Fault Classification in Power System Using Neural Networks

Hania Zahra
MS20-EE-23
INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS
&COMPUTER ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB
LAHORE
 HANIA ZAHRA

MS20-EE-23

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement of Master of

Science in Electrical Engineering at

Institute of Electrical, Electronics & Computer Engineering

University of the Punjab

Lahore
 APPROVALSHEET

The thesis titled “Fault Classification in Power System using Neural Networks” is accepted
hereby at the Institute of Electrical, Electronics & Computer Engineering at University of the
Punjab, Lahore in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of
Science in Electrical Engineering.

Thesis Evaluation Committee

Name Position Signature

Supervisor

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

Dated: _______________________________

Chairman

Institute of Electrical, Electronics & Computer

Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my humble gratitude to Allah Almighty Lord of Universe and earth, most beneficent
and the most merciful, who enabled me produce this document. The love of beloved Prophet
Muhammad (Peace be upon him) has always been a blessing in my life.

I acknowledge the guidance of my supervisor Dr. Umar Farooq and express extreme gratitude
for the inspiration, intellectual guidance and kindness during M.Sc. period. It is pride for me to
be supervised by one of the most genius and brilliant supervisor, who has attained world fame
and excellence in their area of research.

I have to acknowledge and gratitude to my Parents and Brother Muhammad Musharib who
always prayed for my success and supported me in every moment to complete my degree and
motivated me on the continuous basis throughout degree.

HANIA ZAHRA
Abstract
Content
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................4
1.1Background of the study...................................................................................4
1.2 Statement of the Problem................................................................................5
1.3 Objectives of the Study...................................................................................5
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................5
2.1 Prominent Techniques.....................................................................................6
2.1.1 Fault Classification using Wavelet Approach..........................................6
2.1.2 Fault Classification using Artificial Neural Network Approach..............8
2.1.3 Fault Classification using Fuzzy Logic Approach.................................11
2.2 Hybrid Techniques........................................................................................13
2.2.1 Fault Classification using Neuro Fuzzy Approach.................................13
2.2.2 Fault Classification using Wavelet and ANN technique........................15
2.2.3 Fault Classification using Wavelet and Fuzzy logic Approach..............16
2.3 Modern Techniques.......................................................................................18
2.3.1 Fault Classification using Genetic Algorithm........................................18
2.3.2 Fault Classification using GSM Approach.............................................20
2.3.3 Fault Classification using Pilot Approach..............................................23
2.3.4 Fault Classification using Pattern Recognition Approach......................25
Chapter 3 Methodology................................................................................28
Chapter 4 Results and Discussions...................................................................29
4.1 Power System Analysis and Data Generation...........................................29
4.2 Proposed Strategy......................................................................................32
Chapter 5 References..........................................................................34
Figure 2- 1 Tree Diagram of Fault Classification Techniques.................................5
Figure 2- 2 Power System Model.............................................................................6
Figure 2- 3 Phase currents for Healthy system. (b)-(e) Phase currents at 50km, Rf
=100 Ω for AG, BC, CAG and ABC faults respectively. (f)-(i) Phase currents at
150km, Rf =100 Ω for AG, BC, CAG and ABC faults respectively........................7
Figure 2- 4 Typical Neural Network Structure for Classification............................8
Figure 2- 5 Flow Diagram of TE Process...............................................................10
Figure 2- 6 Power System Model...........................................................................10
Figure 2- 7 Power system for EMTDC simulation................................................12
Figure 2- 8 Fault Fuzzy Classifier Implementation Concept.................................13
Figure 2- 9 The whole scheme for Fault Classification.........................................13
Figure 2- 10 Recorded fault data of single phase to ground...................................14
Figure 2- 11 ANN used in research........................................................................15
Figure 2- 12 Fuzzy Control System........................................................................16
Figure 2- 13 Power System Model.........................................................................16
Figure 2- 14 Schematic Diagram of UPFC............................................................18
Figure 2- 15 GSM Communication Module..........................................................20
Figure 2- 16 Block Diagram of Circuit..................................................................20
Figure 2- 17 Simulated System...............................................................................23
Figure 2- 18 ANN network elected for Fault Classification..................................24
Figure 2- 19 ANN training Procedure for the Classification of four faults............25
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Transmission lines protection against uncovered deficiency is the most basic chore
in the assurance of power system. Faults in overhead lines are of an unusual
condition, carried out by environmental conditions, human mistakes, hardware
failures, e.g. (pivoting motors and transformers) and so on. These issues cause
interruption to electric streams, hardware damage and even cause passing of
people. These issues are hazard to the stability of power supply. Fault is nothing
but an irregular condition.

