects in three dimensional (3-D)
3-dimensional
dimensional (3D) shapes are solid shapes. They have 3 dimensions -
length, width and height. 3-D
D shapes have faces, edges and vertices
examples of 3-D D shapes are: sphere, prism, cuboid, cube, cylinder,
pyramid,cone etc. edge
face
vertex
B C

Equilateral triangle Scalene triangle Isosceles triangle

height
QUADRILATERAL
Quadrilaterals are plane figure bounded by four straight lines. Examples are
square, rhombus, parallelogram, rectangle etc.
Square – is a quadrilateral haven all its four sides equal as well as its four A face is a flat surface.
angles. An edge is where two faces meet.
Rhombus – has all of its four sides of equal length but its internal angles are length A vertex is a corner where edges meet.
not at right angle. width
Parallelogram - has its opposite side parallel and equal. Examples of 3-D
3 shapes

A B A B

Area Width
Cylinder Cube
Sphere

C D
C D
Length Rhombus
Square

Cuboid
A B A B Cone

C D C D Prism
Rectangle Parallelogram
Pyramid

151 152
 Apex or Vertex Apex or Vertex Sketching in isometric drawing
Base Sketching in isometric is in which the lines representing the height are drawn

e
fac
Base

or
vertically and those representing the length and the width are drawn at an

rat
ula
e

ne
edg

Axis

ang

Generator
angle of 300 to the horizontal line. In isometric all the lines are also parallel

Ge
Axis
nt

Tri
Sla

to each other.
Base
Drawing in isometric projection
proje
a. Draw your isometric axis c. Join c1 to d and d to b1
Base Base edge
Pyramid Cylinder Prism Cone
c1 b1
c d
A pyramid -is a solid shape that has a polygon as its base and sides that b c
30 b
consist of triangles having a common vertex, called the apex. a a
A prism - is a solid shape that has parallel and congruent polygons called d. draw incline line using 30
b. Project c and b to c1 and b1 Set square at ci and b1 to
bases, for two faces and parallelograms for all other faces. Intersect at x
c1 b1
Cylinder – is a solid figure having circular plane surface on its top and x
bottom. Or solid figure having two equal circular bases that are parallel. c1 b1
Thus a cylinder has two circular plane surfaces, one at its base and another at d
c
b d
its top. 30 c
a b
Cone – has one plane circular surface, i.e. its base and only one curved a
surface
Sketching in oblique drawing
Difference between 2-D and 3-D Oblique drawing is an easy method
metho for creating quick pictorials. In most
* 2-D has two measurements (length and width) while 3-D D has three oblique sketches, circles and angles parallel to the projection plane are true
measurements.. size and shape and are therefore easy to construct. Although circular shapes
* 2-D has no depth while 3-D has. are easy to sketch in the front oblique plane, they would appear elliptical in
* 2-D on a surface, lie flat when place on surface while 3-D is solid figure the top or sides.
ides. Oblique views are primarily a sketching technique used
* 2-D is easily to draw on paper than 3-D when the majority of circular shapes appear in the front view or when the
object can be rotated to position circles in the front view.
SKETCHING IN PICTORIAL VIEW OF OBJECTS
All the three kinds of pictorial drawing can be done either by freehand Method of sketching
sketching, where the only material are the pencils (HB) and paper or by a c
Step 1 Step 3
using drawing instrument.. The use of drawing instrument produces accurate
and very neat drawing but it is not fast enough, much time is taken in the b d
45
manipulation of the instruments. When designing, ideas must be recorded Draw rectangle abcd
and presented fast; freehand sketching which is a fast meth
method for graphic Mark off the width on the incline line aa,b,cc,dd
aa cc And join the points to get your oblique box
representation.
Step 2
There are three methods of sketching objects in pictorial form; these are bb dd
Isometric sketching, oblique sketching and Perspective sketching
sketching. All these 45
methods enable the three dimensions of the objects. i.e. the length, width and Draw line from point's acbd at an angle 45
To get a1, b1 c1, and d1
height to be seen.
153 154
 Sketching in perspective drawing
Perspective pictorials most closely approximate the view produced by the
human eye. Perspective views are the type of drawing most like a
photograph. Examples of a perspective drawing can be seen in Figures 3.
Although complex perspective views are time consuming to sketch, they are
easy to create from 3D CAD models.

t er
s
Activity: Practice sketching plane objects and pictorial objects to build an
se me
album for display.
ond
EXERCISE sec
1. State two ways of griping pencil when sketching.
d of
2. State 2 items required for sketching
3a. What is lettering?
En
b. Name four common types of lettering you know.
c. State any three principles of lettering.
4. Explain freehand sketching?
5. What is two dimensional (2-D)
6. List 4 examples of any two dimensional object you know.
7a. What are plane figures?
b. State three examples of plane figures.
8. Explain the ff: (i) triangle (ii) quadrilaterals

Exercise
1. What are 3-D shapes? Give examples.
2. List four examples of 3-D objects in the market.
3. Sketch the following 3-D shapes in isometric. (i) Cube (ii) Cuboids
4. State the difference between 2-D and 3-D
5. Group the ff under 2-D and 3-D objects.
Equilateral, prism, cuboid, square, rhombus, cube, cylinder, pyramid,cone
parallelogram, trapezium, scalene, isosceles, sphere.
155 156
 DESIGNING Example 2:
Brief: Design and make a unit to hold pens and pencils for Abena.
WORKING WITH A GIVEN DESIGN BRIEF To identify the problem, we say, Abena has nowhere to keep her pens and
Understanding of designing pencils which always seems to be lost when she needs them.
The word “design” can have many different meanings but that for our
Examples 3:
purpose it should be defined as problem solving. Design involves making
Brief: design and construct identification sign (sign board) for visitors to
products, machines, and structures that serve their intended purpose and are
Mr. Asenso model school.
pleasing to the eye as well.
To identify the problem from example 3, we say that visitors to Mr. Asenso
Design process involves the following; identification problem, brief,
model school have difficulty in finding the school as there is no
analysis, investigation, specification, possible solution, general ideas,
identification on the outside.
selecting and developing ideas, and etc.
We can’t solve problem if there is no problem. The problems we are Analyzing the problem
required to solve will usually arise from normal everyday situation and may In examples 3 above, such a short statement (brief) clearly does not give
be exist everywhere, we can found some at; Homes, churches, schools, sufficient information for design solution to be found. Therefore a full
hospitals, offices, market place, shops, farms, and playing ground. analysis and investigation into the problem is necessary. The essential factors
Many problems will occur to us as a result of our own and other people’s need to solve the problem is known as analysis. Analysis includes;
interests and experiences. * The materials to be used.
Problem identification * How the unit will function.
Hospitals Offices Playing ground * The construction of it.
* Time cost.
Schools Shops * Human and environmental factors etc.
Identifying Problem Once you have become used to asking yourself the type of key questions
Home Churches shown earlier, you will soon become aware that many of them are the same
for most design problems. It is important that we understand how these
Markets Mosque Farms common design factors can interact with each other.
Situation - is the first stage of the design process and it is where you find Here are some common design factors:
your need to design. Examples of situation; -Function- this is the job which the artifact will have to do (specified by the
Lina is housewife who has engage a maid, anytime the maid is grinding design brief) the main job an artifact has to do is called its primary function,
vegetables she bends down which makes her feel uncomfortable. and any others are called the secondary functions.
Identify the problem through a given design brief -Materials –these must be suitable for the job they have to do and should
Generally, the brief arises out of one or more needs, such as, the need to also be appropriate to the environment in which they are used.
provide something that was not there previously or the needs to improve -Appearance – this is usually a very important factor because there are few
upon something that already exist. situations in which we do not consider the appearance of a design and its
For example; effect on its environment.
If you decide that the lack of sitting unit in example above is a suitable -Size and Weight – these are important factors when designing many jobs
design problem, you should begin to tackle it by trying to state clearly what and their effect on the following should be considered: portability, storage,
you need to do to solve the problem. environment, and material used.
This could be design and make an artefact to be use by the maid when -Safety – there are many safety considerations which may affect the solution
grinding vegetable. This statement then is the design brief for the given of a design problem. These might include for example: toxicity, sharp
problem. corners and edges, fire hazards, stability and electrical safety.
157 158
 Functions GENERATE IDEAS
* What is the main function of the unit? From the information gathered, we can begin to make ideas sketches which
* What other function can the unit serve? investigate visually the possible answers to the problem. The best idea(s) are
Materials then chosen from these ideas sketches and developed further in sketch form
* What properties do the materials need to have?
to give one or more partial solution.
* What materials should be available?
* Is it durable and affordable? Freehand sketching showing possible ideas for solving the identified
Construction problem with descriptive notes
* What method of construction do I need to explore?
* Who will make the unit?
* What type of joint should make the strong?
* Do I have the necessary skills to do the unit?
* How long will it take to complete the unit?
Ergonomic
* What is the average height of the user?
* Where is the unit going to be used?
* Can it moved easily from place to place?
* Can the unit provide support and stability for the user?
Aesthetics
* Will the finish make the appearance attractive?
* What type of finish will the artefact have?
Safety
* Is the unit safe to use?
* What safety should be observed?

