Solution Manual for Living in the Environment Principles, Connections, and Solutions, 17th E

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Principles, Connections, and Solutions, 17th Edition

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 Chapter 8
Aquatic Biodiversity

Summary
1. The basic types of aquatic life zones are the surface, middle, and bottom layers. The life in aquatic life zones is
influenced by temperature, access to sunlight for photosynthesis, dissolved oxygen content, and availability of
nutrients.

2. The major types of saltwater life zones are the coastal zone and the open sea. Coastal ecosystems contain
estuaries, wetlands, and mangrove swamps. Because of their close proximity to man’s activities, they are under
constant strain from water pollution, industrial run-off, construction and soil erosion, agricultural pesticides
flowing into rivers and streams, and aquaculture farming. The open sea contains the euphotic zone, which is
the lighted upper zone of the ocean. The bathyal zone is in the middle and is dimly lit. The lowest zone, the
abyssal zone, is dark and very cold. But all are being affected by human activities: over-harvesting, oil spills,
filling-in of wetland areas, agricultural and industrial development and pollution, rising sea levels, and careless
fishing/trawling techniques.

3. The major types of freshwater life zones are lakes, wetlands, and rivers. Human activities, such as dams or
canals; flood control levees and dikes; and industrial, urban, agricultural pollutants all affect the flow and
health of freshwater zones. Much of U.S. wetlands have been drained and filled to farm and/or to construct
homes and businesses. These actions increase flood potential and encourage droughts. People overfish the
waters; pollute the streams, rivers, and lakes; and dump excessive nutrients from pesticides and waste lots into
the fresh water sources.

4. We must protect aquatic life zones from the pollutants, water controls, and deterioration that we press upon
them every day.

Key Questions and Concepts

8-1 What is the general nature of aquatic systems?
CORE CASE STUDY: Coral reefs are highly biodiverse, and they provide us with many ecological and
economic services. They serve to sequester carbon, buffer coastlines, and provide valuable habitat. Globally,
19% of reefs have been destroyed and another 20% have been degraded. An additional 25–33% could be lost
in the coming decades. Degradation and loss of reefs is an indicator that should serve as a warning about
threats to the health of oceans.
A. Saltwater and freshwater aquatic zones cover about 71% of the earth’s surface.
B. Salinity of the water determines the major types of organisms found in an aquatic environment.
C. There are four major types of organisms in aquatic systems:
1. Plankton are free-floating, weakly swimming, generally one-celled organisms. There are three major
types of plankton: phytoplankton (plant plankton), zooplankton (animal plankton), and ultraplankton,
which are no more than two micrometers wide and are photosynthetic bacteria.
2. Ultraplankton may be responsible for as much as 70% of the primary productivity near the ocean
surface.
3. Nekton is a second group of organisms. These are fish, turtles, and whales.
4. Benthos are bottom dwellers.
5. Decomposers are a fourth group. These organisms break down organic matter.
D. In aquatic systems, the key factors determining the types and numbers of organisms are temperature,
dissolved oxygen, sunlight availability, and nutrient availability.
1. Photosynthesis is largely limited to the upper layers, or photic zone, which can be diminished by
turbidity.

Instructor’s Manual: Chapter 8 91

8-2 Why are marine aquatic systems important?
A. Oceans have two major life zones: the coastal zone and the open sea.
B. The coastal zone interacts with the land, and so is much affected by human activities.
1. Ecosystems in coastal zones have a high net primary productivity per unit area. They constitute 10% of
the oceans and contain 90% of all marine species.
2. There is ample sunlight, and nutrients flow from land and wind/currents distribute them.
3. The coastal zone extends from the high-tide mark on land to the edge of the continental shelf.
4. Estuaries and coastal wetlands are subject to tidal rhythms, runoff from land, and seawater that mixes
with freshwater and nutrients from rivers and streams.
5. Mangrove forest swamps grow in sheltered regions of tropical coasts.
6. Coastal wetlands/estuaries make nutrients available due to constant stirring of bottom sediment.
7. These areas filter toxic pollutants and excess plant nutrients, reduce storm damage, and provide nursery
sites for aquatic species.
C. Organisms living in the intertidal zone have adapted ways to survive the daily changes in wet/dry
conditions and changes in salinity.
D. Barrier beaches/sandy shores are gently sloping. Organisms tunnel or burrow in the sand to survive daily
changes in conditions.
E. Low, sandy, narrow islands that form offshore from a coastline are barrier islands. They generally run
parallel to the shore.
F. Coral reefs are home to ¼ of all marine species.
G. The open sea is divided into three vertical zones based primarily on penetration of light.
1. The euphotic zone is lighted, has floating phytoplankton carrying on photosynthesis, and has low
nutrient levels except at upwellings.
a. Dissolved oxygen level is high.
2. The bathyal zone is the dimly lit middle zone; no producers are in this zone. Zooplankton and smaller
fish live in this zone.
3. The abyssal zone is dark, very cold with little dissolved oxygen.
a. Organisms in this area are deposit feeders, or filter feeders.
b. Hydrothermal vents are present in some areas with specialized bacteria that feed on chemical
nutrients and are food for other organisms.
c. Low average primary productivity and NPP occurs, but oceans are so large they make the largest
contribution to NPP overall.