1.1Background of the study

In case of overhead transmission line, the maximum part is exposed to atmospheric
condition, the chances of faults occurrence in overhead transmission lines were
more when compared to underground cables. Faults in overhead transmission
system can be classified into two categories, i.e., series faults (open conductor),
and shunt faults (short circuit). Series faults can be identified simply by observing
only one phase voltage. If the voltage magnitude increase, it indicates that series
fault is occurred. These faults are classified into two categories, i.e., one open
conductor faults, and two open conductor faults. These faults are very rarely
occurred faults. Short circuit faults can be identified simply by observing only one
phase current. If the current values increase, it indicates shunt fault is occurred.
These faults are divided into two types, i.e., asymmetrical faults, and symmetrical
faults. Asymmetrical faults line to ground (LG), line to line (LL), and double line
to ground (LLG), and symmetrical faults are triple line (LLL) and triple line to
ground (LLLG) faults. As shown in Fig 1.1:
 Figure 1- 1Classification of Fault

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Objectives of the Study

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

In power system, overhead lines are most easy to analyze since the fault is
normally self-evident, e.g., a bush has fallen over the line, or a utility shaft is
broken and the conductors are lying on the ground. The precision about its fault
recognition and classification are the most dynamic elements for protection of
overhead line. The association of new generating stations to achieve this rapid
increment sought after requires growing transmission and distribution facilities.
The subsequent lower dependability limits make it authoritative to clear the
transmission faults rapid utilizing fast protection approaches. This has produced
another enthusiasm for the transient based protection methods. Due to so many
techniques developed for fault classification, the user may get confused to select
the suitable technique. To understand this, the widely used fault classification
techniques divided into 3 categories as follows:
1. Prominent techniques
2. Hybrid techniques
3. Modern techniques
These three techniques have further sub techniques as shown in Fig 2.1

Figure 2- 1Tree Diagram of Fault Classification Techniques

2.1 Prominent Techniques

2.1.1 Fault Classification using Wavelet Approach

Wavelet technique is a significant mathematical tool, appropriate for signals

processing. Wavelet technique suitably chooses an appropriate wavelet function
known as mother wavelet. It can evaluate the transient, non-stationary or time
varying phenomena [1]. Multi resolution analysis is one of the best tools to analyze
the signals at diverse level of frequencies with different resolutions. MRA is
designed to give adverse time resolution and good frequency resolution at low
level frequencies, adverse frequency resolution and good time resolution at high
level frequencies [2]. This technique mostly appropriate for low frequency
component signals for long time periods and high frequency component signals for
short time periods [3].
Another greatest application of wavelet approach is multi-level disintegration.
Wavelet approach has been in operation in a lot of areas and provides an additional
advantage of low time response, which improves system effectiveness. It has the
capability of performing local analysis to the best level without fettering lot of time
frequency data [4].
A 3-Φ transmission line, having length of 200-km, operated at 400-kV sources at a
20° load angle has been simulated using Wavelet Technique. The 3-Φ currents are
indicated as A, B and C. And the ground is represented as G. The power system
model considered for the simulation is shown in single line diagram in Fig 2.2

Figure 2- 2Power System Model

In this simulation, the application of wavelet approach is applied to fault detection

and classification is done using single terminal end currents only. This technique
uses discrete wavelet transform with MRA. All three phase currents are
decomposed to estimates and details by using db1 wavelet. The irregular condition
in each phase current can be found out by using details of the first decomposition
level. The norm of detail coefficients can be calculated by using the following
equation
‖D 1‖=¿ ¿ (1)
Figure 2- 3Phase currents for Healthy system. (b)-(e) Phase currents at 50km, Rf =100 Ω for AG, BC, CAG and ABC faults
respectively. (f)-(i) Phase currents at 150km, Rf =100 Ω for AG, BC, CAG and ABC faults respectively.

Where n dspecifies number of the detail coefficients at a certain level. If the

calculated norm value is more than threshold value, then that phase is called faulty
phase. If all three Phase current norm values are less than thresholds, transmission
system is in healthy condition.

