INTERNSHIP PROJECT REPORT

On

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

SUBMITTED BY:
SIDDHARTH

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:

MR. SANJEEV RANA SIR

TATA POWER DELHI DISTRIBUTION LTD.

JULY-AUGUST 2023

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 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Siddharth, a student of GB PANT DSEU OKHLA
CAMPUS 1 has completed the project on “Communication System” at
Tata Power Delhi Distribution Ltd.
Under the guidance of Mr. Sanjeev Rana Sir during 20th July 2023 – 31st
Aug 2023

Submitted By:
Siddharth
41421057
B.TECH(ECE)
SIGNATURE OF MENTOR GB PANT DSEU OKHLA CAMPUS 1
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Sanjeev Rana Sir whose constant
guidance and motivation throughout the duration of the training
enhanced the present work as it is shown.
I would also like to convey my thanks to Gaurav Gupta sir and Swati
Choudhary ma’am
For their advice and experiences which made the completion of this
report a great success.

sincere thanks to the department of IT Infra: DATA Communication for

giving me this opportunity to gain knowledge and for providing me an
insight into the working of this sector.

Submitted By:
Siddharth

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 INDEX
1. Communication ------------------------------------------------------------Pg 6
2. Types of Communication-------------------------------------------------Pg 7
• Wired – Optical Fibre & PLCC
• Wireless- RF Technology, Cellular Network & RF Mesh
3. Open System Interconnection Layers-------------------------------Pg 10
4. Networking Basics--------------------------------------------------------Pg 12
5. Wired
Chapter 1: Optical Fibre: -----------------------------------------------Pg 14
▫ Optical Fibre technology
▫ Structure of Optical Fibre
▫ Working Principle of Optical Fibre
▫ Working of Optical Fibre
▫ ADSS OFC
▫ Types of Optical Fibre
▫ Pro’s & Conc’s of Optical Fibre
Chapter 2: PLCC-----------------------------------------------------------Pg 23
▫ Power line carrier communication Basics
▫ PLCC Working
▫ PLCC Characteristics
▫ Application
▫ Limitation

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6. Wireless:
Chapter 3: RF Technology-----------------------------------------------Pg 29
▫ What is Microwave
▫ History of microwave
▫ Basic Wireless Communication
▫ Basic Antenna Working
▫ Properties of Microwave
▫ Application
▫ Radio Frequency Spectrum
Chapter 4: Cellular Network-------------------------------------------Pg 36
▫ Cellular Network Basics
▫ FDMA & CDMA
▫ Cell Fundamentals

7.Conclusion --------------------------------------------------------------Pg 41

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 COMMUNICATION
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one
place, person or group to another.

Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message, and a

recipient. This may sound simple, but communication is actually an
overly complex subject.

The transmission of the message from sender to recipient can be

affected by a huge range of things. These include the medium used to
communicate, disturbance and noise.

BASIC BLOCKSET DIAGRAM OF COMMUNICATION:

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TYPE’S OF COMMUNICATION
Wireless and wired communication are two fundamental approaches to
transmitting data and information between devices, systems, or
networks. Here’s an overview of both:

WIRED COMMUNICATION:
Wired technology employs physical cables to transmit data and signals
between devices. It offers reliability and security but may have
installation constraints. Common examples include Ethernet and
coaxial cables, providing stable connections for networks, internet, and
communication systems in this report we are covering optical fibre &
power line carrier communication (PLCC)
Optical Fibre:
Optical fiber is a thin, flexible strand of glass or plastic that carries digital
information using pulses of light. It offers high bandwidth and low signal
loss, making it ideal for transmitting data over long distances at
extremely high speeds. Used in telecommunications and internet
infrastructure, optical fibers enable rapid and reliable data transfer,
powering modern communication networks. The principle of total
internal reflection keeps the light signals within the core of the fiber,
minimizing signal loss.

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 Power line carrier communication (PLCC):
Power Line Carrier communication (PLCC) is a technology that uses
existing power distribution lines to transmit data signals alongside
electrical power. It enables communication between devices over
electrical wiring, eliminating the need for separate communication
infrastructure. PLCC is used for smart grid applications, remote
monitoring, and home automation, offering a cost-effective solution for
data transmission.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Wireless technology enables communication between devices without
physical connections, using radio waves or other wireless signals. It
includes technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks,
allowing convenient and flexible data exchange over short and long
distances, revolutionizing modern communication, and device
connectivity in this report Radio frequency communication, cellular
network & RF mesh are covered.

