STRUCTURES AND

FUNCTIONS OF CELLS
Ron Angelo R. Gatinga
Special Science Teacher I
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this session, the learners shall be able to:

1. Describe the factors that limit cell size.
2. Categorize structural and functional similarities in cells.
3. Describe the organization of prokaryotic cells.
4. Compare the organization of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
5. Identify the different parts of the endomembrane system.
6. Describe the structure of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
7. Compare the function of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
8. Contrast the structure and function of different fibers in the cytoskeleton.
 THE CELL

▪ The cell (from Latin cella, meaning

"small room") is the basic structural,
functional, and biological unit of all
known organisms.
▪ A cell is the smallest unit of life.
▪ Cells are often called the "building
blocks of life".
▪ The study of cells is called cell biology,
cellular biology, or cytology
WHY ARE CELLS SMALL?
 COMMON FEATURES AMONG ALL TYPES OF CELLS

Centrally located genetic material

▪ Every cell contains DNA, the hereditary molecule.
▪ In prokaryotes, the simplest organisms, most of the
genetic material lies in a single circular molecule of
DNA. It typically resides near the center of the cell
in an area called the nucleoid. This area is not
segregated, however, from the rest of the cell’s
interior by membranes.
▪ The DNA of eukaryotes, which are more complex
organisms, is contained in the nucleus, which is
surrounded by a double-membrane structure called
the nuclear envelope.
▪ In both types of organisms, the DNA contains the
genes that code for the proteins synthesized by the
cell.
 COMMON FEATURES AMONG ALL TYPES OF CELLS

The cytoplasm
▪ A semifluid matrix called the cytoplasm fills the
interior of the cell.
▪ The cytoplasm contains all of the sugars, amino
acids, and proteins the cell uses to carry out its
everyday activities.
▪ We call any discrete macromolecular structure in
the cytoplasm specialized for a particular function
an organelle.
▪ The part of the cytoplasm that contains organic
molecules and ions in solution is called the cytosol
to distinguish it from the larger organelles
suspended in this fluid.
 COMMON FEATURES AMONG ALL TYPES OF CELLS

The plasma membrane

▪ The plasma membrane encloses
a cell and separates its contents
from its surroundings.
▪ The plasma membrane is a
phospholipid bilayer about 5 to
10 nm (5 to 10 billionths of a
meter) thick, with proteins
embedded in it.
 COMMON FEATURES AMONG ALL TYPES OF CELLS

The ribosomes
▪Ribosomes are
particles made of
ribosomal RNA and
protein
▪Ribosomes carry out
protein synthesis
 RIBOSOMAL SUBUNITS OF PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES

▪ Ribosomes are made up of

different subunits.
▪ For prokaryotes, it is made of 50S
large subunit + 30S small subunit
▪ For eukaryotes, it is made of 60S
large subunit + 40S small subunit
▪ S – Svedberg unit for
sedimentation coefficient. This is
not additive. Determines how fast
a particle/organelles pellet out
during centrifugation.
TYPES OF CELLS

PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

(PROKARYOTES) (EUKARYOTES)
▪ Cells which do not have ▪ Cells that has nucleus and
true nucleus and membrane-bound
membrane-bound organelles
organelles.
▪ -eu (true) + -karyon
▪ -pro (before) + -karyon (nucleus)
(nucleus)
▪ Consists of plants, animals,
▪ Consists of bacteria and fungi, and protists.
archaea.
TYPES OF CELLS
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
PROKARYOTIC CELL

▪ Nuclear region/nucleoid – contains the

DNA
▪ Plasmid – extrachromosomal source of
DNA
▪ Cell wall – made of peptidoglycan,
structural support.
▪ Plasma/cell membrane – made up of
phospholipids and proteins, semi-
permeable.
▪ Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis
 PROKARYOTIC CELL WALL

▪The prokaryotic cell wall is

made up of peptidoglycan.
▪Cell wall composition can
be used to classify bacteria
into either Gram + (purple)
or Gram – (pink) using the
Gram staining method.
PROKARYOTIC CELL

▪ Glycocalyx - outer coating of many prokaryotes,

consisting of a capsule or a slime layer
▪ Flagella- locomotion organelles of some
prokaryote
▪ Fimbriae - attachment structures on the surface
of some prokaryotes (not visible on TEM)
▪ Pilus – for conjugal exchange and
locomotion
▪ Endospore – dormant, tough, non-reproductive
structure for protection against severe
environmental stresses
BACTERIAL CONJUGATION VIA THE SEX PILUS
BACTERIAL GLYCOCALYX/CAPSULE
BACTERIAL ENDOSPORE
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 THE NUCLEUS

▪ The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
▪ The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
▪ The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
▪ Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus
▪ The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina, which is composed of
protein
▪ In the nucleus, DNA and proteins form genetic material called chromatin
▪ Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes
▪ The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis
 THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

▪ Components of the endomembrane

system:
▪ Nuclear envelope
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Golgi apparatus
▪ Lysosomes
▪ Vacuoles
▪ Plasma membrane
• These components are either
continuous or connected via transfer
by vesicles
 THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

▪ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

accounts for more than half of the
total membrane in many eukaryotic
cells
▪ The ER membrane is continuous with
the nuclear envelope
▪ There are two distinct regions of ER:
▪ Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
▪ Rough ER, with ribosomes studding
its surface
SMOOTH VS. ROUGH ER
SMOOTH ER
▪ Synthesizes lipids
▪ Metabolizes carbohydrates
▪ Detoxifies poison
▪ Stores calcium
ROUGH ER
▪ Has bound ribosomes,
which secrete glycoproteins
(proteins covalently bonded
to carbohydrates)
▪ Distributes transport
vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
▪ Is a membrane factory for
the cell
 THE GOLGI APPARATUS