8-3 How have human activities affected marine ecosystems?

A. Human activities are greatly affecting the ecological and economic services provided by marine
ecosystems.
1. Studies suggest 41% of the world’s ocean area has been heavily affected by human activities.
2. About 45% of the global population lives along coasts, and that figure is expected to rise.
3. Major threats to marine systems include coastal development, degradation of wetlands and estuaries,
over-fishing, non-point and point source pollution, habitat destruction, invasive species, and climate
change.
CASE STUDY: Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. Population pressures and pollution
have led to severe environmental problems in the region. An integrated program involving diverse groups has
been effective in recent years at alleviating the severity of some of these pressures. Nevertheless, a recent
decline in funding has slowed progress and environmental problems remain. New efforts to revitalize the
project are promising.

8-4 Why are freshwater ecosystems important?

A. Freshwater life zones include standing (lentic) bodies—such as lakes, ponds, and wetlands—and flowing
(lotic) systems such as streams and rivers.
B. Lakes are large natural bodies of standing water found in depressions.
1. Rainfall, runoff, groundwater seepage and stream drainage feed lakes.
2. Generally consist of four distinct zones depending on depth and distance from shore.
a. Littoral zone is open, sunlit surface water away from shore and is the most productive area for food
and oxygen production.

92 Aquatic Biodiversity
 b. The limnetic zone is the open sunlit surface away from the shore that extends to the depth that
sunlight reaches.
c. Profundal zone is deep oven water too dark for photosynthesis. Oxygen levels are lower.
d. Benthic zone consists of decomposers and detritus feeders. Fish swim from one zone to another.
Sediment washing and dropping detritus feed this area.
e. Oligotrophic lakes have small supplies of plant nutrients.
f. Eutrophic lakes have large nutrient supplies.
i. Human inputs can lead to cultural eutrophcation.
g. Lakes between these two extremes are called mesotrophic lakes.
C. Surface water is precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or evaporate.
1. Runoff is surface water that flows into streams and rivers, and the area it drains is called a watershed or
drainage basin.
D. Three aquatic life zones, each with different conditions, can be identified along stream flow.
1. The source zone is narrow and fast moving. It dissolves large amounts of oxygen from air, and most
plants are attached to rocks. Light is available, but is not very productive.
2. The transition zone forms wider, deeper streams that flow down gentler slopes. The water is warmer,
with more nutrients, which supports more producers, but has slightly lower dissolved oxygen.
3. The floodplain zone has wider, deeper rivers. Water temperature is warmer; less dissolved oxygen is
present and flow is slower.
CASE STUDY: Coastal deltas and wetlands provide protection against flooding. When these areas are
degraded, the effects of storm events can be intensified. Many deltas are shrinking rather than being
maintained, because the sediments that normally build them are trapped behind dams upstream. Much of the
city of New Orleans is now below sea level for this reason. Levees offer a temporary solution but will usually
be breached by a strong storm. Climate change also suggests that sea level will be rising further. We now
understand these processes, but the question is whether or not we will apply them to the systems that are at
risk.
E. Inland wetlands cover the land for a part of all of each year. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, prairie
potholes, floodplains, and arctic tundra in summer.
1. Wetlands provide a variety of ecosystem services, including filtering waste, reducing flooding,
replenishing stream flows, recharging aquifers, maintaining biodiversity, supplying valuable products, and
providing recreation opportunities.

8-5 How have human activities affected freshwater ecosystems?

A. Human activities have four major impacts on freshwater systems.
1. Dams, diversions of canals fragment ~60% of world’s large rivers and destroy habitats.
2. Flood control dikes and levees alter rivers and destroy aquatic habitats.
3. Cities and farmlands add pollutants.
4. Many inland wetlands have been drained or altered.
CASE STUDY: More than half of the inland wetlands that existed in the United States in the 1600s no longer
exist. About 80% are now used to grow crops and the rest have been lost to mining, forestry, and oil and gas
extraction. This has greatly increased the flood and drought damage in the United States.