Radio Frequency Communication:

Radio wave communication employs radio frequencies to transmit

and receive signals carrying data and information. Modulating the
amplitude, frequency, or phase of the waves encodes the information.
Widely used in broadcasting, wireless networking, and mobile
communication, radio waves enable long-range communication by
traveling through the atmosphere and reflecting off surfaces. This
technology has revolutionized global communication, fostering
connectivity and information dissemination across vast distances.

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Cellular Network:

A cellular network is a wireless communication system where

geographic regions are divided into smaller areas called cells. Each cell
is served by a base station that connects mobile devices via radio
waves. This enables seamless voice and data transmission, allowing
users to stay connected while moving. With multiple cells working
together, cellular networks provide extensive coverage and capacity,
forming the backbone of modern mobile communication and
supporting technologies like 4G, 5G, and beyond in the future.

Radio Frequency Mesh:

RF mesh refers to a wireless communication network where devices

are interconnected using radio frequency (RF) signals. These devices,
such as sensors and smart meters, form a mesh topology, allowing
data to hop from one device to another, extending the network's
coverage. RF mesh networks are used in applications like smart grids,
industrial automation, and smart cities, providing reliable connectivity
and efficient data transfer across various devices in a decentralized
manner.

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 OSI Model
The "OSI" (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a
conceptual framework used to understand and standardize how
different networking protocols and technologies interact within a
networked system. The OSI model consists of seven layers, each
responsible for specific functions and interactions in the process of
data communication. These layers are designed to work together to
enable seamless communication between different devices and
systems.

Here's a brief overview of the seven layers of the OSI model:

1.Physical Layer: This layer deals with the physical transmission of

raw data over the physical medium, such as cables or wireless signals.
It defines the electrical, mechanical, and procedural aspects of the
physical connection.
2.Data Link Layer: The data link layer is responsible for creating a
reliable link between two directly connected nodes. It handles error
detection, correction, and flow control to ensure error-free
communication between neighboring devices.
3.Network Layer: The network layer manages the routing of data
packets between devices on different networks. It determines the
optimal path for data to reach its destination and handles logical
addressing and subnetting.
4.Transport Layer: This layer ensures end-to-end communication by
providing error recovery, flow control, and segmentation of data into
smaller units. It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections
between devices.
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5.Session Layer: The session layer manages the communication
sessions or dialogues between applications on different devices. It
handles session establishment, maintenance, and termination, as well
as synchronization and checkpointing.
6.Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for data translation,
encryption, and compression. It ensures that data is presented in a
compatible format for the receiving application and handles any
necessary data transformations.
7. Application Layer: The application layer interacts directly with user
applications. It provides various network services to applications, such
as file transfer, email, remote access, and more.
The OSI model serves as a conceptual framework for understanding
network communication and is not necessarily implemented exactly
as described in all networking technologies. However, it provides a
common language and structure for discussing and designing
networking protocols and systems.

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 Networking Basics
Basics building blocks of a computer network are Nodes and Links. A
Network Node can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication
like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like
connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be
defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.
The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or
protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which
allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP
Address, that helps in identifying a device.
Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks
• Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that
are connected to enable communication and data exchange.
• Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These
can include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and
other devices.
• Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern
how data is transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols
include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
• Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical
arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network
topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
• Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give
permission to take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease

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 from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include Wireless
Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
• IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is
assigned to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to
identify devices and enable communication between them.
• DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to
translate human-readable domain names (such as
www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
• Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and
control incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used
to protect networks from unauthorized access and other security
threats.
Types of Computer Networks
• LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small
area, such as an office or a home. LANs are typically used to
connect computers and other devices within a building or a
campus.
• WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a
large geographic area, such as a city, country, or even the entire
world. WANs are used to connect LANs together and are typically
used for long-distance communication.
• Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a Wide
Area Network (WAN) as they can be hosted on public or private
cloud service providers and cloud networks are available if there
is a demand. Cloud Networks consist of Virtual Routers, Firewalls,
etc.