▪ The Golgi apparatus consists of

flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae
▪ Modifies products of the ER
▪ Manufactures certain
macromolecules
▪ Sorts and packages materials into
transport vesicles
PROTEIN TRANSPORT IN THE
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
 THE LYSOSOME

▪ A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest

macromolecules
▪ Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and
nucleic acids
▪ Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a
food vacuole
▪ A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules
▪ Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy
 VACUOLES

▪ A eukaryotic cell may have one or several vacuoles

▪ Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
▪ Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists,
pump excess water out of cells
▪ Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold
organic compounds and water
 MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST

▪Mitochondria are the sites Mitochondria and chloroplasts

of cellular respiration, a
metabolic process that
generates ATP
▪Chloroplasts, found in plants
and algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis
▪ Are not part of the
endomembrane system
▪ Have a double membrane
▪ Have proteins made by free
ribosomes
▪ Contain their own DNA
 ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY

According to this theory, the proposed

ancestors of mitochondria were
oxygen using non-photosynthetic
prokaryotes that were taken into host
cells, while the proposed ancestors of
chloroplasts were photosynthetic
prokaryotes. The large arrows
represent change over evolutionary
time; the small arrows inside the cells
show the process of the
endosymbiont becoming an organelle,
also over long periods of time.
 MITOCHONDRIA

▪ Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

▪ They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded
into cristae
▪ The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane
space and mitochondrial matrix
▪ Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix
▪ Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP
 CHLOROPLASTS

▪ The chloroplast is a member of a family of

organelles called plastids
▪ Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other
molecules that function in photosynthesis
▪ Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other
green organs of plants and in algae
▪ Chloroplast structure includes:
▪ Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked
to form a granum
▪ Stroma, the internal fluid
 PEROXISOMES

▪Peroxisomes are
specialized metabolic
compartments bounded
by a single membrane
▪Peroxisomes produce
hydrogen peroxide and
convert it to water
▪Oxygen is used to break
down different types of
molecules
CYTOSKELETON
 CYTOSKELETON

▪ The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers

extending throughout the cytoplasm
▪ It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
▪ The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and
maintain its shape
▪ It interacts with motor proteins to produce
motility
▪ Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along
“monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton
▪ Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton
may help regulate biochemical activities
 CYTOSKELETON

Three main types of fibers make up the

cytoskeleton:
▪ Microtubules are the thickest of the
three components of the cytoskeleton
▪ Microfilaments, also called actin
filaments, are the thinnest
components
▪ Intermediate filaments are fibers with
diameters in a middle range
 CENTROSOME AND
CENTRIOLES

▪ In many cells, microtubules

grow out from a centrosome
near the nucleus
▪ The centrosome is a
“microtubule-organizing center”
▪ In animal cells, the centrosome
has a pair of centrioles, each
with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring
 CILIA AND FLAGELLA

▪ Microtubules control the

beating of cilia and flagella,
locomotor appendages of
some cells
▪ Cilia and flagella differ in
their beating patterns
▪Microtubules also function
for intracellular transport.
▪A kinesin molecule (pink)
walking a large vesicle
(dark green) along a
microtubule (green-white
road)
ACTIN TREADMILLING

▪Actin treadmilling is
the rapid
polymerization and
depolymerization of
actin filaments.
 MUSCLE CONTRACTION

▪ Microfilaments that function in

cellular motility contain the
protein myosin in addition to
actin
▪ In muscle cells, thousands of
actin filaments are arranged
parallel to one another
▪ Thicker filaments composed of
myosin interdigitate with the
thinner actin fibers
 CYTOPLASMIC
STREAMING

▪ Cytoplasmic streaming
is a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells
▪ This streaming speeds
distribution of materials
within the cell
▪ In plant cells, actin-
myosin interactions drive
cytoplasmic streaming
AMOEBOID MOVEMENT

▪ Localized contraction brought about

by actin and myosin also drives
amoeboid movement
▪ Pseudopodia (cellular extensions)
extend and contract through the
reversible assembly and contraction
of actin subunits into
microfilaments
▪ Actin flexibility allows the structural
change in the pseudopods of
Amoeba, allowing it to move.
TYPES OF CYTOSKELETON
EXTRACELLULAR
COMPONENTS
 CELL WALL

▪ The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
▪ Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls
▪ The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of
water
▪ Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
▪ Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:
▪ Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
▪ Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells
▪ Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall
• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells
 EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX

▪ Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix
(ECM)
▪ The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and
fibronectin
▪ ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called integrins
▪ Functions of the ECM:
▪ Support
▪ Adhesion
▪ Movement
▪ Regulation
 INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS

▪Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often

adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical
contact
▪Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
▪There are several types of intercellular junctions
▪ Plasmodesmata
▪ Tight junctions
▪ Desmosomes
▪ Gap junctions
 PLASMODESMATA

▪Plasmodesmata are
channels that perforate
plant cell walls
▪Through
plasmodesmata, water
and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and
RNA) can pass from cell
to cell
 TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, AND GAP JUNCTIONS

▪ At tight junctions, membranes of

neighboring cells are pressed
together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
▪ Desmosomes (anchoring junctions)
fasten cells together into strong
sheets
▪ Gap junctions (communicating
junctions) provide cytoplasmic
channels between adjacent cells
 ANIMAL CELL
SUMMARY

Structures unique to
animal cell:
▪ Lysosome
▪ Centrosome – the
microtubule
organizing center of
the cell
 PLANT CELL
SUMMARY

Structures unique to
plant cell:
▪ Chloroplast
▪ Cell wall
▪ Large central vacuole