2.1.2 Fault Classification using Artificial Neural Network Approach

An artificial neural network for the classification of problem consists of 4 different
kinds of layers as shown in Figure 2.4: input layer, hidden layer, SoftMax layer
and output layer.
This approach is
used data-driven
fault analysis
methods
[5], input data
has to be

Figure 2- 4Typical Neural Network Structure for Classification

standardized before it is fed into the input layer and adjust the following form so
that all the values are in the range (0,1):
x−min ⁡(x)
x'= (2)
max ( x ) −min ⁡(x )

In the hidden layers, the information contained in the input data is successively
transformed into advanced representations i.e., through the following nonlinear
transformations [6].
h1=σ ( W 1 x+b 1 ) (3)
hl =σ ( W l hl−1 +bl ) , l= {2, . . ., d} (4)
n
where x ϵ Rnx,hl ϵ Rnhl are the vectors of input and hidden representations, W l ϵ R h ∗nh
l
l l−1

and b ϵ Rn lare the weight matrices and bias vectors, respectively, and d is the
h

number of hidden layers. Note that nh (number of neurons in each hidden layer) and
l

d is hyperparameters whose values need to be determined prior to the training of

artificial neural networks. σ is a nonlinear activation function which makes the
above transformation nonlinear, and in this work, we employ the rectified linear
unit which is defined as:
:
σ ( x)=max ( x , 0 ) (5)
The transformation shown in Eq. (4) without the activation function is applied to
the output of the last hidden layer:
h s=W s h d +b s (6)
and the SoftMax layer calculates the values of each output neuron using the
SoftMax function of the following form:
exp ⁡(hs , j)
y j= nh s
(7)
∑ exp ⁡( hs , j)
j=1

The main purpose of the network training is to maximize the accuracy of the
network, which is defined as follows:
Number of Samples with Correct labelling
Accuracy= (8)
Number of Samples

First, a fault detection problem can be expressed as a binary classification problem

where the two labels are normal and fault [7]. In this case a neural network, can be
trained to use two different data sets: one with the normal operation data, and the
other with the operation data with a specific nature of fault [8]. Along with the
accuracy, two indices generally used for fault diagnosis, fault detection rate (FDR)
and false alarm rate (FAR), can be defined as:
Number of faulty samples with faulty label
FDR= (9)
Number of faulty samples
Number of normal samples with faulty label
FAR= (10)
Number of normal samples

TENNESSEE EASTMAN process was introduced as a test problem for process

control and monitoring different methods. It consists of five major process units,
the reactor, condenser, compressor, separator and stripper, as shown in Figure 2.5,
and produces two products, G and H, and a byproduct, F, from four reactants, A,
C, D and E. There also exists an inert compound, B. There are 52 measurements
available.
 Figure 2- 5Flow Diagram of TE Process

2.1.3 Fault Classification using Fuzzy Logic Approach

To classify the category of fault (L-G, L-L-G), a fuzzy logic-based technique is

used and this approach also determine whether the fault is of L-G, L-L or L-L-G
nature [9]. Fuzzy logic-based method also uses for the classification of fault.
Samples of three phase currents at one termination of transmission line are
required to be considered for fault classification by the proposed technique [10].
To validate the proposed approach EMTP and MATLAB can be used.

Figure 2- 6Power System Model

Post-fault samples of three phase currents, generated through EMTP, are

considered for fault classification [11]. Using these faults current data, the task of
fault classification is carried out using MATLAB. The characteristic features of
different types of faults are found out in terms of Δ 1 , Δ 2∧Δ 3 , which are calculated
as described below. First of all, from the post-fault current samples, the ratios r1, r2
and r3 are calculated as follows:
max {|( I a )|}
r 1= (11)
max {|( I b )|}

r 2=max ¿ ¿ (12)
max {|(I c )|}
r3 = (13)
max {|( I a )|}

Next, the normalized values of r1, r2 and r3 are found out asfollows:
r1
r 1 n=
max ⁡(r 1 ,r 2 , r 3 )
(14)

r2
r 2 n=
max ⁡(r 1 , r 2 , r 3 )
(15)

r3
r 3 n=
max ⁡(r 1 , r 2 , r 3 )
(16)