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 CHAPTER 1: OPTICAL FIBRE
Optical Fibre Technology:

The technique that sends information as light pulses via a glass or plastic
fiber is known as fiber optics, often known as optical fiber.
These glass fibers can range in quantity from a few to several hundred in
a fiber optic cable. The glass fiber core is encircled by a second glass layer
known as cladding. The cladding is shielded by the buffer tube layer, and
the last line of defense for each individual strand is the jacket layer.
Given their benefits over copper lines, fiber optic cables are frequently
employed. Higher bandwidth and transmit speeds are a few of these
advantages.
For long-distance and high-performance data networking, fiber optics
are utilized. Additionally, it is frequently utilized in telecommunications
services like internet, television, and telephones.

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 Structure Of Optical Fibre

An optical fiber comprises of following components -

Core: typically made of glass or plastic, that serves as a conduit for
transmitting light signals. Surrounding the core is the cladding,
Cladding: a layer with a lower refractive index that confines light within
the core through total internal reflection.
A Buffer Coating: further shields the fiber from external influences.
This design enables efficient light propagation, allowing for high-speed
data transmission over extended distances with minimal signal loss. The
intricate structure ensures immunity to electromagnetic interference,
making optical fibers vital in modern telecommunications, internet
connectivity, medical imaging, and various data transmission
applications.

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 Working Principle of Optical Fibre

The basic principle on which optical fibre works is Total Internal

Reflection.

➢ Total internal reflection:

Total internal reflection is a phenomenon in physics that occurs
when a propagating light wave encounters the interface between
two different optical media, and the angle of incidence is such that
the entire wave is reflected into the first medium rather than being
transmitted into the second medium. This phenomenon occurs
when light travels from a medium with a higher refractive index to
a medium with a lower refractive index.

Key points about total internal reflection:

1. Critical Angle: The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which
total internal reflection occurs. It is defined as the angle at which
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 the refracted ray would have an angle of 90 degrees with the
normal line at the interface. If the angle of incidence exceeds the
critical angle, all light is reflected internally.

2. Refractive Index: The refractive index is a measure of how much

a material bends light as it passes through. It's the ratio of the
speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material.

Working Of Optical Fibre

Optical fibers are thin, flexible strands of glass or plastic that transmit
digital data using light signals. These fibers use the principle of total
internal reflection, where light entering the core of the fiber through
full acceptance angle then it is bounced off the cladding, ensuring
minimal signal loss and interference. Data is encoded into light pulses
using modulation techniques.

The light travels through the fiber by constantly reflecting off its walls,
reaching nearly the speed of light. At the receiving end, the light
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 signals are converted back into digital data. Optical fibers are crucial
for high-speed, long-distance communication due to their immense
bandwidth and low signal degradation.

Types of optical fibre

On broad scale classification optical fibres are classified into 2 types –

▪ Single-Mode:
Light enters the optical fiber at a specific incident angle, and full
emission occurs between the optical fiber and the cladding. When
the diameter is small, only one direction of light is allowed to pass
through, which is a Single mode optical fiber. The central glass core
of a Single mode fiber is very thin, the core diameter is generally 8.5
or 9.5 μm, and it works at wavelengths of 1310 and 1550 nm.

▪ Multi-mode :
Multimode fiber is a fiber that allows multiple guided mode
transmission. The core diameter of a multimode fiber is generally
50μm/62.5μm. Because the core diameter of a multimode fiber is
relatively large, it can allow different modes of light to be transmitted
on one fiber. The standard wavelengths of multimode are 850nm
and 1300nm respectively. There is also a new multimode fiber
standard called WBMMF (Wideband Multimode Fiber), which uses
wavelengths between 850nm and 953nm.Both single-mode fiber
and multi-mode fiber have a cladding diameter of 125μm.

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 All dielectric self-supporting OFC.
All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable is a type of optical fiber
cable that is strong enough to support itself between structures
without using conductive metal elements. It is used by electrical
utility companies as a communications medium, installed along existing
overhead transmission lines and often sharing the same support
structures as the electrical conductors.
ADSS is an alternative to OPGW and OPAC with lower installation cost.
The cables are designed to be strong enough to allow lengths of up to
700 m to be installed between support towers. ADSS cable is designed
to be lightweight and small in diameter to reduce the load on tower
structures due to cable weight, wind, and ice.
In the design of the cable, the internal glass optical fibers are supported
with little or no strain, to maintain low optical loss throughout the life
of the cable. The cable is jacketed to prevent moisture from degrading
the fibers. The jacket also protects the polymer strength elements from
the effect of solar ultraviolet light.