Possible ideas for the solution

Finding a solution is not always an easy process but it should start with a Selected design (Final solution)
conscious decision to generate a set of possible ideas before reviewing them This is the refined developed design which satisfied the requirements of the
all and select one. Three main areas of possible ideas or presentation ideas designer and it is usually express in pictorial form.
can be identified as follows:
Preliminary sketches (initial ideas) recorded in notes and sketches.
Development sketches - Presented as annotated sketches, model and mock-
up. Development sketches come from the preliminary sketches you take the
best idea or ideas and begin to produce partial solution from which a final
solution can generate.
Working drawing – can be in many forms, but their purpose is always to
ensure that all information needed to make the artifact is given. At this point
a cutting list should be made of all the materials needed.
These stages will enable the whole design process, from the first thoughts
and ideas about a problem to the final rendered solution, to be illustrated
clearly.
159 160
 Suitable dimensions to the selected design. PLANNING FOR MAKING ARTIFACTS/PRODUCTS
PLANNING MEAL FOR SUPPER
Meal planning – is a guideline for controlling the aspects of what one eats.
Meal planning helps to make the best use of the material, time and financial
resources. To obtain meal that meets the physical and social needs of the
individual and families. It is very important to plan family meals in order to
fulfill the nutritional requirement of the family members. This is essential to
keep them strong, healthy and free from any disease and deficiency of any
kind.
Objective of meal planning
* To satisfy the nutritional needs of the family members.
Prepare a simple working drawing * To keep expenditure within family food budget.
Remember that working drawing can be in many different forms but their * To economize on time, fuel and energy.
purpose is always to ensure that all the information needed to make the artefact
is given. MEAL
Meal - is a collection of prepared dishes that is eaten at a sitting. 0r meal is
the food which is eaten on such an occasion. The hour at which a meal is
habitually or customarily eaten is called meal time.
Types of meals served in a day.
Breakfast - is the first meal eaten after rising from a night sleep. Most often
eaten in the early morning before undertaken the day’s work. Breakfast food:
porridges,
Front view end view
Lunch - Lunch is the second meal of the day after breakfast.
Supper - Supper is a light meal eaten before going to bed. The time of the
day during which supper is usually eaten is called supper time.
Plan
Other Types/Kinds of Meal
-Snack – is a portion of food often smaller than regular meal, generally eaten
between breakfast and lunch. Or a small amount of food that you eat
between meals.
-Brunch – a meal that combines breakfast and lunch and is usually served in
the late morning.
-High tea – a small meal served in the late afternoon.
-Bed time snack – is a light meal eaten just before going to bed.
-Elevenses – something small to eat and drink in the middle of the morning
between breakfast and lunch.
-Dessert – fruit or sweet dishes taken after meal.

161 163
 Factors to consider when planning meal
MAKING ARTIFACTS/PRODUCTS IN SEWING AND
* Nutritional needs of family members CROCHETING
* Food available Sewing - is the act of joining two or more fabric together using stitches. It is
* Family budget also the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a
needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the textile arts, arising in
the Paleolithic era.
Before the invention of spinning yarn or weaving fabric, archaeologists
EXERCISE believe Stone Age people across Europe and Asia sewed fur and skin
1. What is meal planning? clothing using bone, antler or ivory needles and "thread" made of various
2. What is meal? animal body parts including sinew, catgut, and veins.
3. List and explain the three types of meal. For thousands of years, all sewing was done by hand. The invention of the
4. Copy and complete the table below sewing machine in the 19th century and the rise of computerization in the
Types of meal Two food examples later 20th century led to mass production and export of sewn objects, but
hand sewing is still practiced around the world.
Basic tools and materials for sewing and crocheting, in groups
Sewing Crocheting
Sewing tools Sewing material Crocheting tool Crocheting material
Needle threads hook/pin made Threads
Sewing pin from metal, yarns
plastic, bone or
wood

Crochet thread crochet hook yarn needle crochet bag

Sewing pin sewing thread sewing needle crochet marker

164
 BASIC STITCHES FOR SEWING Uses of Temporary stitches
Stitches are used to hold pieces of garment. Stitch is a single turn or loop of * It is used to hold side seam.
thread or yarn, stitches are the fundamental elements of sewing, knitting, * To make gathers on fabrics.
embroidery, crochet and needle lace – making, whether hand or machine. * To hold material in position temporarily.
These stitches and their variations are named according to the position of the
needle and direction of sewing {running stitch, backstitch}, the form and Types of Temporary stitches
shape of the stitch {chain stitch, feather stitch} or the purpose of the stitch Tacking – is a temporary stitch used for holding two or more layer of fabric
{tailor’s stitch, hem stitch}. together before permanent stitch is made. Usually the stitch is worked from
Examples of stitches are: tacking (long and short), machine stitches, running right to left starting with a knot in a contrasting colour thread, so that it can
stitches, back stitches, basting, tailor’s tacking, and tailor’s tacks. be easily removed.