Δ 1=r 1 n−r 2n , Δ 2=r 2 n−r 3 n , Δ 3=r 3 n −r 1 n

Next, the normalized values of r1, r2 and r3 are found out as follow. The fuzzy rule
for fault classification is developed on the basis of the values of Δ 1 , Δ 2and Δ 3. The
values Δ 1 , Δ 2∧Δ 3 for a-g, a-b-g, a-b and a-b-c faults under variable operating
conditions [12]. Different values of Δ 1 , Δ 2∧Δ 3have been noted for other L-G, L-
Land L-L-Gfaults and also the distinctive features of the diverse kinds of faults can
be determined on the basis of the values of Δ 1 , Δ 2∧Δ 3 .
Faults involving ground are as follows:
For a-g fault Δ 1=high g , Δ2 =mediumg , Δ3=low g
For b-g fault Δ 1=low g , Δ2 =high g , Δ3=mediumg
For c-g fault Δ 1=mediumg , Δ 2=low g , Δ3=highg
To check the involvement of ground in fault the value of following equation
σ = max ( I a + I b + I c ) (17)
has been considered. If σ values are greater than 100, faults involving ground and
when less than 1, faults not involving ground. Different categories of faults have
been determined in terms of Δ 1 , Δ 2∧Δ 3. Fuzzy variables have been used to represent
the terms Δ 1 , Δ 2∧Δ 3and with these fuzzy variables, the fuzzy rule bases have been
developed for classificationof ground faults and phase faults. After
determiningwhether the fault involves ground or not, the suitable fuzzyrule base is
used for fault classification.
2.2 Hybrid Techniques
2.2.1 Fault Classification using Neuro Fuzzy Approach
Along a transmission line, by using sequence current components and line currents
under normal and abnormal conditions at different locations, fuzzy-neuro model
was generated. By using an electromagnetic transient program, EMTDC/PSCAD
simulations were performed [13]. Through FFT algorithm, line components were
processed and then derived the sequence components of the fundamental
frequency.

Figure 2- 7Power system for EMTDC simulation

The study of fault currents will give information about the nature of faults are of
two types as follows:
 Symmetrical Components
 Three-line Currents
Under symmetrical fault (A-B-C-G) conditions, the zero and negative sequence
components in the line currents are nearly zero. The presence of only the negative
sequence component in the fault current shows that a line-to-line fault has
occurred. The presence of negative and zero components shows that a fault of
single line-to-ground or double line-to-ground has occurred.
Use of sequence components is not very satisfactory for differentiating the single
line to ground fault with the double line to ground fault. When fault occurs, the
fault line current often increases, greater than the currents in healthy lines [14]. In
case of S-L-G fault, only one-line current increases greatly, while in case of D-L-G
fault, two-line currents are greater than the third line current [15].
Fuzzy controller has three basic elements: fuzzification, fuzzy inference and
defuzzification. In neural nets, the weights between the input and the first hidden
layer, the last hidden layer and the output layer, determine the input/output
behavior. In a fuzzy system, these parameters are found in the fuzzification and
defuzzification procedures and can thus be trained. Calculated degrees of
membership in the fuzzifier layer are sent to the rule layers and functioned in the
neurons in the rule layers according to IF-THEN rules.

Figure 2- 8Fault Fuzzy Classifier Implementation Concept

Fault Classification system consists of three main modules. The sequence

components input to the sequence module to judge the different fault type: S-L-G,
D-L-G and T-L-G. When the decision is S-L-G or D-L-G, it needs the phase
module 1 to confirm [16]. After this, phase module 2 is used to express the faulty
phase such as phase Ato ground and so on. Phase module 1and phase module 2also
use the line current RMS as inputs. Besides this, phase module 1 will consider the
output of sequence module as a Primary factor.

Figure 2- 9The whole scheme for Fault Classification

2.2.2 Fault Classification using Wavelet and ANN technique
The phase currents ( I a , I b∧I c) and the neutral current ( I N ), depicted in Fig 2.10, The
currents are representing single-phase-to-ground fault and divided into three
intervals: pre-fault, fault and post-fault. The pre-fault interval is related to steady-
state normal system operation [17]. The fault interval corresponds to the period of
time in which the fault occurred and holds the most vital characteristics of the
disturbance. The postfault interval is related to transmission line relaying. The time
interval spent to clear the fault is known as fault clearing time and its initial and
last sample indices on the sampled waveform arek m∧k n . Therefore, at scale j, they
km kn
are related to j and j indices of the wavelet coefficients.
2 2
kn
j
2
EX= ∑ d j ¿ ¿
x
(18)
km
k= j
2

All energies are normalized by the maximum value among E A , E B∧E C. In this way,
the energy values related to faulted current must be about one; otherwise, its value
is about zero [18].