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CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
No metal wires are used in an ADSS cable. Optical fibers are either
supported in loose buffer tubes or arranged in a ribbon configuration.
To prevent strain on the fibers, most type of fiber provides excess slack
length compared to the length of the supporting member.
For longer spans, the most common design gets its strength
from aramid fiber yarns, which are coated to prevent water wicking.
The aramid yarn strength member surrounds a core made up of
multiple buffer tubes, each containing multiple fibers, all surrounding a
plastic core. The outer sheath provides protection from water and
sunlight. Another version consists of a large central tube containing
multiple flat, thin structures called fiber ribbons; these consists of 6 or
12 fibers laminated between layers of a tape-like material.
Another type of design uses four glass-reinforced plastic strength
member strands, and loose buffer tubes cabled into an assembly and
protected by a jacket.

Pros & Cons of Optical fibre

Pros of Optical Fiber:
1. High Bandwidth: Optical fibers offer significantly higher data
transmission capacity compared to traditional copper cables, making
them ideal for high-speed internet, video streaming, and data-intensive
applications.
2. Low Signal Loss: Light signals in optical fibers experience minimal
attenuation, allowing data to be transmitted over longer distances
without significant loss of quality.

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3. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: Unlike copper cables,
optical fibers are not affected by electromagnetic interference, ensuring
consistent and reliable data transmission.
4. Security: Optical fibers are difficult to tap into without detection,
providing a more secure medium for transmitting sensitive information.
5. Long Distances: Optical fibers can transmit data over much longer
distances without the need for signal boosters, making them suitable for
long telecommunications.
6. Resistance to Environmental Factors: Optical fibers are less
susceptible to environmental factors such as temperature changes and
moisture, ensuring stable performance.

Cons of Optical Fiber

1. Installation Costs: The initial installation of optical fiber infrastructure
can be expensive due to the specialized equipment and expertise
required.
2. Fragility: Optical fibers are delicate and can be more prone to damage
from bending or physical stress compared to copper cables
3. Complex Maintenance: Maintenance and repairs of optical fiber
systems require specialized training and equipment, potentially
increasing operational costs
4. Limited Flexibility: Optical fibers are less flexible than copper cables,
making them less suitable for applications that require frequent bending
or movement.
5. Compatibility: Some older devices and systems might not be
compatible with optical fiber connections, necessitating additional
converters or adapters.

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6. Power Dependency: Active optical components (such as amplifiers)
require power sources, which might be a limitation in certain remote or
power-constrained environments.
In spite of these drawbacks, the advantages of optical fibers, especially
in terms of speed, bandwidth, and reliability, have made them the
preferred choice for high-performance communication networks.

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 CHAPTER 2: PLCC
Power Line Carrier Communication basics
Power Line Carrier Communication is a technology that involves using
existing power line infrastructure for the transmission of data and
information alongside the distribution of electrical power. This
technology enables data communication over the same power lines
that deliver electricity to homes, businesses, and other facilities. PLC
communication offers several advantages, such as utilizing existing
infrastructure, cost-effectiveness, and broad coverage.

PLC communication works by transmitting data signals at frequencies

higher than the typical frequency range used for power distribution.
This allows the data signals to be superimposed on the power lines
without significantly interfering with the main power signals.
However, there are challenges with PLC technology, including signal
degradation due to noise and attenuation, interference from various
electronic devices, and the need to ensure that the communication
signals do not disrupt the normal functioning of the power grid.

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 As technology continues to evolve, other forms of communication like
wireless technologies (Wi-Fi, cellular, etc.) have gained prominence,
and PLC communication might face competition in certain scenarios.
However, its ability to leverage existing infrastructure makes it an
attractive option in situations where installing dedicated
communication cables or wireless networks might be impractical or
costly.

PLCC WORKING
A basic PLCC network used in power substations. The Power line
carrier Communication (PLCC) uses the existing power infrastructure
for the transmission of data from sending to receiving end. It works in
full duplex mode. PLCC system consists of three parts:
1. The terminal assemblies include the receivers transmitters
and protective relays.
2. The coupling equipment is the combination of line tuner,
coupling capacitor and the wave or line trap.
3. The 50/60 Hz power transmission line serves as path for
relaying data in the PLCC bandwidth.

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Coupling Capacitor: It forms the physical coupling link between
transmission line and the terminal assemblies for the relaying of carrier
signals. Its function is to provide high impedance to power frequency
and low impedance to carrier signal frequencies. They are usually made
up of paper or liquid dielectric system for high voltage application. The
ratings of coupling capacitors range from 0.004-0.01µF at 34 kV to
0.0023-0.005µF at 765kV

Drain Coil : As shown in the figure 1 the purpose of drain coil is to

provide high impedance for carrier frequency and low impedance for
power frequency.