Teaching Tips

Large Lecture Courses:

Ask the members of the class to brainstorm ways in which they may inadvertently be putting pollutants into
their waterways. List these on the board for reference. As the students run out of suggestions, question them
Socratically about their activities and the pollution that is generated around them. Bring up such activities as
fertilizing the lawn and garden or washing the car. Draw the connection between general classes of pollutants and
everyday activities that often seem benign.

Instructor’s Manual: Chapter 8 93

Smaller Lecture Courses:

Explore the manner in which the local community augments or hinders the functioning of the hydrologic
system, and in particular the extent to which the way we live determines how much water runs off versus infiltrating.
Explain the ramifications of both scenarios, in terms of flooding, recharging groundwater resources, cleaning the
water of toxins and pollutants, etc. It may be valuable if the technology is available in your classroom to project a
Google Earth map of the surrounding region. This will help students visualize the extent to which community design
dictates the flow of water. Perhaps there is a levee system, a dam, or a reservoir in your area. If not, you might focus
on the relative abundance of pavement versus vegetated open space to draw conclusions about what this entails for
the hydrologic cycle.

Key Terms
aquatic life zones marine
benthos mesotrophic lake
coastal wetland nekton
coastal zone oligotrophic lakes
cultural eutrophication open sea
decomposers plankton
drainage basin runoff
eutrophic lake saltwater
freshwater surface water
inland wetlands turbidity
intertidal zone watershed
lakes

Term Paper Research Topics

1. Aquatic life zones: coastal zones, beaches, coastal wetlands, coral reefs, the abyssal zone.

2. Freshwater life zones: lakes, streams, and rivers.

3. Seasonal turnover in lakes.

4. What is life like at hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean?

5. Wetlands protection.

6. Prevention of beach erosion

7. Coastal cleanup strategies.

8. Endangered species of the coast.

9. What can be done to prevent coral bleaching?

Discussion Topics

1. In what ways do humans disrupt the hydrologic cycle? What are the impacts of these disruptions?

94 Aquatic Biodiversity
2. What are the ecological contributions of the oceans?

3. What is the ecological significance of coral reefs? Are there any reefs in your area? If not, why should you be
concerned about them?

4. What are the valuable ecological functions performed by wetlands? What are some environmental problems
associated with coastal and inland wetlands? Where could you find an intact wetland in your area?

5. What kinds of activities lead to eutrophication in lakes? Do you contribute to this process in any way?

6. Can you define or roughly delineate the watershed in your area? Why is it important to take a watershed
approach to managing freshwater systems?

7. Should we retreat from the beach? Should houses built on barrier beaches have access to insurance?

8. Is your water supply affected by spring and fall turnovers?

Activities and Projects

1. Arrange a field trip providing opportunities to compare and contrast aquatic life zones. What factors appear to
be significant in determining the life found in each zone?

2. Ask students to bring to class and share examples of art, music, poetry, and other creative expressions of
human thoughts and feelings about earth's aquatic life zones. Lead a class discussion on the subject of the
human tendency to settle near water.

3. Are inland wetlands being drained and filled in your locale? Is there a nearby stream or river being subjected to
excessive levels of pollution? Is it feasible for you and your class to "adopt" one of these disturbed ecosystems
and help restore it to health?

4. Arrange a debate on the problems and alternatives of coastal zone management. Debate the proposition that we
should severely restrict engineering approaches to beach stabilization and adopt a "retreat from the beach"
strategy, emphasizing the preservation of coastal ecosystems and the ecosystem services they provide.

Attitudes and Values

1. Are you aware of bodies of water in your area that affect local climate conditions and human developments?

2. Do humans have a right to use aquatic life zones in any way they wish? Do you see limits to freedom of
choice? If so, what determines those limits?

3. Do you feel that humans have the power to alter the quality of aquatic life zones? Do you feel that humans can
responsibly control their impact on these zones?

Additional Video Resources

After the Storm (Documentary, free DVD or VHS)

Looks at watersheds and their importance in various parts of the U.S.
http://www.epa.gov/weatherchannel/video.html

Aquatic Biodiversity 95
Blue Planet (Video series, Discovery Channel, 2001)
Mammoth series, five years in the making, taking a look at the rich tapestry of life in the world's oceans.
http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/blueplanet/blueplanet.html

Conserving America: The Wetlands (PBS, 1994)

A four-part series on American Conservation of wetlands

Conserving America: The Rivers (PBS, 1994)

Conserving America: The Challenge on the Coast (PBS, 1994)

Conserving America: The Wetlands (PBS, 1994)

The End of the Line (DVD, 2010).