Figure 2- 10Recorded fault data of single phase to ground

In order to achieve a good performance for the ANN, a lot of topologies were
evaluated. A topology with one hidden layer with eight neurons showed best
fitness for the problem shown in Fig 2.11. The input patterns of the ANN are the
energies E A , E B , E C ∧E N [19]. The output layer has 4 neurons which show the fault
type in accordance with a binary codification [20]. Due to the nature of the
problem, the sigmoid function was used as activation function for the neurons of
the hidden and output layers.

Figure 2- 11ANN used in research

In a hypothetical situation, it is expected that, for a fault type AN, the energies
reach the following values: E A ≃0 , E B ≃ 0 , EC ≃ 0 ,∧EN ≃1, But in general, the attained
values are different from these expected, due to the fault parameters. for short fault
location, the value of E A is closely to 1 while E B∧EC is closely to zero, and E N is
clearly greater than zero. This situation indicates a single-phase-to-ground fault.
Nevertheless, the fault classification may be jeopardized by long fault location, due
to the transmission line damping.
2.2.3 Fault Classification using Wavelet and Fuzzy logic Approach
The fuzzy set theory is used to solve uncertainty problems. The key advantage of
fuzzy logic is that its knowledge representation is explicit, using simple IF-THEN
relations. In general, fuzzy sets are effective at various aspects of uncertain
knowledge representation and are subjective and heuristic, while neural networks
are proficient enough to learn from examples.
Three basic elements of Fuzzy controller: fuzzification, fuzzy inference and
defuzzification. In neural networks, determine the input/output behavior through
weights between the input and the first hidden layer, the last hidden layer and the
output layer. These parameters are found in the fuzzification and defuzzification
procedures and can thus be trained. According to IF-THEN rules, degrees of
membership in the fuzzifier layer has been measured [21].

 Fuzzification: crisp (input) values I P1 , I P2 , I P3 ∧I P4 are converted into

fuzzy sets to be able to use them for figuring the truth values of the premise
of individual rule in the rule base.
 Inference: the truth value for the premise of individual logic rule is figured
and applied to the last part of each rule. This results in single fuzzy set to be
allotted to each output variable for each rule.
 Composition: Whole fuzzy sets allotted to each output variable are
combined together to form a single fuzzy set for each output variable.
 Defuzzification: the single fuzzy sets are converted back to crisp(input)
values.

Figure 2- 12Fuzzy Control System

The simple 3-Φ power system, shown in Fig 2.14 was chosen for the purpose of
generating line currents under normal and abnormal conditions. Data base of line
currents is made up for various types of faults at various locations [22], using
EMTP simulation software [23].

Figure 2- 13Power System Model

The symmetrical components can be attained by means of a single linear
combination of samples of line currents as given below. At sampling instant (k),
the sequence components of line currents are calculated as
i 0 ( k )=i a(k) +i b (k) +i c(k) (19)
i 1 ( k )=i a(k) +ai b (k) +a2 i c(k) (20)
2
i 2 ( k )=i a(k) + a i b (k )+ ai c(k) (21)
Where a = 1/120°= -1/-160°a 2=¿ 1/240°= -1/60°
The sampling rate is intentionally selected to be 4.5 kHz, which corresponds to 90
samples per power frequency cycle. In this specific case, 60° is equal to 15
sampling intervals. Accordingly, the sequence components at sampling instant are
calculated as
i 0 ( k )=i a (k )+i b ( k ) +i c (k ) (22)

i 1 ( k )=i a (k )−i b (k+15 )−i c ( k−15 ) (23)

i 2 ( k )=i a(k) −ib (k−15)−i c(k+ 15)(24)

The advantages of this approach as compared to the existing algorithms stem from
the characteristic advantages of fuzzy-logic approaches particularly when dealing
with uncertainty that arises due to the nonstop varying power system parameters,
besides they simplify design complexity, implementation, decrease hardware cost,
and provide a solution to complex nonlinear systems [24].
2.3 Modern Techniques
2.3.1 Fault Classification using Genetic Algorithm
Maximum power system protection techniques are involved in defining the system
state through classifying the pattern of the associated voltages and currents
waveforms. This means that the progress of adaptive protection can be essentially
considered as a problem of pattern classification /recognition. However, because of
several possible causes of faults and the nonlinear process of few power devices
under different fault conditions, conventional pattern classification methods may
not be satisfactory in few applications, specially, in the case of complex
transmission lines. Inrecent years, due to environmental and regulatory concerns,
the expansion of electric power transmission facilities has been restricted.
There are successful applications of neural networks in the area of power
engineering. It can be employed as a substitute method for solving long term
problems where basic techniques have experienced difficulties. For protection,
neural networks have been applied to