Line Tuner: It is connected in series with the coupling capacitor to form

a resonant circuit or carrier signal frequency high pass filter or band
pass filter. Its function is to match the impedance of the PLC terminal
with the power line in order to impress the carrier frequency over the
power line. In addition it also provides isolation from power frequency
and transient overvoltage protection.

Line Trap: It is a parallel L-C tank filter or band-stop filter connected in

series with the transmission line. It presents high impedance to carrier
signal frequencies and very low impedance to the power frequency. It
consists of

Main Coil: An inductor that is connected directly to the high voltage

power line carries power frequency.

Tuning Device: It may be a capacitor or a combination of capacitor,

inductor and resistor, connected across the main coil in order to tune
the line trap to the desired blocking frequency.

Protective device: It is usually a gap type surge arrester used to protect

the line trap from damage due to transient over-voltages.

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The line trap or wave trap prevents unwanted loss of carrier signal
power and also prevents carrier signal transmission to adjacent power
lines. Line traps or wave traps are available for narrow-band and wide-
band carrier frequency blocking applications.

Characteristics Of PLCC
the key characteristics of power line carrier communication are briefly
discussed below:
1.Frequency-Dependent Attenuation: PLC signals experience signal
loss as frequency increases, making higher-frequency signals weaker
as they travel along power lines.

2.Noise and Interference: Power lines are prone to electromagnetic

interference from devices, causing signal degradation and reducing
the signal-to-noise ratio.

3.Multipath Propagation Signals can take multiple paths due to

reflections and scattering, leading to echoes arriving at the receiver at
different times, causing distortion.

4. Channel Impulse Response Describes how the channel responds to

short-duration signals, incorporating direct path and reflected signals,
influencing delay spread and multipath effects.

5.Variability and Adaptation: Channel characteristics can change due

to load variations, network topology, and device presence,
necessitating adaptive techniques and robust system design.

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 Applications Of PLCC
It is commonly used for various applications, including:
1.Smart Grids: PLC is a crucial technology in the development of
smart grids, which aim to modernize and enhance the efficiency of
electricity distribution and consumption. Smart grids use PLC to
facilitate two-way communication between utility companies and
smart meters in homes and businesses, enabling real-time monitoring
and control of energy usage.

2. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): AMI systems utilize PLC

to transmit data between utility companies and smart meters
installed at consumer premises. This allows for remote meter reading,
accurate billing, and better load management.

3.Home Automation: PLC communication can be used to connect and

control various home automation devices over the power lines. This
includes smart lighting, thermostats, security systems, and more.

4.Street Lighting Control: PLC technology can be employed to

remotely control streetlights, optimizing their operation for energy
efficiency and maintenance.

5.Internet Access: In certain cases, PLC has been used to provide

internet access to homes and businesses through power lines.
However, this application has faced challenges due to issues such as
signal attenuation and interference.

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6.Industrial Applications: PLC can also be utilized in industrial
environments for communication between different parts of a facility,
process control, and data collection.

Limitations Of PLCC
• Power line communication is limited by the existing electrical
infrastructure where it is being employed and thus affects
powerline channel parameters such as power attenuation, noise,
impedance and bandwidth.
• It requires high SNR ratio.
• The power line network is usually not matched and varies with time
at different loadings. This leads to attenuation of carrier power.
This is the main disadvantage.
• The carrier frequency suffers reflection losses at various points in
its path from transmitter, coaxial cable, line tuner unit, coupling
capacitor, power line to transmitter.
• Power-line communication is not secure.

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 CH 3: RF TECHNOLOGY
RF Technology
RF technology, or Radio Frequency technology, refers to the use of
electromagnetic waves within the radio frequency range for various
applications such as communication, remote sensing, radar, wireless
networking, and more. RF technology is crucial in modern society, as
it enables wireless communication and connectivity across a wide
range of devices and systems.
Key aspects of RF technology include:
1.Electromagnetic Spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum
encompasses a wide range of frequencies, from extremely low
frequencies (ELF) to extremely high frequencies (EHF). Radio
frequencies typically cover the range of around 3 kHz to 300 GHz.