This is an excellent documentary covering overfishing and the state of our oceans.

The Habitable Planet: A Systems Approach to Environmental Science (Documentary series, 2007). Videos 2,
3, 5, 7, 8, and 9.
http://www.learner.org/resources/series209.html

Last Journey for the Leatherback?

Looks at the effects of overfishing on sea turtles.
http://www.greentreks.org/naturalheroes/season2/lastjourney.asp

Ocean Oasis (Documentary, San Diego Natural History Museum, 2001)

Biodiversity in the Sea of Cortez, and the deserts of Baja.
http://www.oceanoasis.org/toc.html

We all Live Downstream (Documentary, 1991)

A look at pollution in the Mississippi River and the effects on human health.
http://www.videoproject.com/wea-281-v.html

Web Resources

Bridge
http://www.vims.edu/bridge/
A variety of resources for teachers that may be adaptable to the college level.

Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence

http://www.cosee.net/
Contains a variety of resources for ocean education.

EPA Wetlands Education

http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/education/
Contains a variety of resources for teaching about the significance of wetlands.

96 Instructor’s Manual: Chapter 8

Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Review Questions
Review Questions
1. Review the Key Questions and Concepts for this chapter on p. 1639. What is a coral reef and why should we
care about coral reefs? What is coral bleaching?
• Coral reefs are among the world’s oldest, most diverse, and most productive ecosystems. A coral reef
forms when massive colonies of tiny animals called polyps die, leaving their empty crusts behind as part of
a platform for more reef growth in clear, warm coastal waters of the tropics and subtropics. The resulting
elaborate network of crevices, ledges, and holes serves as calcium carbonate “condominiums” for a variety
of marine animals.
• Coral reefs provide important ecological and economic services. They help moderate atmospheric
temperatures by removing CO2 from the atmosphere, and they act as natural barriers that protect 15% of the
world’s coastlines from erosion caused by battering waves and storms. They also provide habitats for one-
quarter of all marine organisms. Economically, coral reefs produce about one-tenth of the global fish
catch—one-fourth of the catch in developing countries—and they provide jobs and building materials for
some of the world’s poorest countries. Coral reefs also support important fishing and tourism industries.
Finally, these biological treasures give us an underwater world to study and enjoy. Each year, more than 1
million scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to experience these wonders of aquatic biodiversity.
• Coral bleaching occurs when stresses such as increased temperature cause the algae, upon which corals
depend for food, to die off, leaving behind a white skeleton of calcium carbonate.

2. What percentage of the earth’s surface is covered with water? What is an aquatic life zone? Distinguish between
a saltwater (marine) life zone and a freshwater life zone and give two examples of each. What major types of
organisms live in the top, middle, and bottom layers of aquatic life zones? Define plankton and describe three
types of plankton. Distinguish among nekton, benthos, and decomposers and give an example of each. List five
factors that determine the types and numbers of organisms found in the three layers of aquatic life zones? What
is turbidity, and how does it occur? Describe one of its harmful impacts.
• Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and oceans
dominate the planet. 71% of the earth’s surface is covered with salty ocean water.
• The aquatic equivalents of biomes are called aquatic life zones. Aquatic life zones are classified into two
major types: saltwater or marine (oceans and their accompanying estuaries, coastal wetlands, shorelines,
coral reefs, and mangrove forests) and freshwater (lakes, rivers, streams, and inland wetlands). Although
some systems such as estuaries are a mix of saltwater and freshwater, we classify them as marine systems
for purposes of discussion.
• Saltwater and freshwater life zones contain several major types of organisms. One major type consists of
weakly swimming, free-floating plankton, which can be divided into three groups, the first of which is
phytoplankton, which includes many types of algae. The second plankton group is zooplankton, consisting
of primary consumers (herbivores) that feed on phytoplankton and secondary consumers that feed on other
zooplankton. A third group consists of huge populations of much smaller plankton called ultraplankton—
extremely small photosynthetic bacteria that may be responsible for 70% of the primary productivity near
the ocean surface. A second major type of aquatic organisms is nekton, strongly swimming consumers such
as fish, turtles, and whales. A third type, benthos, consists of bottom dwellers such as oysters, which anchor
themselves to one spot; clams and worms, which burrow into the bottom; and lobsters and crabs, which
walk about on the sea floor. A fourth major type is decomposers (mostly bacteria), which break down
organic compounds in the dead bodies and wastes of aquatic organisms into nutrients that can be used by
aquatic primary producers. Most forms of aquatic life are found in the surface and middle layers of
saltwater and freshwater systems.
• The key factors determining the types and numbers of organisms found in the different layers are
temperature, dissolved oxygen content, availability of food, and availability of light and nutrients required
for photosynthesis, such as carbon (as dissolved CO 2 gas), nitrogen (as NO3-), and phosphorus (mostly as
PO43-).
• The depth of the zone through which sunlight can penetrate can be reduced when the water is clouded by
excessive algal growth resulting from nutrient overloads. This cloudiness, called turbidity, can occur
naturally, such as from algal growth, or can result from disturbances such as clearing of land, which causes