 Classification of high impedance fault in distribution feeders

 Fault identification in AC/DC transmission systems
 Correct fault location intransmission lines
 transformer protection
 protection for EHV transmission lines [25].
Genetic algorithm based neural network, detection and classification scheme has
been discussed below. The significant application is fault classification for EHV
transmission lines with a UPFC as fault classification is an important part of
protective relaying schemes [26] [27].

Figure 2- 14Schematic Diagram of UPFC

Genetic Algorithm is a computational model that follow biological evolutionary

theories to solve optimization problems. A GA comprises a set of separate
elements and a set of biologically-inspired operators defined over the population
itself. According to evolutionary theories, just the most suitable elements in a
population are likely to last and generate offspring, thus conveying their biological
heredity to upcoming generations.
There are different frequency components generated, when a fault occurs on a
transmission line. And these signals change with fault category, location and fault
initiation angle. The relationship between them is nonlinear. Feedforward NN
with GA is designed to train and catch the features of the desired mapping between
the inputs and outputs [28]. The structure of the NN is composed of 12 inputs,
8hidden neurons and 4 output. The outputs of GANN are made up of A, B, C, and
G which indicate a, b, c three phase operation states, and link to ground
information. When A, B and C approaches to 1 indicates a fault in the phase and
Gis approaches to 1 indicates the fault is connected to ground.
2.3.2 Fault Classification using GSM Approach
85-87% of power system faults are occurring in transmission lines so that
transmission line protection is a significant issue in power system engineering. By
using this approach, we can present design and implementation of transmission
line fault detection, classification and protection technique. Microcontroller is fed
by uninterrupted three-phase voltage. By using the microcontroller, The employed
system completely meets the demand of low cost and mobile communication
technology to detect the abnormality and fault occurrence in the overhead line.
 Electrical networks, machines and equipment’s are frequently subjected to
different types of faults while they are in operation. When a fault occurs, the
characteristic values (impedance) of the machines may vary from existing
values to different values till the fault is cleared. There may be lot of
possibilities of faults to appear in the power system network, including
lighting, wind, tree falling on lines, device failure, etc.
 The fault initiation causes short circuit and open circuit of conductors which
involves insulation failures and conducting path failures. Voltage and
current values deviate from their nominal ranges, when the fault occur in a
circuit. Switchgear protection equipment’s (CB and relay) used for power
system networks protection, and also control the service loss because of
electrical failures after the fault occurrence [29].
 The design of systems to sense and interrupt power system faults is the key
objective of power-system protection. The main categories of faults are
symmetric and asymmetric. A symmetric fault affects each of the three
phases equally. An asymmetric fault does not affect each of the three phases
equally.
 Figure 2- 16Block Diagram of Circuit
According to block diagram, three phase parameter i.e., voltage of overhead line
will get uninterruptedly sensed using phase voltage sense section [30]. Once the
fault takes place in overhead line, voltage and current values change from their
nominal ranges. The faults like all series & shunt faults get detected & classified
here. Voltage gets sensed and signals are given to microcontroller. Relay is
connected for detecting abnormality in fault display section. Relay is functioned by
micro-controller and switched after the occurrence of faulty condition.
Microcontroller programing is completed on the basis of characteristics conditions
of overhead line voltages on fault occurrence. The nature of fault gets analyzed by