Uses:
* Tacking
* Holding seam
* Can be used as temporary stitch
Procedure:
* Pierce your threaded needle from the wrong side upwards.
Uses of stitches
* It is used for joining two or more pieces of fabric together. * Pierce it down into the fabric according to the marked design with longer
stitches up to 1/4 inch to 1/2 inch.
* It is used for mending clothes.
* Bring the thread back up and repeat
* It is used for embroidery, making design and decoration.
Rules of working stitches
Types of tacking
* Use the correct types of thread.
* Use correct size of needle.
* Fasten on and off firmly.
* begin at the right hand side and work toward the left hand.
* Never use a knot for fasting or stitches.
TYPES OF STITCHES Even tacking Uneven tacking
There are two types of stitches. Namely;
* Temporary stitches.
* Permanent stitches.
TEMPORARY STITCHES
Temporary stitches; are stitches used to hold two pieces of fabrics together
temporarily or for a short period of time. In sewing, to tack or baste is to
make quick, temporary stitching intended to be removed. Examples of Diagonal tacking Tailors tacking
temporary stitches are tacking, basting, tailors tacking; thread marking,
fishbone, long and short, etc.
166 167
Basting stitch – long running stitches used to keep two pieces of fabric or Uses:
trim aligned during final sewing. * Attach fabrics.
* Outline shapes for embroidery designs.
designs
* Writing.
Procedure:
* Working from left to right, take a small stitch.
stitch
Procedure * Then insert the needle at the end of the previous stitch, bringing it out
* Take the needle in and out of the fabric of up to ¼ to ½ inch long. beyond the point where the thread emerges.
* You can make several stitches by popping the needle in and out of the fabric * Continue, always inserting the needle at the end of the previous stitch.
before pulling through.
* Do not lock the stitch from both ends.
Types of basting Running stitch – {straight stitch} is the basic stitch on which all other forms
of sewing are based. Running stitches are short, even stitches used for
seaming, tucking, mending and gathering.
Even basting Uneven basting

Slip basting
Uses:
Diagonal basting * Gathering.
PERMANENT STITCHES * Mending.
* Tucking.
Permanent stitches- are those used to holds pieces of cloth cloth/fabric together Procedure:
permanently. eg, back stitches, over sewing, hemming, overca overcastting, loop * Insert your threaded needle from the wrong side upwards.
stitches, machine stitches,, whipping stitch, running stitch, etc. * Insert it down into the fabric according to the marked design
Purpose or uses of permanent stitches * Bring the thread back up and repeat.
* For joining fabric permanently - eg. Back stitch, running, etc.
* For knitting - eg. Over sewing, Over casting, Hemming, Catch stitch etc.
Overcast stitch – is one of several types
type of sewing stitches used on a raw or
* Used as decorative stitches - eg. Button hole, loop, herring bone, chain.
unfinished sewn or edge. The purpose is to prevent unravelling of the fabric.
whipped running, satan stitch.
Uses:
* To hold down garment hem.
Enclose raw edges of a fabric
Types of permanent stitches
Back stitch – is a stitch used in embroidery and sewing stitches. Stitches are
sewn backward to direction of the sewing.

168 169
Whipped running stitch – is used to secure the edge of the garment so that Uses:
the threads should not come out of the garment. * Enclose the raw edges of heavy fabrics
* Decorative stitch
Procedure:
* Secure the thread on the wrong side of the fabric, insert the needle from
back to front through the fabric 1/8 inch from the edge.
* Wrap the working head around behind the eye end of the needle, then
Uses: behind the point.
* Quilting. * Pull the needle through, bringing the knot to the fabric edge. Continue,
* Appliqué making. making closely spaced stitches and knot.
* Closing the sides of pillows and cushion.
* Making jeans garments.
* Hemming the sides of carpets. Hemming stitch – a stitch use in sewing hems on skirt and dresses.

Catch stitch (Cross-Stitch) - You can use this stitch to finish hems with
fabric that doesn’t fray, and to tack facing invisibly.

Uses: Slip Stitch (Blind stitch) is commonly used to make hidden seams in
* Hem. between two fold edges of a flat edge. It is also called a ladder stitch
* Seam Allowances. because, in the process of doing this stitch, you are creating ladders with
* Lining Garments your threads. This stitch is used for bindings, closing a lining, applying an
Procedure: appliqué invisibly, or closing stuffed sewing projects
* Working from left to right, take tiny stitches on the hem.
* Then take a tiny stitch on the garment.
They will appear as crosses on the wrong side and small stitches on the right
as seen in the image

Blanket Stitch (Buttonhole Stitch) - If you want to sew eyelets or button

holes by hand, learn the buttonhole stitch.
Uses:
* Join two pieces with stitch thread being invisible
* Hem
Procedure:
* Bring the needle through the fold of the hem.
* Pick up a thread of fabric at the same point.
* Make the stitches about a 1/2 inch apart and fairly loose.

170 171
 CROCHETING
Crocheting is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn,
thread or other material strands using a crochet hook. Or is a simple guide
method of producing and using hook and yarns. The word crocheting is
derived from the French word ‘crochet’ meaning hook. Crochet stitches are
stitches made by pulling a loop of thread through the work with a crochet
hook. Crochet stitches are name based on the structure.
Some Crocheted Articles
Table runners, bonnets, blouses, jacket, muffler, shawl, necklace, berret,
jumpers, swim wear, bedspreads, cushion covers, baby clothes etc
Tools and Material for Crocheting
The main tool and material for crocheting are;
-Hook – can be made from metals, wood, or plastic.
-Thread - can be made from nylon twine, cotton, and wool.
BASIC CROCHET STITCHES
Chain – is a sewing and embroidery technique in which a series of looped
stitches form a chain like-pattern.
Steps for making chain crochet
* Make a slipknot on hook
* Yarn over and draw through loop of slipknot: repeat from
* Draw yarn through last loop formed.
172
Slip stitch (sl st) – has very little height. It is used to join stitches that are
worked in round such as a granny square.
Steps for making slip crochet
* Insert hook in stitch
* Yarn over and draw loop through stitch and loop on look:
Single crochet :
* Insert hook in stitch, yarn over and pull up loop
* Yarn over and draw through both loops on hook.
* Wrap yarn.
Half double crochet – this stitch is taller than the single crochet stitch
because it includes an additional wrap
Steps for making half double crochet
* Wrap the yarn around the hook, and then insert the hook into a stitch
* Wrap the yarn around the hook, and draw the yarn through the first loop on
the hook. Wrap the yarn around the hook again.
* Draw the yarn through all 3 lops on the hook. One half double crochet
made.
Double crochet – is about twice the length of a single crochet. It is a very
popular stitch producing looser fabric than single crochet.
Steps for making double crochet
* Insert hook in stitch.
* Yarn over and pull up loop (3 loops on hook)
* Yarn over and draw through 2 loops
* Yarn over and draw through remaining 2 loops
173
 5. List eight (8) examples of stitches you know.
6. State and explain the two basic types of stitches. Give 2 examples each.
7. Draw two types of stitches based on the classes of stitches.
8. What is tacking? Explain with illustration
9. State three purpose of stitches in garment construction.
10. State the difference between stitching and crocheting.
Treble crochet (tr) – is a tall stitch that work up quickly and a little taller 11. List three (3) materials used for making:
than the double crochet. i. Crocheting thread ii. Crocheting hook
Steps for making treble crochet 12. Write the full meaning of the abbreviation.(i) ch (ii) tr tr iii) sl st iv) tr
*chain 2 times, 13. State four rules/ tips when working on stitches.
* Insert hook in st, 14. List three household articles made from crocheting.
* yarn over, pull through st,
* Yarn over; pull through 2 loops 3 times EXERCISE II
1. Identify and name the various stitches you see in picture.