Aquatic Biodiversity 97
 silt to flow into bodies of water. This is one of the problems plaguing coral reefs, as excessive turbidity due
to silt runoff prevents photosynthesis and causes the corals to die.

3. What major ecological and economic services are provided by marine systems? What are the three major life
zones in an ocean? Distinguish between the coastal zone and the open sea. Distinguish between an estuary and a
coastal wetland and explain why each have high net primary productivity. Describe some of the interactions
among species in a coastal marsh ecosystem. Explain the importance of sea grass beds. What is a mangrove
forest and what is its ecological and economic importance? What is the intertidal zone? Distinguish between
rocky and sandy shores and describe some of the organisms often found on each type of shoreline.
• Ecological services provided by marine systems include: climate moderation, CO 2 absorption, nutrient
cycling, waste treatment, reduced storm impact, habitats and nursery areas, genetic resources and
biodiversity and scientific information.
• Economic services provided by marine systems include food, animal and pet feed, pharmaceuticals, harbors
and transportation routes, coastal habitats for humans, recreation, employment, oil and natural gas, minerals
and building materials.
• Marine life is found in three major life zones: the coastal zone, open sea, and ocean bottom.
• The coastal zone is the warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the high-tide mark on land to
the gently sloping, shallow edge of the continental shelf (the submerged part of the continents). It makes up
less than 10% of the world’s ocean area, but it contains 90% of all marine species and is the site of most
large commercial marine fisheries. The sharp increase in water depth at the edge of the continental shelf
separates the coastal zone from the vast volume of the ocean called the open sea.
• Estuaries are where rivers meet the sea. They are partially enclosed bodies of water where seawater mixes
with freshwater as well as nutrients and pollutants from streams and runoff from the land.
• Estuaries and their associated coastal wetlands—coastal land areas covered with water all or part of the
year—include river mouths, inlets, bays, and salt marshes in temperate zones, and mangrove forests in
tropical zones.
• Decomposition occurs rapidly in coastal marshes and there are ample inputs of nutrients from runoff. This
makes for a very productive ecosystem that is attractive for marine life as well as avian diversity.
• Sea grass beds are highly productive and physically complex systems that support a variety of marine
species. They also help to stabilize shorelines and reduce wave impacts.
• Mangrove forests are tropical coastal wetlands with deep-rooted mangrove trees. They are the tropical
equivalent of salt marshes. They are found along some 70% of gently sloping sandy and silty coastlines in
tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially Southeast Asia. The dominant organisms in these nutrient-
rich coastal forests are mangroves.
• Mangrove forests help to maintain water quality in tropical coastal zones by filtering toxic pollutants,
excess plant nutrients, and sediments, and by absorbing other pollutants. They provide food, habitats, and
nursery sites for a variety of aquatic and terrestrial species. They also reduce storm damage and coastal
erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis. Historically, they
have sustainably supplied timber and fuel wood to coastal communities. Loss of mangroves can lead to
polluted drinking water, caused by inland intrusion of saltwater into aquifers that are used to supply
drinking water.
• The gravitational pull of the moon and sun causes tides to rise and fall about every 6 hours in most coastal
areas. The area of shoreline between low and high tides is called the intertidal zone.
• On some coasts, steep rocky shores are pounded by waves. The numerous pools and other habitats in their
intertidal zones contain a great variety of species that occupy different niches in response to daily and
seasonal changes in environmental conditions such as temperature, water flows, and salinity.
• Other coasts have gently sloping barrier beaches, or sandy shores, that support other types of marine
organisms. Most of them keep hidden from view and survive by burrowing, digging, and tunneling in the
sand.