2. Wireless Communication: RF technology is at the core of wireless

communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television
broadcasting, cellular networks (2G, 3G, 4G, and now 5G), satellite
communication, and Wi-Fi. These systems transmit and receive data
using modulated RF signals.

3.Antennas: Antennas are crucial components of RF technology used

to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. Different types of
antennas are designed for specific applications, and their design
impacts factors like signal range, directionality, and efficiency.
4.Modulation and Demodulation: Modulation is the process of
encoding information onto an RF carrier signal, while demodulation is

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the process of extracting the original information from a modulated
signal. Common modulation techniques include amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation
(PM).

5.Radar: RF technology is extensively used in radar systems for

applications like air traffic control, weather monitoring, and military
surveillance. RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) systems use RF
signals to detect and locate objects by analyzing the time delay
between transmitted and received signals.

6. Wireless Networking: RF technology is the foundation of wireless

networking technologies like Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) and Bluetooth.
These technologies enable wireless data transmission between
devices over short distances.

7. Satellite Communication: Satellites in orbit use RF technology to

communicate with ground stations and other satellites, enabling
global communication, navigation (GPS), weather forecasting, and
Earth observation.

Overall, RF technology plays a vital role in enabling wireless

communication, connectivity, and various applications that have
become integral parts of modern life.

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 History of Microwave
Radio Frequency (RF) technology's history dates to the late 19th century
when pioneers like Marconi and Tesla developed wireless telegraphy
systems. In the early 20th century, RF was harnessed for radio
broadcasting. WWII drove advancements in radar and communication.
The latter half saw the rise of mobile communication, satellite
technology, and wireless networks. Today, RF tech underpins wireless
communication, from smartphones to IoT, shaping modern connectivity.

Basic Wireless Communication

Antenna Antenna
Path Propagation

Feeder line Feeder line

Radio Radio
(Receiver)
(Transmitter)

Wireless communication systems consist basically out of the following

elements:
▪ Radio (Transmitter and receiver), the active part
▪ Feeder line (cable)
▪ Antenna, the passive part
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 Basic Antenna working

v
i v’
Transmitter Receiver

1. Electrical signal, fed into antenna, can produce a standing

wave, when the antenna matches the wavelength.
2. Electromagnetic waves spread out at 90° from the electric
standing wave on the antenna (wavefronts) as result of the
current flowing through the antenna
3. On the receive antenna the waves translate to an electrical
signal in the antenna

Properties of Microwave
Properties of microwaves or microwave radiation are listed below.

• They are the radiations capable of radiating electromagnetic

energy with shorter wavelengths.
• Microwaves are reflected by metal surfaces.
• The transmission of microwaves is affected by phenomena like
refraction, diffraction, reflection, and interference.
• They can easily pass through glass and plastics, and hence are
used in heating and cooking in an oven.

32
• They are easily attenuated within shorter distances.
• Microwave radiation can pass through the atmosphere. Hence,
microwaves are used in the satellite communication sector to
transmit information back and forth to the satellite. We can know
why satellite dishes are made of metal since they reflect
microwave radiation.
• Microwaves travel in a straight line and are reflected by the
conducting surfaces.
• Microwave currents have the capacity to flow through a thin layer
of a cable.

Application of Microwave
RF (Radio Frequency) technology has a wide range of applications
across various industries and fields. Here are some common
applications of RF technology:

1.Wireless Communication: RF technology is used in wireless

communication systems, including mobile phones, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
and other wireless protocols. These technologies enable data
transmission and connectivity over short and long distances.

2.Broadcasting: Radio and television broadcasting rely on RF

technology to transmit audio and video signals to a wide audience. RF
signals are modulated to carry the information and then broadcast
through antennas.

3.Satellite Communication: RF signals are used for satellite

communication, enabling global coverage for TV broadcasts, internet
services, weather monitoring, and navigation systems like GPS.

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4. Radar Systems: Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) systems use
RF technology to detect and locate objects by emitting and receiving
microwave signals.

6.Wireless Sensing: RF technology can be used for wireless sensor

networks to monitor and collect data from various sources. This is
employed in applications such as environmental monitoring,
industrial automation, and smart agriculture.

7.Aerospace and Defense: RF technology is integral to

communication and radar systems in aerospace and defense
applications. It's used in aircraft communication, missile guidance,
electronic warfare, and more.

8.Industrial Applications: RF technology is used in industrial

processes like heating, welding, and drying through dielectric heating.
It's also used in quality control and measurement systems.