(c )
(a) (b) (d)

Abbreviations Used In Crocheting

Abbreviation Symbol Meaning (g)
* ch - - chain. (e) (f) (h)
* sl st - - slip stitch.
* sc - + - single crochet 2. Answer the following questions on Picture C:
* hdc - - half double crochet. i. Identify the various crocheting stitches in the picture.
* dc - - double crochet. ii. Discuss which one you prefer to use.
* tr - - treble crochet.
* dtr - - double triple treble.
* htc - - half treble crochet
* yo - - yarn over

EXERCISE
1. What is sewing?
2. State three (3) items used for making clothes before intervention of yarn.
3. In a table form group the following under sewing tool/material and
crocheting tools/materials
4. What are stitches?
174 175
 MAKING ARTIFACTS FROM COMPLIANT, RESITANT Dry heat cooking method Moist heat cooking method.
MATERIAL AND FOOD INGREDIENTS Baking, grilling, roasting, Boiling, stewing, steaming,
microwave cooking, barbecuing poaching, pressure cooking,
SKILLS IN PREPARING FOOD USING MOIST AND DRY frying, braising , sautéing
METHODS OF COOKING
BOILING
Some food should be cooked before eating because they contain starchy This is the most common method of cooking and is also the simplest. With
which when eaten raw, will cause sickness. Examples of these food are this method of cooking, enough water is added to food and it is then cook
cassava, cocoyam, yam, plantain and etc. such food have to be cooked to over the fire. The action of the heating water makes the food get cooked.
make them taste better, soft to chew and easy for the body to make use of Foods that can be boiled are cassava, fish, meat, cabbage, salmon, yam,
(digest). The act of applying heat to foods to prepare them for eating is plantain, rice, porridge.
known as cooking. Method/types of Boiling
Reasons for cooking food Boiling can be done in three ways;
* To make food more tasty and easy to eat. * Boiling where the food absorbs the water – rice, banku
* To improve flavour of food * Boiling where the water forms part of the food – porridge, soup
* To destroy harmful bacteria in food. * Boiling where the water is thrown away –yam, cassava
* Cooking improves the appearance of food. Advantages
* To make food easier to bite, chew, swallow and digest. * It is a safe and simple method of cooking
* To gives variety of food. * It does not required special skills and equipment.
* To reduce the bulk. * Uniform cooking can be done.
* Appropriate for large scale cookery.
Classification of different methods of cooking * Labour saving, as it required little attention.
There are some basic methods of cooking food. These commonly used basic Disadvantage
cooking methods are divided into two groups: Dry methods cooking and * There is a loss of soluble vitamin in the water.
Moist method cooking * Use of traditional fuel (firewood) cause air pollution.
* Food tends to be bland.
Dry Methods of Cooking Food * Can be costly due to fuel consumption.
In dry heat cooking method, the food being cooked does not use water to * Water soluble nutrients are lost if the water in which food is boiled is
cook the food. The food is left dry and heat is applied to cook the food. discarded.
These cooking methods generally use higher temperature than moist heat Principles/guidelines of boiling
cooking method because air, fat and metal can be heated to temperature * Enough liquid should be used to cover the food.
much higher than boiling point of water. * The food should not be over-boiled in order not to lose the nutrients.
* To ensure the well cooked food, the food must be cut evenly to prevent
Moist {Wet} Method of Cooking breakage.
Moist method - is a method whereby liquid is used as a medium to cook the * The food items should be completely immersed throughout the process.
food, such medium could be water or oil. These liquid are added to the food
before heat is applied to it or sometimes heat is applied to the liquid before STEWING
the food is added into the cooking utensil to be cooked. Stewing – It is a slow long method of cooking food in a small amount of
The moist heat cookery methods include: boiling, stewing, steaming, frying, liquid over a gentle heat. Or Stewing is a long and slow method of cooking
poaching, basting etc. using a lot of liquid. Different kinds of vegetables are chopped, diced or
cubed are added to the pot.
176 177
Sometimes pieces of meat, chicken and fish is also chopped and added to the Prepare gravy with palm oil, onion, pepper and tomatoes.
stew. This method is also used when preparing fruits that are going to be Add boiled beans to gravy and other seasoning.
served as desserts. Cover saucepan and allow simmering under a reduced heat.
Foods that can be stewed Serve with fried ripped plantain or boiled rice.
Mushrooms, carrots, yam, onions, beans, peppers and tomatoes. HOW TO PREPARED PALAVER SAUCE
Advantages
* Economic on fuel Ingredients
* Nutrients are conserved. ½ cup egusi
1 large smoked salmon
* Tough foods are tenderized.
Ginger
* The cooking liquid is served with the food therefore nutrient loss is
Cocoyam leaves ( nkontomire)
reduced. Garlic
* It needs little attention and therefore save time and energy. 3 red chillies
Disadvantages Palm oil
* Stewing takes a long time to cook. Spices
* Its slow method of cooking destroy vitamin C. Vegetables (large onion, tomatoes)
* Some of the vegetables might be overcooked and thus the nutrients content Method of preparation
becomes much loss. Wash all vegetables
Principles/ guidelines for stewing Wash the leaves thoroughly with lukewarm water
* The food should be cut into small size. Cut the nkontomire leaves into strips and boil with enough water.
* Cover the saucepan in order to keep flavor. Blend tomatoes, onion, pepper, ginger, and garlic together
* A tight fitting lid is important to retain steam. Heat palm oil in a saucepan over medium heat.
* Temperature must be well controlled. Pour oil into saucepan and set over medium-high heat.
Sauté sliced onions for 3 minutes
HOMEWORK Add blended ingredient and allow cooking for about 5minutes
Remove bones from salmon and cut into cubes and add to stew
1. Make a picture album of boiled foods and stewed foods and present for
Add the spices.
appraisal.
Put egusi in a bowl, add water, salt and stir to form a paste.
2. Draw two dishes that can be boiled and stewed and present for appraisal. Add to stew and allow simmering for 3-5 minutes
PRACTICAL Drain the water from the kontomire and add to stew
HOW TO PREPARED BEANS STEW Allow simmering under low heat for 5-7 minutes
Serve with cooked yam or rice.
Ingredient
Beans. HOW TO PREPARED JOLLOF RICE
Palm oil
Ingredients
Pepper Meat
Salt Rice
Onion
Tomatoes
Tomatoes. Spices
Method of preparation Onion
Pick, wash and boil beans in water until it is soft. Add salt to taste. Salt
Wash and cut onion and tomatoes separately. Grind pepper. Carrot
178 179
Method of preparing SKILLS FOR MAKING ARTIFACTS/PRODUCTS IN
Wash meat and cut into pieces. SEWING AND CROCHETING
Fry meat in oil.
Put meat into saucepan, add water and salt, cover and place on fire. INDIVIDUAL PROJECT WORK (HAND STITCHING)
Slice onions, grind pepper and tomatoes. Fry and add to the meat. Project (whip stitch)
Pick and wash rice, and add almost when meat is tender. 1. Knot the end of your thread -starting 2.Go around the edge and poke
Boil under a reduced heat until both meat and rice is cooked, stirring from the middle of two layers, poke through the top layer, then into the
occasionally serve hot. your needle through the bottom layer same hole out the bottom from where
EXERCISE about 1/8 – ¼ from the edge. you started to make a loop
1. List six (6) skills needed in preparing food for eating.
2. Give six (6) reasons for cooking food before eating.
3. Write the two main classification of cooking food. Give three examples
under each.
4a. What is boiling.
b. List ten (10) examples of foods that can be boiled.
5. State three types of boiling food. 3. Poke through the top hole again, 4. Moving diagonally with your needle
6. State three advantage of choosing boiling over stewing method of cooking going through just the top layer between the two layers, poke the
7a. Aunty Ama is our new canteen madam. She cooks food this morning in a needle out the opposite side 1/8 – ¼
small amount of liquid over a gentle heat and took a long time for the away from the first stitch
food to cook.
i. Which method of cooking does our new canteen madam used to cook
the food.
ii. State two disadvantage of such method of cooking.
8. Identify and classify the different methods of cooking under moist
method and dry method.
9. List the ingredients and method of preparing boiled rice.
5. Bring the thread around the outer 6. Pull the floss so that it is resting along
10. List the ingredients and method of preparing palava sauce. edge to the opposite side, 1/8 – ¼ the edge of the fabric, snug, but not
11. State two advantages and two disadvantages of boiled and stewed foods. away from the first stitch, moving too tight.
HOME WORK II diagonally between the two layers
again
Answer the following questions on Picture A
1a. State the type of cooking method used in preparing each of the foods.
b. How many stews do you see in the picture?