4. Explain the importance of coral reefs and some of the interactions among the species in such systems. Describe
the three major zones in the open sea. What human activities pose major threats to marine systems and to coral
reefs?
• Coral reefs are among the world’s most diverse and productive ecosystems. Economically, they are
responsible for 1/10 of the world’s fish catch, and provide for economic development through ecotourism.

98 Instructor’s Manual: Chapter 8

 Coral reefs are formed by massive colonies of tiny animals called polyps (close relatives of jellyfish).
Coral reefs are the result of a mutually beneficial relationship between the polyps and tiny single-celled
algae called zooxanthellae that live in the tissues of the polyps. In this example of mutualism, the algae
provide the polyps with food and oxygen through photosynthesis, and help produce calcium carbonate,
which forms the coral’s skeleton. Algae also give the reefs their stunning coloration. The polyps, in turn,
provide the algae with a well-protected home and some of their nutrients.
• The euphotic zone is the brightly lit upper zone, where drifting phytoplankton carry out about 40% of the
world’s photosynthetic activity. The bathyal zone is the dimly lit middle zone, which receives little
sunlight and therefore does not contain photosynthesizing producers. The lowest zone, called the abyssal
zone, is dark and very cold. There is no sunlight to support photosynthesis, and this zone has little dissolved
oxygen. Nevertheless, the deep ocean floor is teeming with life.
• Net primary productivity is low because nutrients and dissolved oxygen tend to be low.
• Major threats to marine systems from human activities include:
o Coastal development, which destroys and pollutes coastal wetlands
o Mangrove forests have been lost
o Beaches are eroding
o Bottom habitats have been degraded by dredging
o Coral reefs have been badly damaged
• Nine human activities threatening coral reefs include:
o Ocean warming
o Rising acidity
o Soil erosion
o Algal growth
o Bleaching
o Rising sea levels
o Increased UV exposure
o Damage from anchors
o Damage from fishing and diving

5. Explain why the Chesapeake Bay is an estuary in trouble. What is being done about some of its problems?
• Since 1960, the Chesapeake Bay has been in serious trouble from water pollution, mostly because of
human activities. One problem is population growth. Between 1940 and 2007, the number of people living
in the Chesapeake Bay area grew from 3.7 million to 16.6 million. The estuary receives wastes from point
and non-point sources scattered throughout a huge drainage basin. Phosphate and nitrate levels have risen
sharply in many parts of the bay, causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Commercial harvests of its
once-abundant oysters, crabs, and several important fishes have fallen sharply since 1960 because of a
combination of pollution, overfishing, and disease.
• In 1983, the United States implemented the Chesapeake Bay Program Strategies include establishing land-
use regulations in the bay’s six watershed states to reduce agricultural and urban runoff, banning phosphate
detergents, upgrading sewage treatment plants, and monitoring 3 days. Between 1985 and 2000,
phosphorus levels declined 27%, nitrogen levels dropped 16%, and grasses growing on the bay’s floor have
made a comeback.

6. What major ecological and economic services do fresh-water systems provide? What is a lake? What four zones
are found in deep lakes? Distinguish among oligotrophic, eutrophic, and mesotrophic lakes. What is cultural
eutrophication?
• Ecological services provided by freshwater systems include: climate moderation, nutrient cycling, waste
treatment, flood control, groundwater recharge, habitats, genetic resources and biodiversity and scientific
information.
• Economic services provided by freshwater systems include: food, drinking water, irrigation water,
hydroelectricity, transportation corridors, recreation and employment.
• Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed when precipitation, runoff, streams and rivers,
and groundwater seepage fill depressions in the earth’s surface.
• Four distinct zones that are defined by their depth and distance from shore:
o Littoral zone

Aquatic Biodiversity 99
 o Limnetic zone
o Profundal zone
o Benthic zone
• Lakes that have a small supply of plant nutrients are called oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lakes.
• A lake with a large supply of nutrients needed by producers is called a eutrophic (well-nourished) lake.
Lakes that fall somewhere between the two extremes of nutrient enrichment are called mesotrophic lakes.
• Human inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and from nearby urban and agricultural areas can accelerate
the eutrophication of lakes, a process called cultural eutrophication.

