HS 201

World Civilizations and Cultures

Lecture 001
Semester 1 (2023-24)

Harappan Civilization:
Characteristics, Material
Culture and Society

V.N. Prabhakar, IIT Gandhinagar

Extent of Harappan Civilization
c. 2600 – 1900 BCE
 Major Cities/Urban Centers
Harappa, Pakistan,+150 ha
Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan+250 ha
Lakhanjodaro, Pakistan, +300 ha
Dholavira, India, +100 ha
Ganweriwala, Pakistan, 40-80 ha
Rakhigarhi, India, + 350 ha?
Photo courtesy M. Jansen

Regional Towns
10-50 ha sites – Kalibangan

Small Towns

5-10 hectare sites – Lothal, Kot Diji

Villages: 1-5 ha sites

Hamlets: >1-1 ha sites Map courtesy of V. Shinde Deccan College
Layout of settlements
Two major crops

Rabi or spring harvested crop is planted in the

winter and watered by winter rains, while the

Kharif is planted in the summer, during or after

the monsoon and harvested before winter
Paddy rice

Barley Wheat Finger millet

 Two directions
of furrow
Mustard and
gram

Ploughed field from Kalibangan

Terracotta model of yoke, Nausharo

a rd
Must

Ho
rs
eg
Terracotta model of ra
m
plough, Banawali Modern field near site
Major domestic animal species

• Humped zebu cattle (Bos indicus), non-

humped cattle (Bos taurus), and water
buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Goat Ram Elephant

Wild animals as possible pets – rabbits, peacocks,

pheasants, partridge and quail, hawks, pigeons, ducks,
jungle fowl (chicken), monkeys, squirrels

Wild animals – tiger, leopard, rhinoceros, crocodile,

gharial, elephant, water buffalo, antelope, deer, etc.,
onager (Equus hemionus), wild ass
Dog
• Fishing – marine and riverine fish and
shellfish

• Net fishing and hook-and-line fishing in

oxbow lakes or ponded areas – coastal Ancient
fisherfolk dried fish and collected shells for
trade to the inland centres

Modern

Terracotta net sinkers

Fortification
Sun baked bricks

Brick core and stone

veneering in Kachchh, Saurashtra and
Makran sites

Multi-coloured bricks indicate community

participation
North Gate, Dholavira
Mohenjo-daro, Great Bath (12 X 7 X 2.5 m)
and Great Hall sequence - Great Bath drain
cuts through the edge of the platform of
the Great Hall

Granary, with air ducts or

passageways

Loading platform
South Reservoir, Dholavira
65 X 8.9 X 8.36 m
Partly rock-cut and masonry made
East Reservoir, Dholavira
78 X 35 X 10 m
Stairs leading to the bottom on three
sides, fourth side (SW) is spill way

Step-well inside the East

Reservoir
Dockyard (217 X 37 X 4.25 m), Lothal
Mohenjo-daro household with courtyard
and various house plans

Sun dried bricks or baked bricks 7 X 14

X 28 cm for buildings; 10 X 20 X 40 cm
for fortifications

Floors were of hard packed earth, often

replastered and covered with clean sand

Bathing areas generally of baked bricks

or stone

Roof consisted of wooden beams

covered with reeds and packed clay
Standardisation of bricks
Ceramics
Transportation system
Lapidary
Superior technology
Weighing system
 8 gunja seeds = smallest
weight = ~ 1gm
Standardised Weights throughout the
entire region – double as they increase
from

1 : 2 : 4 : 8 : 16 : 32 etc
16th ratio = 13.7 gm
Metallurgy: Copper-Bronze
Specialisation in shell crafts

Bangles
Turbinella pyrum
Multi-grooved bangle

Chevron design

Bowl
Shell working
Female burials with
shell bangles
Faience Technology
Stoneware bangles
External Trade
Door from Harappa toy house and from Mohenjo-daro,
HR Area and modern door with screen wall
Windows, doors and grills work with
wood and mat
 Wooden components in architecture
• Highly complemented the brick and stone architecture
• Gateway doors, pillar columns, doors, windows, furniture, and
others of wood
• Typical hard woods and aromatic cedar used for buildings and
furniture
o Shisham (Dalbergia sisoo)
o Dark heartwood, which is termite resistant suitable for doors, windows
and furniture even today
o Deodar (Cedrus deodara) not found in plains, and comes from Himalayas
Square stamp seals
Sealings
Characteristics of the script

• 400 to 450 signs

• Logosyllabic (morphemic) systems,

where a single sing can mean either a
word, a syllable or a sound

• Some signs look like pictographs and

many represent an ideographic system

• Written from right to left

• Decipherment unsuccessful so far in the

absence of bilingual and lengthy
inscription
Indus Numerals

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

2X4=8
3 X 4 = 12
4 X 4 = 16
5 X 4 = 20
6 X 4 = 24
Indus Writing

• Not yet deciphered, various claims for different

languages are Indo-Aryan, Sino-Tibetan, proto-
Dravidian (?), Mundari (?), Language “X” –
unproven

• Could be multi-lingual and multi-ethnic society,

hence same script used for writing different
dialects and language variations

• Written from right to left – used for economic,

ritual and personal identification purposes

• Found on square seals, used for trade and ritual

purposes

• Faience, steatite or terracotta tokens, accounting

Evidence for metallurgy
Copper and Bronze
 Religion
• No clear-cut evidence for religious shrine or temple from Indus
context
• Undeciphered script and absence of substantial written records
also a hindrance in understanding the religion
• Sir John Marshall opines based on ‘Proto-Siva’ seal and phallic
objects from Mohenjo-daro that Hinduism had its roots in Indus
Civilization
• Several objects like terracotta female figurines, phalli, vulvas,
horned deities, trees, bathing platforms, fire altars are suggested
as evidence for religion
Terracotta tablets – sacred pipal tree as
temple, processions with worshippers
wearing skirts
Pasupati or Proto-Siva seal
Deity with buffalo horn headgear

‘Deity’ with horned

headdress
Plain pottery filled with
food offerings, some
wooden bowls with
offerings for men and
women

No seals or inscribed
objects

No high-value objects such

as copper tools and
ornaments of gold and
long carnelian beads, no
pointed base goblets,
cooking pots or heavily
decorated storage jars
Kalibangan, Extended
and Pot burials
Harappan artefacts from
Mesopotamian sites
Thank You