7. Continue to make whip stitches along 8. At the last stitch go back through the
the edge-they should be parallel to same hole at the top instead of
each other and will be at a slight angle continuing to stitch diagonally
180 181

9. Bring the needle around the edge
again, into the bottom layer-knot off
the end on the inside
HOME WORK II
1. Make a stitch sampler and mount it on a white fabric/ handkerchief for
exhibition. Student can design any of these.
10. When the fabric is flattened open,
you should see even diagonally
stitches along the seam
MAKING OF CARD BOARD OR PAPER MOCK UPS
GROUP PRACTICAL WORK
Mock-upup is a full sized structural model built to scale chiefly for study,
testing, or display.
Guidelines
* Divide the class into groups. Let each group choose one of the structures
structure
below or they can come out with their own structure.
* Each group should organise
rganise their
the card board or paper as the main materials
in place for the work.
* Each group should Use their ir own cutting list together with the working
drawing to undertake the measuring, marking out and cutting of the
various parts of the
he design using appropriate tools and equipment.
* Each group should check
heck the various parts and dimensions to ensure an
accurate surface development of the artifact.
* Fold the parts of the surface developed to obtain the required artifact.
* Use appropriate
opriate jointing materials, tools to complete the required artifact.
* Apply a suitable finish on the artifact
* Test and evaluate artifact for modifications.
Examples of artifacts

HOME WORK
2. Make specimen or samples of basic sewing stitches individually. Present
specimens for appraisal.
3. Use internet and ICT tools to research for types of stitches (sewing and
crocheting) and present for appraisal.
nity and interview them on the
4. Visit a seamstress or a tailor in your community
types of stitches (sewing and crocheting) they use and present in class for
appraisal.

182 183
 CAREER PATHWAYS AND CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
EVALUATE OWN LEARNING STYLES, INTERESTS AND
REASONS FOR PURSUING CAREER TECHNOLOGY
Different people have different learning styles. Style refers to a student’s
specific
cific learning preferences and actions. One student may learn more
effectively from listening to the teacher. Another learns more effectively
from reading the textbook, while another student benefits most from charts,
graphs, and images the teacher presents during teaching. So like pursuing
career is everyone has his/her interest and reasons.
Therefore,
re, choosing career base on your learning style, interest and reasons
is very important.
Examples of career technology

184 185

1. What do you think about the jobs/vocations and professions?
2. Which ones are you interested in?
3. Do you have the necessary knowledge/skills and aptitude for the job?
186
REASONS FOR STUDYING CAREER TECHNOLOGY
* To determine my future career path based on my interest and ability.
* To have a distinctive knowledge of the various courses available.
* To know how to handle basic tools/equipment and how to use material
efficiently.
* To acquire basic knowledge, skills and values to function in society.
* To understand and solve real life problems since content is built around
problems in the society.
* To known various field with a huge career choices.
* To have a good foundational knowledge of the concept of career
technology.
* Opportunity to understand the importance of studying the concept of career
technology.
Biases and beliefs, as a male or female, about some vocations
Vocation bias - can be defined as an implicit assumption that certain careers
are more appropriate for one gender than another. Examples are:
* Women are not to offer courses such as building construction, mechanical
engineering, carpentry, plumbing.
* Men are not supposed to study courses such as food and nutrition, home
management, hair dressing etc.
* Studying course like business, science and mathematics are for men.
* Women are good in reading or English course than men.
* Men should not pursue educational pathways in vocational education.
EXERCISE
1. Give three importance of knowing your own learning style and interest.
2. Explain why we need to consider our interests before choosing a career.
3. What are the beliefs, biases and stereotypes about careers engaged in by
females and males in your community?
4. How do these beliefs, biases and stereotypes limit our inspirations and our
future careers?
Homework Task
1. Find out from the community the various beliefs/biases and stereotypes
about careers that men and women should have. Report in class for further
discussion.
2. Suggest how these stereotypes and biases can be changed.
 ESTABLISHING AND MANAGING A SMALL BUSINESS
ENTERPRISE
‘ENTREPRENEURSHIP’ AND ‘ENTREPRENEUR’
Entrepreneurship is the process, the engagement and the willingness to
organize and execute business ideas. Action, vision, and passion are words
that underlie in every entrepreneurship endeavor and a major factor
of entrepreneurship is risk-taking.
An entrepreneur is someone who plans and operates any business venture
Apostle Kwadwo Sarfo Dr. Kwame Despite Dr. Ernest Ofori Sarpong
in an attempt to make the profit. Or
Entrepreneur is an individual person or a group of person who take
initiative, skill for innovation and bears risk, puts up new viable project
that creates wealth and provides employment opportunity and leads to
growth of all sectors of an economy. He/she performs various activities
by adopting a process of action called entrepreneurship and carries out
creative innovation for fulfilling his objectives.
He or she invests valuable time, money and resources into their enterprise
where there is no guarantee of favorable returns or making of profit.
Entrepreneurs are willing to take on the many risks of implementing their idea,
and to also take on the role as leader of their company or organization. They Dr. Stephen Boateng Dr. Kwaku Oteng Mr. Ibrahim Mahama
assume full responsibility for the execution, success, or failure of the business
Entrepreneurs develop, design, produce, market, and eventually sell FAMOUS TECH ENTREPRENEUR
businesses with the end goal of financial profit. We all are having some live examples such brilliant entrepreneurs such as
Bill gates (Founder of Microsoft), Steve Job (Co-founder of apples), Larry
The concept of entrepreneurship
Page And Sergey Brin (Co-founder of Google), Mark Zurkerberg ( Founder
Entrepreneur Entrepreneurship Enterprise
of facebook), Jack Ma Yun – (Co-founder of Alibaba), Kelvin Systrom –
(Instagram), Caterina Fake – (Co-founder flickr), Jack Dorsey–(Twitter) etc.
Person Process Outcome
Comparison Chart
Pictures of various entrepreneurs Basis for Entrepreneur Entrepreneurship
There are entrepreneurs behind every business in the country, no matter what comparison
the size and scope (think Apostle Kwadwo Sarfo Kantanka, Amponsah Effa, Meaning An entrepreneur is an Entrepreneurship is a
individual or a team thereof, risky activity of
Pokupharma, Dr. Kwaku Owusu Oteng, Kwasi Oppong, Nana Kwadwo
having an innovative idea, and commencing a business
Gyasi, Donyma, Barima Osei Mensah (adinkra pastries), Kwaku Adu- takes every step to turn the usually a start up
Aninkorah - McKeown catering, K Badu – K Badu agro chemicals, Dr. idea into reality, while bearing company, offering
Kwame Kyei (unity oil), Dr. Kwame Despite, Dr. Stephen Boateng, the risks. distinct products and
(Kwabena Kesse), Dr. Ernest Ofori Sarpong, Kennady Agyapong, Harruna services to the target
customers, which may or
Iddrisu, Ibrahim Mahama, Kofi Job, etc.
may not get success.
 What is it? Person who has an idea and Process which gives shape to Advantages
gives shape to it. the idea. * Easy to manage.
Represents An innovator, who chased the A procedure through which * The owner is entitled to all the profit that the sole proprietor collects.
dream, till it becomes true. an innovation is done. * Proprietors maintain direct control of their businesses.
Business He/She is the one who sets up It is the activity, which an * Control over all business decisions remains in the hand of the owner.
Venture the business venture, to turn a entrepreneur undertakes to
concept into reality. set up the business venture. Disadvantages
* Hard to raise money.
BUSSINESS * Sometimes it is difficult to expand the enterprise.
Business is an organized activities aimed specifically at growth and profit. * Proprietorships are personally responsible for all business debts.
This can be one individual or close friend, family members coming together * Sole proprietorships tend to be small, primarily service and retail
to form a certain business and its base on share holding and bear any risk businesses.
associated with those activities. * When the owner dies, the enterprise collapse.
Before one can set-up business, there are business skills one must have and
this include taking the initiative, making things happen, identifying LIMITED LIABILITY
opportunities, creative problem solving, innovating, strategic thinking,
A Limited Liability Company (LLC) is business structure that provides the
making decision, networking and personal effectiveness.
limited liability protection features of a corporation and the tax efficiency
To be able to see the total picture of the business in terms of what it should
and operational flexibility of a partnership.
be set up, what needs to be done, how it will be done, and when it will be
Unlike shareholders in a corporation, LLC’s owners are not taxed as a
done, it is necessary to establish a written plan. This will help to clarify the
separate business entity. Instead, all profits and losses are “passed through”
situation and permit decision to be made as to whether to engage in activities
the business to each member of the LLC. LLC members report profits and
that will result in a business being set up or not.
losses on their personal federal tax returns, just like the owners of a
In the case of business ventures, it is through planning that indication on
partnership would.
whether there will be profit or losses will be made available.
The owners of an LLC have no personal liability for the obligations of the
Some product based business ventures. LLC. An LLC is the entity of choice for a businesses seeking to flow
Some product based business ventures – manufacturing of cars, production through losses to its investors because an LLC offers complete liability
of dress material, watches, medicine, cream, soap, chemicals, building protection to all its members.
materials, furniture, cooking ware, etc.
Advantages of LLC
* Pass-through taxation
Forms of Business
* No restrictions on the number of members allowed
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP (sole owner business) * Members have flexibility in structuring the company management
Is the small registered business control and run by the entrepreneur, or a sole * Does not require as much annual paperwork or have as many formalities as
proprietorship is a business owned by one individual. Thus he/she is the corporations.
owner and general manager of the business. A distinct disadvantage, * Owners are not personally responsible for business debts and liabilities
however, is that the owner of a sole proprietorship remains personally liable
Disadvantages of an LLC
of all the business’s debt. So if a sole proprietor business runs into financial
* More expensive to form than sole proprietorships and general partnership.
trouble, creditor can bring lawsuit against the business owner. If such suits
* Ownership is typically harder to transfer than with a corporation.
are successful, the owner will have to pay the business debts with his/her
* Limited Life.
own money.
 PARTNERSHIP DIFFERENT TRADES
This involves two or more partners coming together to form a certain business. There are different trades regarded as a long term or lifelong activity. These
It is also a type of business organization in which two or more individual pool included; welding, hairdressing, car washing, catering, masonry, carpentry,
money, skills and other resources, and share profit and loss in accordance with tiling, mechanical engineering, plumbing, painting and decoration, metal
terms of the partnership agreement. crafts, etc.
Advantages
* Easy to expand the business.
* Each partner can bring his/her skills or ideas to improve the business.
* Others are there to supervise, in case of anything.
Disadvantages
* How the profit is be shared.
* There will always be conflict.
* Disagreements among partners can harm partnership businesses.
* Who makes decision?
* Who is responsible for what aspect of the operation? Shoe making Hairdressing