7. Define surface water, runoff, and watershed (drainage basin). Describe the three zones that a stream passes
through as it flows from mountains to the sea. Describe the relationships between dams, deltas, wetlands,
hurricanes, and flooding in New Orleans, Louisiana (USA).
• Precipitation that does not sink into the ground or evaporate is surface water. It becomes runoff when it
flows into streams. A watershed, or drainage basin, is the land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and
dissolved substances to a stream.
• Three zones in the downhill flow of water: source zone, which contains mountain (headwater) streams;
transition zone, which contains wider, lower-elevation streams; and floodplain zone, which contains rivers
that empty into larger rivers or into the ocean.
• The U. S. state of Louisiana has lost more than a fifth of its wetlands to coastal development. The
Mississippi River once delivered huge amounts of sediments to its delta each year. But the multiple dams,
levees, and canals in this river system funnel much of this load through the wetlands and out into the Gulf
of Mexico. Instead of building up delta lands, this causes them to subside. Other human processes that are
increasing such subsidence include extraction of groundwater and oil and natural gas. As freshwater
wetlands are lost, saltwater from the Gulf has intruded and killed many plants that depended on river water,
further degrading this coastal aquatic system. This helps to explain why the U. S. city of New Orleans,
Louisiana, which was flooded by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, is 3 meters below sea level.

8. Give three examples of inland wetlands and explain the ecological and economic importance of such wetlands.
• Three examples of inland wetlands:
o Marshes (dominated by grasses and reeds with few trees)
o Swamps (dominated by trees and shrubs)
o Prairie potholes (depressions carved out by ancient glaciers)
• Inland wetlands are ecologically important because they provide a number of free ecological and economic
services, which include:
o Filtering and degrading toxic wastes and pollutants
o Reducing flooding and erosion by absorbing storm water and releasing it slowly and by absorbing
overflows from streams and lakes
o Helping to replenish stream flows during dry periods
o Helping to recharge groundwater aquifers
o Helping to maintain biodiversity by providing habitats for a variety of species
o Supplying valuable products such as fish and shellfish, blueberries, cranberries, wild rice, and timber
o Providing recreation for birdwatchers, nature photographers, boaters, anglers, and waterfowl hunters

9. What are four ways in which human activities are disrupting and degrading freshwater systems? Describe
inland wetlands in the United States in terms of the area of wetlands lost and the resulting loss of ecological and
economic services.
• Human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecological and economic services provided by
freshwater rivers, lakes, and wetlands in four major ways:
o Dams and canals fragment about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers. They alter and destroy
terrestrial and aquatic wildlife habitats along rivers and in coastal deltas and estuaries by reducing
water flow and increasing damage from coastal storms.
o Flood control levees and dikes built along rivers disconnect the rivers from their floodplains, destroy
aquatic habitats, and alter or reduce the functions of nearby wetlands.
o Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to nearby streams, rivers, and lakes.

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 o Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or have been covered with concrete,
asphalt, and buildings.
• More than half of the inland wetlands estimated to have existed in the continental United States during the
1600s no longer exist. About 80% of lost wetlands were destroyed to grow crops. The rest were lost to
mining, forestry, oil and gas extraction, highways, and urban development. This loss of natural capital has
been an important factor in increased flood and drought damage in the United States—more examples of
unnatural disasters.

10. What are this chapter’s three big ideas? What is the relationship between coral reefs and the three principles of
sustainability?
• The three big ideas are:
o Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and
oceans dominate the planet.
o The earth’s aquatic systems provide important ecological and economic services.
o Human activities threaten biodiversity and disrupt ecological and economic services provided by
aquatic systems.
• Reliance on solar energy: human reliance on fossil fuels causes warmer ocean temperatures, which lead to
coral bleaching, and increased ocean acidity, which causes reef dissolution. A rise in sea level could
destroy coral reefs.
• Biodiversity: destruction of coral reefs reduces biodiversity, as does introduction of invasive species.
• Population control: increased human population has caused habitat destruction from coastal development,
overfishing, and pollution. Human recreational use of reefs causes damage from anchors, fishing, and
diving.
• Nutrient cycling: runoff of non-point source pollution from pesticides, fertilizers, and livestock causes
pollution.

Critical Thinking
The following are examples of the material that should be contained in possible student answers to the end of
chapter Critical Thinking questions. They represent only a summary overview and serve to highlight the core
concepts that are addressed in the text. It should be anticipated that the students will provide more in-depth and
detailed responses to the questions depending on an individual instructor’s stated expectations.

1. What are three steps governments and industries could take to protect the remaining coral reefs (Core Case
Study) from harmful activities? What are three ways in which individuals can help to protect those reefs?

Government and industry could limit coastal development, pollution, and overfishing as a means of
protecting reefs. They might also work to limit emissions of greenhouse gases in order to diminish the
effects of global climate change. Individuals could avoid buying products harvested from reefs, support
sustainable development along coastlines, and limit their contribution to climate change by reducing
emissions and their carbon footprint.