Figure 2- 15 GSM Communication Module

microcontroller. If the fault gets occurred, GSM is used to send SMS to a

responsible person on mobile [31]. Type of fault will display on fault display
section. Concurrently fault
will clear. The fault clearing system uses relays and circuit breakers to detect and
clear the fault [32].
2.3.3 Fault Classification using Pilot Approach
The main purposes of fault classification and faulty phase selection are as follows:
 Identifying the type of fault, e.g., single-phase to ground fault or phase-to-
phase fault. Once the relay detects the nature of fault, it can use suitable
calculation elements to cope with the fault.
 Identifying the faulty phase to provide essential information for single-pole
tripping and auto-reclosing.
The existing methods used for the purpose of fault classification and faulty phase
selection can be categorized to three main types:
 Power frequency components-based principles which are extensively used in
traditional protections of transmission systems, such as voltage-based
principles, sequence current components-based principles, distance
measurement-based principles, and so on.
 Superimposed components-based principles.
 Transient signals-based principles.
Most important advantages of the Pilot method over the existing ones are that it is
setting-free. It means that there is no need to set any threshold for any parameter.
The only requirement for this method is that the protection system of the line
should have a pilot scheme arrangement. This does not impose serious limitations
to apply the method since a pilot scheme is always applied in the current protection
systems.
Instantaneous power that comes out at any instant of electrical systems is
calculated as [17] [18]:
p ( t ) =v ( t ) . i ( t ) (25)
v ( t )=V max cos ⁡(ωt) (26)
i (t )=I max cos ⁡(ωt −ϴ) (27)
Where, θ is the angle the current lags the voltage and ω=2πf. By substituting (26)
and (27) into (25) instantaneous power will be as:
p ( t ) =V max I max cos ( ωt ) . cos ⁡( ωt−ϴ) (28)
Using trigonometric equalities, we can write (28) as follows:
V max I max V max I max
p (t)= cosϴ . [ 1+ cos ( 2 ωt ) ] + sinϴ . sin ⁡(2 ωt) (29)
2 2

For a non-sinusoidal regime, the problem is much more complicated and is not yet
fully solved [35], [36]. First part of (29) is the instantaneous active power and the
second part is the instantaneous reactive power. The active power oscillates around
a specific average value whereas the reactive power oscillates around a zero
average power as the average value of a cosine and sine functions is zero. As it is
not practical to work with instantaneous quantities because they are hard to
measure, so that averaged values are introduced.
P=VIcosϴ (30)

Q=VIsinϴ (31)

√
t
1
S=V . I =
T ∫ ( p ( t )−P)2 dt (32)
T

Eventually, Q will be obtained by using the following equation:

Q= √ S −P (33)
2 2

Suppose phase A to phase B fault occurs. The reactive power on one phase
measured by both relays will be positive. Now, we assume phase A as the phase
where positive reactive power has been measured by both relays positioned at the
ends of the line. The reactive power measured on phase B will be negative since
there is nowhere to shift the positive reactive power on phase A. Moreover, before
fault initiation, one relay measures positive reactive power on phase B. It means
that the sign of reactive power measured by one of the relays on phase B will be
altered. Therefore, one relay detects a fault on phase A as well as detects the
change in the sign of reactive power on phase B. On the basis of these conditions, a
phase A to phase B fault will be noticed by the relay. By a pilot scheme, another
relay will be informed about the fault condition.
 Figure 2- 17 Simulated System

Pilot scheme is used to relate the sign of reactive power measured by one relay to
another relay. Pilot scheme does not require any setting and that is the biggest
advantage of this approach. That’s why the proposed method is called setting free.
It does not depend on fault initiation time and fault location and there is no matter
when and where the fault occurs, second vital advantage of Pilot scheme.
2.3.4 Fault Classification using Pattern Recognition Approach
Fault occurrence is one of the main problems in the steadiness of electrical power
system. These faults are actually an abnormal flow of current in a power system’s
component and are unavoidable [37]. Some fault occurs due to natural reasons
which are not in our control, they cannot be totally avoided. Power system will
accurately detect any kind of abnormality in the flow of current, when equipped
with the excellent protection system, it can also identify the fault type, precisely
locate the position of the fault in the power system network and isolate it [38]. The
isolation of the fault must be very rapid to avoid damage of power equipment and
power outage. Also, the faults must be cleared very rapidly so as to restore the
power to the isolated areas. The clearing of the faults is done using protective
devices which detect the fault, respond instantly and disconnect the faulty section
from the healthy ones.
Faults must be sensed and isolated precisely to protect the power system
transmission lines. The control center of a power system having large member of
alarms which receives signals from various protection schemes for different types
of faults [39].
By using the pattern recognition ANN algorithm, classification and detection of
fault from the transmission line can be achieved. A new ANN (second neural