COOPERATIVES
A cooperative is a business or organization owned by and operated for the benefit
of those using its services. Profits and earnings generated by the cooperative are
distributed among the members, also known as user-owners. Typically, an elected
board of directors and officers run the cooperative while regular members have
voting power to control the direction of the cooperative. Members can become
part of the cooperative by purchasing shares, though the amount of shares they
hold does not affect the weight of their vote.
Masonry Baking

Plumbing Car servicing


Car washing
Vulcanizing
*Masonry - is the building of structure from brick and block which are often
laid in and bound together by mortar.
*Carpentry - is the skill of constructing and repairing framework and structures
such as stairways, doorframe, partition, and rafters
*Hairdressing - referring to someone whose occupation is to cut or style hair
in order to change or maintain a person's image. This is achieved using a
combination of hair cutting, hair coloring, and hair texture techniques.
*Plumbing – is the skill of using pipes, valves, tanks, and other apparatuses
to convey fluids.
*Tiling – refers to the process of laying tiles, slabs of similar shape on roofs,
wall or other surfaces such as countertops.
*Mechanical engineering – Mechanical engineers design a wide range of
machines and related machine parts. They develop things that include small
devices and parts and large systems such as spacecraft.
*A fashion designer - creates clothing, accessories, jewelry, footwear,
costumes, and more. These can be wearable items for men, women, children,
teens, dogs, cats, and even dolls and action figures. This is a highly
competitive field; however, if you specialize in a niche area, you can
improve your chances for success. Most people who enter this field are
highly passionate about fashion and draw inspiration from numerous
personal experiences and influences.
*Catering - Catering is a business of providing food service at a remote site
or a site such as hotel, hospital, party, schools, Pub, aircraft or event venue.
*Welding - is a common process for joining metals using a large variety of
applications. Welding processes are fairly simple to understand, and basic
techniques can be learned quickly. A welder is skilled trademan who joins
metal together, or fills and repairs holes on metal constructions through the
use of intense heat and gas.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR
Entrepreneur characteristics are qualities that help entrepreneur achieve their
goals. Successful entrepreneur have many character in common with one
another. These are the characteristics of an entrepreneur in relation to:
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1. Teamwork - Teamwork drives the successful completion of a project. No
one can complete a project on their own; they need others to contribute.
There are functions that can be performed individually, but more often than
not, an engineer will be part of a bigger team, and must be able to work well
therein.
2. Continuous learning - Technology and methodologies are constantly
changing, and nowhere is this truer than in engineering. A successful
engineer is able to keep abreast of the latest technological updates and
capable of delivering the best value and quality work. In modern times
technology changes quickly, so it is critical to constantly learn and stay up to
date. Successful engineers never assume they know everything.
3. Creativity - It may sound clichéd, but successful engineers have an innate
ability to 'think outside the box'. The engineering industry runs on the ability
to creatively solve problems. Engineers able to bring passion, creative
solutions and big ideas to the table are more valuable as businesses depend
on creativity to efficiently resolve problems or improve the efficiency of
existing systems and processes.
4. Problem solving - Any project, no matter how big or small, will face
problems. An engineer must be able to effectively address these as they
arise. They must meticulously study the problem, fully understand the
impact it has on the project, and then apply their analytical skills in a
methodical and efficient way in order to identify the root cause.
5. Analytical ability - The ability to effectively solve problems goes hand-
in-hand with the ability to properly analyse problems. Engineers are required
to think analytically in order to create solutions.
6. Communication skills - is more than reading, writing, speaking or
listening. For an engineer it means the ability to not only understand
technical complexities, but the ability to succinctly and effectively translate
technical jargon into layman’s terms without patronising others.
Engineers communicate with people at many different levels, from unskilled
workers to directors. The ability to communicate in a respectful, clear and
concise manner is critical to ensure that the core message is effectively
relayed.
7. Logical thinking - To fully comprehend complex systems an engineer
must understand all aspects of the system. An engineer must know how the
system works, what can go wrong and how to fix it. This requires an ability
to think logically, and evaluate and understand each element that makes it
up.Successful engineers are naturally curious and always looking for ways to
make things better. They have to be able to analyse an existing system to
understand how the different pieces work individually and as a unit.
8. Attention to detail - Successful engineers pay meticulous attention to the
smallest of details. They understand that the slightest error may cause a
structure to fail, a system to malfunction or software to glitch. The smallest
error can cost a significant amount of money or, in some cases, be fatal.
9. Mathematical ability - Engineers must be well-versed in trigonometry
and calculus in order to use software packages and be able to interpret the
results derived from them. They must be able to understand the type of
calculations required to ensure the correct type of simulation is performed,
and that models are correctly defined when performing simulations.
HAIRDRESSING
Friendliness - Styling is just one part of the job. You'll also need to build
relationships with everyone who comes to you: The clients will be the
deciding factor of whether or not you stay in business. You'll need to able to
make small talk, ask good questions, and genuinely care about the happiness
and trials in their lives. Hairstylists are seen as a type of therapist—or at least
a friend—and it's easy to see why. The interaction makes it very easy for a
client to open up and chat.
Patience- Dealing with people can be difficult, and there are plenty of times
you'll be frustrated with customers. Calming them down and working with
them is just something you'll need to master on a regular basis. No, the
customer isn't always right, but maintaining a good attitude and cheerful
demeanor throughout even the most difficult of ordeals will demonstrate
your professionalism and get respect from everyone around you.
Strong attention span - You may have a vision for people, but that doesn't
mean that they'll love your ideas as much as you do. Once you learn the
quirks of your clients, you'll have an easier time deciding and suggesting.
However, at the beginning, you'll need to be prepared to listen to and do
exactly what the client wants you to do
Tactful and persuasive - If you feel like you know what a particular look
should be for someone, you need to be able to suggest it without coming off
as pushy, and then give some solid reasons for your thoughts. Never be
aggressive, and read his or her body language to see when you should give
up. Sometimes it doesn't take much to upset someone, and they won’t
hesitate to find a new stylist. As you grow in your field, people will begin to
trust you more, and you can start doing the work you want to do.
Clean and neat - This one may seem silly, but you'll need to make yourself and
your station presentable at all times. If you can't keep your own hair looking
