Solution Manual for Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, 9th Edition Kang-tsung C

Solution Manual for Introduction to Geographic

Information Systems, 9th Edition Kang-tsung Chang

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Chang, GIS, 9e
Chapter 6 Review Questions

1. Explain map-to-map transformation.

Map-to-map transformation is one type of geometric transformation that converts the
newly digitized map into projected coordinates.

2. Explain image-to-map transformation.

Image-to-map transformation is one type of geometric transformation that converts
the rows and columns (i.e., the image coordinates) of a satellite image into projected
coordinates.

3. An image-to-map transformation is sometimes called an image-to-world

transformation. Why?
An image-to-map transformation is also called an image-to-world transformation
because the process converts a satellite image into real-world coordinates.

4. The affine transformation allows rotation, translation, skew, and differential

scaling. Describe each of these transformations.
Rotation can rotate a map’s x- and y-axis from the origin. Translation can shift its
origin to a new location. Skew can allow a nonperpendicularity (or affinity) between
the axes, thus changing its shape to a parallelogram with a slanted direction. And
differential scaling can change the scale by expanding or reducing in the x and/or y
direction.

5. Operationally, an affine transformation involves three sequential steps. What

are these steps?
Step 1: update the x- and y-coordinates of selected control points to real-world
coordinates.
Step 2: run an affine transformation on the control points and examines the RMS
error. Step 3: use the estimated coefficients and the transformation equations to
compute the x- and y-coordinates of map features in the digitized map or pixels in the
image.

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6. Explain the role of control points in an affine transformation.
The control points are used to estimate the coefficients of the affine transformation
and to compute the root mean square (RMS) error. Therefore, the control points play a
key role in the transformation process.

7. How are control points selected for a map-to-map transformation?

Control points are selected directly from the source map. A USGS 1:24,000 scale
quadrangle map has 16 points with known longitude and latitude values: 12 points
along the border, and 4 additional points within the quadrangle. These 16 points are
potential control points for a map-to-map transformation.

8. How are ground control points chosen for an image-to-map transformation?

Ground control points (GCPs) are selected from a satellite image. GCPs are points
where both image coordinates (in rows and columns) and real-world coordinates can
be identified.

9. Define the root mean square (RMS) error in geometric transformation.

The root mean square (RMS) error measures the deviation between the actual (true)
and estimated (digitized) locations of the control points. In other words, the RMS
error measures the goodness of the control points.

10. Explain the role of the RMS error in an affine transformation.

The RMS error is a measure of the accuracy of an affine transformation. If the RMS
error is within the acceptable range, then the assumption is that this same level of
accuracy based on the control points can also apply to the entire map or image.

11. Describe a scenario in which the RMS error may not be a reliable indicator
of the goodness of a map-to-map transformation.
Suppose the control points are located at the four corner points of a USGS quadrangle
map. Even if the control points are shifted from their true locations, the RMS error
remains unchanged as long as the object formed by the control points retains the
shape of a parallelogram.

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Solution Manual for Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, 9th Edition Kang-tsun

12. Why do we have to perform the resampling of pixel values following an

image-to-map transformation?
Because the new image created from an image-to-map transformation has no pixel
values, resampling must be followed to fill each pixel of the new image with a value
or a derived value from the original image.

13. Describe three common resampling methods for raster data.

Three common resampling methods are nearest neighbor, bilinear interpolation, and
cubic convolution. The nearest neighbor resampling method fills each pixel of the
new image with the nearest pixel value from the original image. The bilinear
interpolation method uses the average of the four nearest pixel values from three
linear interpolations. And the cubic convolution method uses the average of the 16
nearest pixel values from five cubic polynomial interpolations.

14. The nearest neighbor method is recommended for resampling categorical

data. Why?
The nearest neighbor method is recommended for resampling categorical data because
it can preserve the original pixel values.

15. What is pyramiding?

Pyramiding is a technique commonly used for displaying large raster data sets.
Pyramiding builds different pyramid levels to represent reduced or lower resolutions
of a large raster. When viewing the entire raster, we view it at the highest pyramid
level. And, as we zoom in, we view more detailed data at a finer resolution (i.e., a
pyramid level of closer to 0).

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