Figure 2- 18ANN network elected for Fault Classification

network) for fault classification picks up by this approach [40]. Phase currents and
voltages accepts as inputs and give an output as four signals which distinguishes
the four classes of fault and which are phase-to-phase fault, phase-to-ground fault,
double phase-to-ground fault and three phase faults.
 Figure 2- 19ANN training Procedure for the Classification of four
faults

Chapter 3 Methodology
Chapter 4 Results and Discussions
Neural networks have been used in this research work to detect the faults occuring
in power systems. Novel technique implemented in this project improves the
accuracy of fault detecting capablity of relay system.
4.1 Power System Analysis and Data Generation
In this project, power transmission system has been used as the research system.
Data of four types of faults occuring at 5 different places is collected in this
research and it is shown in Table 1.Whenever any fault occurs on the line, the relay
senses it and trips the line from the bus bar. Different types of faults are generated
and simulations are performed. Five folds have been collected and fault analysis is
performed on transmission line at 4 different places. These four cases are:
Case-I: Fault at sending end.
Case-II: Sudden Loss of Line
Case-III: Fault in Middle of Line
Case-IV: Fault in Double circuit Line
These cases are summarized below and their prediction as well as accuracy of
detection is also noted. From the collected data it is analyzed that fault detection
due to any sudden event like loss of transmission line due to lightening
phenomenon or short circuit caused by some foreign object experiences difficulty
in detecting its accurate zone. As shown in the Table 1, accuracy of detecting fault
in Case-II of every fold is less as compared to accuracy of faults in other cases.
The relay system installed in the control and protection unit at the sending and
receiving end of the line does not detect it with high accuracy. Moreover in case-I
and case-III i.e. fault at the sending end and at the middle of the line are also not
detected 100% accurately in some folds.
 Fold Class Correct Prediction Accuracy
Fold-1 Case-1 (6/7) 85%
Case-2 (5/6) 83%
Case-3 (7/7) 100%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-1) (24/26) 92%
Fold-2 Case-1 (6/7) 85%
Case-2 (5/6) 83%
Case-3 (7/7) 100%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-2) (24/26) 92%
Fold-3 Case-1 (6/6) 100%
Case-2 (6/7) 85%
Case-3 (7/7) 100%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-3) (25/26) 96%
Fold-4 Case-1 (6/6) 100%
Case-2 (4/7) 57%
Case-3 (4/6) 66%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-4) (20/25) 80%
Fold-5 Case-1 (6/6) 100%
Case-2 (1/6) 16%
Case-3 (6/7) 85%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-5) (24/26) 76%
Total Accuracy (112/128) 87%
Table 1
Fig 1a-1e
4.2 Proposed Strategy
The training parameters of 5 different folds in Table 2 demonstrates the performance of the
proposed novel neural network strategy. Power system is modelled using the MATLAB
simulink. Applying the neural network strategy sharply decreases the loss values sharply in the
start with the increase of training data sets epochs values. This strategy is applicable on any bus
system and shows 100% accuracy of detecting the fault and the predicted results are 99%
efficient. Fig. 2a-2e explains the graphical results of this stratey. In every fold, aproximately at
zero epoch the loss value approaches to zero within no time showing the pecularity of the
strategy. The relay system detects the fault with 100% accuracy. Every case in the transmission
system was tested many times. Every time the relay system predicted exact values.
The proposed strategy was tested by inserting the faults at different locations like sending end,
middle of the line, sudden loss of the line and double line circuit. At every location the strategy
showed 100% accuracy.
 Table 2

Fold Class Correct Prediction Accuracy

Fold-1 Case-1 (7/7) 100%
Case-2 (6/6) 100%
Case-3 (7/7) 100%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-1) (26/26) 100%
Fold-2 Case-1 (7/7) 100%
Case-2 (6/6) 100%
Case-3 (6/6) 100%
Case-4 (7/7) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-2) (26/26) 100%
Fold-3 Case-1 (6/6) 100%
Case-2 (7/7) 100%
Case-3 (6/6) 100%
Case-4 (7/7) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-3) (26/26) 100%
Fold-4 Case-1 (6/6) 100%
Case-2 (7/7) 100%
Case-3 (5/6) 83%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-4) (24/25) 96%
Fold-5 Case-1 (6/6) 100%
Case-2 (6/6) 100%
Case-3 (7/7) 100%
Case-4 (6/6) 100%
Total Accuracy (Fold-5) (26/26) 100%
Total Accuracy (127/128) 99%
 Fig 2a-2e

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