great, then why should other people trust you with theirs? Everything about you
should say professional and competent. The same goes for your chair. Clean up
between clients and keep your tools tidy and in order.
CAR WASHING
Be Personable – have the character of willingness to treat customers
as unique individuals, open to connecting with them on a personal level.
Offer Eye Contact - Human beings instinctively recognize eye contact and
customers feel more connected and engaged when it is offered.
Be friendly - A warm, friendly greeting each visit goes a long way in
building trust and loyalty with your customers. Ask your employees to
practice making casual, cheerful conversation with one another and do your
best to help them maintain this attitude during their time at work.
Maintain Appearance- maintain a clean, tidy appearance, wear the staff
uniform, and tuck in shirts.
Enthusiastic - Enthusiasm and excitement are highly contagious. If you
want your customers to be excited about your wash services, your employees
need to be excited about them first. You can help your employees show
enthusiasm by fostering a fun, cheerful work environment. Hiring employees
with naturally enthusiastic personalities will help!
Observant - When a customer needs assistance they shouldn’t have to go
looking for it and become irritated in the process. Train your employees to
notice situations in which a customer may need assistance and be proactive
in approaching them and initiating contact.
Appreciative - Your customers and their satisfaction is your wash’s
lifeblood, so it’s important to make sure each visitor who has contact with
your employees knows that you appreciate their business! A simple “thanks
for stopping by!” as car owners drive away from the vacuums or enter the
wash goes a long way towards creating repeat business.
Have Ambition and Confidence - A confident salesperson is a more
successful salesperson, and an ambitious employee is far more likely to work
hard to please customers - and their boss. Train your employees to work
towards up-sells and membership sales and consider offering bonuses,
vacation days or other rewards to employees who are most successful. Give
your team something to strive for!
CATERING
1. Ability to pay attention to detail - A good caterer must have the ability to
pay attention to details. Food preparation is an art.
2. Excellent organizational skills - able to organize everything to ensure that
things run smoothly in an event.
3. Ability to communicate with others - Caterers must have the ability to
communicate effectively with the people that they will be working with and
to those that they will be working for.
4. Ability to handle pressure- The best caterers must have the ability to
handle pressure. There can be a lot of pressure in the kitchen. Good caterers
are those who can respond to this pressure positively.
5. Time-management skills
6. The ability to multitask
7. A friendly, hospitable personality
8. An extensive knowledge of ingredients.
9. A high level of written and verbal communication skills
10. Natural leadership and motivational skills
11. Knowledge of social and religious cultures and customs
12. Proficiency in basic accounting principles
13. Good negotiating skills
14. Quick thinking and problem-solving skills
MASONRY
Proper Knowledge - One of the most important things for a bricklayer is the
knowledge that he has on actually doing the task. This does not only mean
with bricklaying but other construction and masonry related knowledge as
well since there is a lot to keep in mind when laying bricks such as the which
materials are right, what position the bricks are to be placed, the
measurements and stability of what they are working on and much more. In
depth knowledge is required to make sure they know what they are handling,
what they are working on and how it will remain sturdy and upright and how
to proceed with the job.
Actual Experience - Knowledge is good but add experience and you already
have the great potential for a bricklayer since the knowledge alone is good
but with experience acquired through practice and previous works, this
improves the overall quality of the work they do. A person who has
experience will learn from their mistakes, learn to improve and learn how to
do their best which leads to greater results after a job is complete
Mental & Physical Fitness - You need to be able to think and work at the
same time since you need your mind for calculating, measure and thinking to
be able to work continuously if you aim to go brick by brick without error.
You need to have physical fitness and endurance as you will be handling
equipment and the materials themselves which overtime will definitely begin
to be felt sooner or later.
Precision - A bricklayer should know how the structure is to be built and
should know the necessary steps when it comes to handling equipment,
preparing and laying bricks as well as checking every now and then to make
sure nothing is wrong.
Attitude - It is very important to have a good attitude which means talking
to your client, showing up to work and clarifying things when needed is
necessary at all times. The better your attitude, the easier you and your client
will get along and the faster things can be accomplished. A client wants to be
able to communicate properly with a bricklayer in order to clarify what they
want built, how they want it built and of course additional details such as
source of resources and most importantly the payment and terms.
Communication skills - A good bricklayer should be able to communicate
well with the client, prepare everything needed, make the necessary
arrangements and carry out the job without any unnecessary delay.
 CARPENTRY
Mechanically and numerically skilled - Mechanical skills are required in
carpentry. Carpenters use tools and machines from ladders to power saws.
They must know how to operate them, as well as make necessary repairs and
maintenance. Mathematical skills improve a carpenter’s accuracy and
attention to detail. In carpentry, there are materials and objects to measure,
blueprints to read, and costs to calculate. Usually, apart from arithmetic, they
employ algebra and geometry most of the time, although knowledge in
calculus and statistics is preferable.
Strong and enduring - Physical strength and endurance are the most
common skills of a carpenter. The lifting, wielding, and moving of materials
and tools are essential parts of the job. Carrying loads of up to a hundred
pounds is ordinary. Likewise, carpenters stand, climb, bend, and kneel for
long periods. They must have a strong stamina to endure the physicality of
the job. Strength and endurance require a healthy body, so, carpenters must
be prepared to face the demands and withstand the stress of the job.
Verbal and written communication skills - Being able to communicate
well with clients and other builders is important. Able to explain technical
information or problems with the client. Passing information clearly with
other carpenters or project workers avoids issues.
Math skills. Because carpenters use basic math skills every day, they need
to be able to calculate volume and measure materials to be cut.
Problem-solving skills. Because all construction jobs vary, carpenters must
adjust project plans accordingly. For example, they may have to use wedges
to level cabinets in homes that have settled and are sloping slightly.
EXERCISE I
1. Define entrepreneur and entrepreneurship
2. Explain the concept of entrepreneurship with the help of a diagram.
3. What is an enterprise/business?
4. List and explain the four forms of business you know.
5. State any six form of different trade regard as a long term or lifelong
activity.
THE CHARACTERISTICS THAT LEAD TO A SUCCESSFUL
ENTREPRENEUR
There are many options that come with an effective entrepreneur that lead to
his/her essential success. Many factors contribute to a successful
entrepreneur. The quality of your equipment, a great location, effective
marketing strategies all play a part. But in the midst of all these financial or