9.Telecommunications: RF technology plays a critical role in cellular

networks, including 3G, 4G, and 5G. It enables voice and data
communication over wireless networks.

10.Remote Sensing: RF technology is used in remote sensing

applications such as weather monitoring, environmental sensing, and
Earth observation through satellites.

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Radio Frequency Spectrum

35
 CH 4: CELLULAR NETWORK
Cellular Network Basics.
A communication network that uses a wireless connection to connect
end nodes is known as a cellular network or mobile network. The
network is spread out over "cells" of land, which are each served by at
least one fixed-location transceiver (A device that can both transmit and
receive communications, in particular, a combined radio transmitter and
receiver). These base stations give the cell network coverage, allowing it
to transmit speech, data, and other kinds of information. To prevent
interference and assure service quality within each cell, a cell normally
employs a separate set of frequencies from its neighbours.
These cells can be connected to offer radio coverage across a big
geographic area. This makes it possible for many portable transceivers
(such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops, pagers, etc.) to communicate
with each other as well as fixed transceivers and telephones throughout
the network via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are
moving through multiple cells at once while transmitting.

FDMA,TDMA & CDMA

1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): FDMA is a type of
channelization protocol. In this bandwidth is divided into various
frequency bands. Each station is allocated with band to send data and

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that band is reserved for particular station for all the time which is as
follows :

The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small band

of unused frequency and that unused frequency bands are called as
guard bands that prevents the interference of stations. It is like access
method in data link layer in which data link layer at each station tells
its physical layer to make a band pass signal from the data passed to
it. The signal is created in the allocated band and there is no physical
multiplexer at the physical layer.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : TDMA is the channelization
protocol in which bandwidth of channel is divided into various stations
on the time basis. There is a time slot given to each station, the station
can transmit data during that time slot only which is as follows :

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Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and the location
of the time slot. TDMA requires synchronization between different
stations. It is type of access method in the data link layer. At each
station data link layer tells the station to use the allocated time slot.

4. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) : In CDMA, all the stations

can transmit data simultaneously. It allows each station to transmit
data over the entire frequency all the time. Multiple simultaneous
transmissions are separated by unique code sequence. Each user is
assigned with a unique code sequence.

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 Cell Fundamentals
In practice, cells are of arbitrary shape(close to a circle) because it has
the same power on all sides and has same sensitivity on all sides, but
putting up two-three circles together may result in interleaving gaps or
may intersect each other so in order to solve this problem we can use
equilateral triangle, square or a regular hexagon in which hexagonal cell
is close to a circle used for a system design. Co-channel reuse ratio is
given by:
DL/RL = Square root of (3N)
Where,
DL = Distance between co-channel cells
RL = Cell Radius
N = Cluster Size
The number of cells in a cluster N determines the amount of co-channel
interference and also the number of frequency channels available per
cell.

Cell Splitting
When the number of subscribers in a given area increases allocation of
more channels covered by that channel is necessary, which is done by
cell splitting. A single small cell midway between two co-channel cells is
introduced.

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Need for Cellular Hierarchy
Extending the coverage to the areas that are difficult to cover by a large
cell. Increasing the capacity of the network for those areas that have a
higher density of users. An increasing number of wireless devices and the
communication between them.
Cellular Hierarchy
Femtocells: The smallest unit of the hierarchy, these cells need to cover
only a few meters where all devices are in the physical range of the uses.
Picocells: The size of these networks is in the range of a few tens of
meters, e.g., WLANs.
Microcells: Cover a range of hundreds of meters e.g., in urban areas to
support PCS which is another kind of mobile technology.
Macrocells: Cover areas in the order of several kilometers, e.g., cover
metropolitan areas.
Mega cells: Cover nationwide areas with ranges of hundreds of
kilometers, e.g., used with satellites.

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 CONCLUSION
I Have successfully completed 45 days summer internship at Tata Power
Delhi Distribution Ltd. – IT Infra Department under the guidance of
Mr. Sanjeev Rana Sir. this project has successfully explored and
addressed the communication technology used in Tata Power through
careful planning, diligent execution, and insightful analysis, I have
learned the following technology used in industry:
1.Optical Fibre Technology
2.Power Line Communication
3.RF Technology
4.Cellular Technology
The results of working as an intern in TPDDL helped me exploring the
latest technology used in the industry and also acknowledgment of great
working culture of TPDDL. This project not only expands our
understanding of communication technology, but also provides a solid
foundation for future research and developments in this field.

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