METHODS OF

SAMPLING
Objectives
◻ Understand the meaning of target population and
samples
◻ Techniques to gather a sample of participants:
random, stratified, volunteer and opportunity
◻ The strengths and weaknesses of these sampling
methods
Key Terms
◻ Target population: the group of people being investigated in a
study.
◻ Sample: a selection of the target population that is directly studied
in an investigation.
◻ Generalisability: the extent to which the results of a study
represent the whole population, not just the sample used.
◻ Sampling method: a technique used to gather a representative
group of people as a sample from the target population.
◻ Random sampling technique: a technique used to gather a random
sample of participants from the target population.
◻ Stratified sampling technique: a technique that ensures subgroups
of the target population are proportionately represented in a
sample.
Key Terms
◻ Sample error: when a sample differs in qualities
from the target population it intends to represent.
◻ Volunteer sampling technique: a technique that
asks for participants by placing an advert for
volunteers.
◻ Biased sample: when the sample recruited is made
up of a particular type of person, which may not
reflect the target population.
◻ Opportunity sampling technique: a technique that
recruits participants who are readily available at the
time.
Quick Check
An extraneous variable is
◻ The thing you change

◻ The control group

◻ The thing you measure

◻ Something else that can affect your results

Target population
◻ A target population is the group of people that an
investigation is concerned with or wishes to study and
apply the findings to. If a study is looking at the impact
of literacy programmes on preschool children, for
example, the target population will be all preschool
children. It is unlikely that the researchers will be able
to study all preschool children, so a sample of the target
population will be used. A sample should represent the
nature of the target population. Being representative
ensures that the findings of a study can be generalised
to the target population concerned
Sampling methods
◻ The way in which a sample of the target population
is selected depends upon which sampling method
(technique) is used. The type of technique used will
depend upon practical and ethical issues.
Four Sampling Methods
◻ Random sampling technique
◻ Stratified sampling technique
◻ Volunteer sampling technique
◻ Opportunity sampling technique
Random sampling technique
◻ To achieve a random sample, the target population
should be identified and all have an equal chance of
being selected. This is known as a random
sampling technique. This involves assigning every
member of the target population with a number,
and then drawing numbers from a hat (like a
lottery).
Strengths and weaknesses
◻ A random sampling technique should generate a
representative sample as each member of the target
population has an equal chance of being selected.
This method helps control participant variables that
may affect the findings of the whole study. Even if
selected at random, however, participants still have
to agree to take part in the research. Some may
refuse to participate as this is ethically in their
rights to do, which can lead to a less representative
sample.
Stratified sampling technique
◻ If a target population is made up of different types of
people and a researcher wishes to replicate this in their
study, then a stratified sampling technique can be used
to achieve this. This technique identifies the subgroups
within the target population and takes a random sample
from each to ensure they are proportionately
represented in the sample. For example, if a target
population of office workers has 10 per cent of workers
in senior management and 90 per cent in general office
staff, then the sample should consist of equivalent
proportions of these office workers, drawn at random.
◻ In stratified sampling, researchers divide
subjects into subgroups called strata
based on characteristics that they
share (e.g., race, gender, educational
attainment, etc). Once divided, each subgroup
is randomly sampled using another probability
sampling method.
Strengths and weaknesses
◻ Stratified sampling is useful if a small subgroup of
the target population may be missed by using a
random sampling technique, and it ensures that the
sample is completely representative as a cross
section of a target population. However, it is
time-consuming and suffers from the same
weaknesses as random sampling techniques, in that
people can still refuse to take part. This leads to a
sample error, which can lead to invalid conclusions
being drawn about the target population.
Volunteer sampling technique
◻ A volunteer sampling technique involves gathering
a sample of participants who are willing to
volunteer themselves to take part in a study. This
often involves advertising the study in some way,
such as placing an advert in a newspaper or on a
noticeboard, requesting volunteers to get in touch if
they would like to participate.
Strengths and weaknesses
◻ This sampling technique involves minimal effort on the part
of researchers in identifying and selecting a sample. It is
possible to recruit from a target population by placing an
advert in a specific location, for example. It is also the most
ethical sampling method because participants do not have to
be asked to participate directly, thus avoiding placing
pressure on people to participate. However, it is less
representative than random or stratified sampling because
not everyone in a target population will see the advert or
want to respond. It can also lead to a biased sample as
volunteers tend to be a particular type of personality or have
time and the inclination to participate. This may mean that
the findings are unreliable.
Opportunity sampling technique
◻ An opportunity sampling technique makes use of
people who happen to be around at the time of the
research. This can be done by asking people to
agree to take part, or simply studying people who
happen to be there without their agreement (as in
covert research).
Strengths and weaknesses
◻ This is the quickest and simplest sampling technique
available to researchers, but it can lead to a biased sample
because not every member of the target population may be
around at the time of the study. For example, if a study is
investigating shopping behaviour and the researchers
conduct an observation on a Monday morning, then the
sample studied will exclude people who are working at that
time. Working people will be unrepresented in the sample
and this means that the findings drawn from the study are
not generalisable to the target population of all shoppers. It
also means that if the study were replicated at a different
time of day/week, findings may differ and so may be
unreliable.
Quick Check
What is a random sample?
◻ Participants volunteer themselves

◻ Participants are selected at random from a list of

possible participants
◻ Participants are selected because they are

convenient
Quick Check
Which of the following means the sample is more
representative of the target population?
◻ It has more women than the target population

◻ It is a very small sample

◻ It is conducted at a specific place or time

◻ It is a large and randomly selected sample