physical investments, it’s important that entrepreneur don’t neglect one of
their greatest characteristics:
Entrepreneur Entrepreneur
-Opportunity seeking and initiative - An entrepreneur is someone who
seeks opportunities. Where other people see problems, entrepreneurs see
opportunities and take the initiative to transform these opportunities into
profitable business situations. Take action to extend the business into new
areas, products or services; and seize unusual opportunities to start a new
business, obtain financing, equipment, land, work space or assistance.
-Goal setting - This is the most important competency because none of the
rest will function without it. Entrepreneurs know what they want. They know
where they’re going in business. They’re always thinking about the future
and set goals and set goals and objectives which are personally meaningful
and challenging.
-Risk taking - Taking risks is one of the primary concepts in
entrepreneurship, the element that makes them entrepreneurs. They are
willing to take risks. They deliberately calculate risks and evaluate
alternatives, take action to reduce risks and/or control outcomes; and place
themselves in situations involving a challenge or moderate risk.
-Perseverance and persistence – not giving up and always persevere
through setbacks and failure. Entrepreneurs have the determination to
persevere in the face of obstacles. When most people tend to abandon an
activity, entrepreneurs stick with it. Take persistent actions, or switch to an
alternative strategy to meet a challenge or obstacle and take personal
responsibility for the performance necessary to achieve goals and objectives.
-Planning - Planning is deciding what you are going to do. Monitoring
means checking. It is, in fact, what a business plan is for: to see if something
is feasible prior to trying it. Plan by breaking large tasks down into sub-tasks
with clear time-frames.
-Information seeking - Entrepreneurs do not like uncertainty or
assumptions. They don’t like to count on others for information. It seems
that an entrepreneur spends a lot of time gathering information about their
clients, suppliers, technology and opportunities.
-Self-confidence – confident with the knowledge that will make the business
succeed. They exude that confidence in everything they do. Being confident
in your skills as an entrepreneur can make or break your success in this
career. If you don’t trust your own decisions and capabilities, what makes
you think your team will trust you? The lack of self-confidence will take its
toll on the morale of your colleague, and demotivate them from helping you
attain your vision.
Skills needed by successful entrepreneur
Communication skills – possessing the ability to read, write and speaking
in an understandable, accurate and professional manner.
-Problem solving skills – the ability to assess situation and make good
decision. Entrepreneurs often start their businesses after identifying a
problem and then coming up with a way to address it. Entrepreneurs are
also able to figure out how to solve problems that will occur during the
development of the business
Human relations skill – the ability to build and maintain positive
relationships, working well with others.
Maths skills – knowledge about basic arithmetic and business math skills
such as calculating profit.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BEING
AN ENTREPRENEUR
To everything in life there are advantages and disadvantages:
entrepreneurship is no exception. As a matter of fact, entrepreneurship
evolves a lot of risk taking; yet, it can pay off every well, with rewards such
as profit, the opportunity to be your own boss and makes your own
decisions.
Advantage of being an entrepreneur
There are many advantages for working in an entrepreneurial venture. Some
of them include:
* Self-management - It's the ability to take responsibility for your own
actions, set personal goals for yourself and manage your time to ensure you
do things to the best of your capacity.
* Employment creation. Some entrepreneurs directly create jobs for
themselves, first as self-employed and for other employees by recruiting
more positions for their business.
* To accommodate a desired lifestyle.
* To achieve financial independence.
Disadvantage
However, there are many disadvantage too, such:
* Irregular income stream - The income is considered irregular when the
payments are not made on a regular schedule. An individual may receive
income on an irregular or sporadic basis. Examples of irregular income
include day labor, on-call work (such as substitute teaching), craft sales
* Difficulty in securing Funds - Launching a business comes with a lot of
obstacles, but for entrepreneurs who have been through it, one challenge
stands out in their mind: financing.
* Tax Implications - No matter which country an entrepreneur is, there are
certain set of tax-related conditions involved in the business. It means the
person has to obey the tax rules set by jurisdiction. The majority of people
have pretty low knowledge about taxes in the beginning, especially the
young ones. So, it is vital that the person also understands the set of tax rules
that set in their country. Having a detailed knowledge about them is a very
important thing that needs to have.
 CAREER TECHNOLOGY ENTREPRENEURSHIP 2. Group the class into number of entrepreneur listed above.
3. Let each group interact with one entrepreneur:
Career Technology Entrepreneurship (CTE) - is an innovative application of * Collect the entrepreneur contact for verification.
technical science and knowledge either by an individual or by a group of * Write the name of their popular enterprises sighted in the locality.
persons, who create and manage a business and is ready to undertake
4. Each group should find out the following:
financial risk in order to achieve certain goals and perspectives. i) How the business was started.
Examples of Career Technology entrepreneur ii) The challenges the business is facing.
Apostle Kwadwo Sarfo Kantanka – Mechanical engineering iii) Solutions to the challenges.
Kwaku Adu-Aninkorah – McKeown catering service 5. Each group should write down the findings for presentation in class.
Joseph and Felicia – Jofel catering service
Barima Osei Mensah – Adinkra pastries service
Faustina Adjagar – First choice hair and beauty. EXERCISE II
Halamasad – Spa and beauty salon 1. What is Limited Liability Company?
Solomon Tetteh Okletey - Soklet business Ghana (carpentry) 2. State and explain three main sources of finance for each of the ff
Adzigbi Nana Ama Comfort – Namas décor (female carpenter) enterprise
Kpogas 3. Give three advantages of sole proprietorship over limited liability business
Benjamin Tome – Heavy drop plumbing 4. Three teachers in basic school wish to team up to open carpentry
Charles Owusu – Coppel company business
a. List three possible types of business unit they can form
Role these people play in the nation’s development b. State the advantages and disadvantages of coming together to form this
* Increase in the rate of growth in GDP (Total value of goods and services business unit.
produced in an economy in a year) c. List two sources of finance available for them to raise capital
* Increasing productivity. 5. Match the entrepreneur with his/her enterprise from the following table
* Providing employment opportunities. given below:
* Increasing economic diversification. 6. Define the words Career Technology Entrepreneurship (CTE)
* Optimal use of available resources. 7. Explain how technological entrepreneurship can contribute to economic
and social development.
ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE LOCALITY
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
1. Let the class list the entrepreneur of the different trade area in their
locality such as
Mechanical engineering -
Welding -
Fitting shop -
Hairdressing -
Car washing -
Catering service -
Construction field -
Block work -
Wood work -
Fashion designing -
 CAREER TECHNOLOGY CAREER TECHNOLOGY
FOR BASIC SCHOOL
FOR BASIC SCHOOL

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