2. Suppose you are a defense attorney arguing in court for protecting a coral reef (Core Case Study) from
harmful human activities. Give you three most important arguments for the defense of the ecosystem.

Coral reefs are home to an inordinate amount of the ocean’s biodiversity. Coral reefs protect coastlines,
and coral reefs provide economic sustainability if well-managed, given the amount of the total fish catch
they produce.

3. Why do aquatic plants such as phytoplankton tend to be very small, whereas most terrestrial plants such as
trees tend to be larger and have more specialized structures such as stems and leaves for growth?

Aquatic plants such as phytoplankton tend to be small as they are free-floating in the upper layer or

Aquatic Biodiversity 101

 euphotic zone of the ocean. Not only do they undergo photosynthesis, which introduces oxygen into the
water to sustain other marine life, they are also the base of the food web for marine life, beginning with the
smallest of aquatic animal species. The turnover rate of these small plants is quite high; reproduction and
consumption rates tend to be rapid, so they do not have the chance to get very big. Sunlight does not
penetrate to the sea floor, so large rooted plants are unable to grow in the depths of the ocean. Only in
shallower coastal areas can plants such as these grow, as in the kelp forests off the coast of California.

4. Why are some aquatic animals, especially marine mammals such as whales, extremely large compared with
terrestrial animals?

Marine animals such as whales can be extremely large when compared to land animals. If such a large
animal existed on the earth they would have to have bone structures that would carry their large weights,
and would probably move at a very slow pace. The buoyancy of water enables whales to become very
large, and at the same time they are still be able to move quickly through the water to obtain food or escape
predation. These grazing animals of the sea are able to travel long distances all over the globe to obtain
food and survive. Terrestrial grazing animals such as elephants tend to have a more limited range on which
the herd can use for food and habitat.

5. How would you respond to someone who proposes that we use the deep portions of the world’s oceans to
deposit our radioactive and other hazardous wastes because the deep oceans are vast and are located far
away from human habitats? Give reasons for your response.

I would oppose the suggestion that we use the deep oceans as a place to dispose of radioactive or hazardous
waste. Although the abyssal zone is dark and cold, it does contain enough nutrients to support a large
number of species. Some of these species travel closer to the ocean surface or higher ocean levels each day
as part of their life cycles. This connects the different life zones in the ocean. Dumping wastes in the ocean
depths would have a detrimental effect on the species of the deep. This is the part of the ocean that we are
slowing beginning to understand as we develop technology that allows humans to study the deep. There are
also deep ocean currents that could bring the dumped materials to the surface through the natural upwelling
that takes place. The enormous pressures that are commonly found in the deep oceans would also be
problematic for the design of safe storage containers to house the hazardous materials. They may break
open and leak out their contents to be distributed around the world’s ocean system.

6. Suppose a developer builds a housing complex overlooking a coastal salt marsh and the result is pollution
and degradation of the marsh. Describe the effects of such a development on the wildlife of the marsh,
assuming at least one species is eliminated as a result.

The loss of a species due to environmental change associated with the development would severely disrupt
the complex interaction amongst organisms within the salt marsh. This could occur as a result of pollution
or habitat fragmentation and disruption. The intricate relationships amongst species involve the transfer of
matter and energy. Loss of one or more species would entail unpredictable changes in ecosystem functions.

7. How does a levee built on a river affect species such as deer and hawks living in a forest overlooking the
river?

All species in the system will be inadvertently affected by the levee. Levees disrupt seasonal variations in
river flows and hinder the distribution of sediments. They interfere with the growth of insect populations
and disrupt the spawning cycles of fishes and the breeding cycles of shorebirds. These fundamental
alterations severely disrupt the entire food web. Hawks and deer will be affected by changes in resource
distribution and food availability. There will be changes in competition as biodiversity changes and non-
native species are introduced.

8. Suppose you have a friend who owns property that includes a freshwater wetland, and the friend tells you
he is planning to fill the wetland to make room for his lawn and garden. What would you say to this friend?

You might explain to this friend the important roles that wetlands play. First of all, you should mention that

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Solution Manual for Living in the Environment Principles, Connections, and Solutions, 17th E

wetlands are critical habitat for numerous rare species that flourish in that unique environment. You might
add that a diversity of bird species is likely to visit the wetland. You could also try appealing to his sense of
practicality by explaining that wetlands mediate the effects of storm waters and flooding, that they serve to
purify water, and ultimately recharge groundwater supplies.

9. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. What are the three most important features of your plan to
help sustain the earth’s aquatic biodiversity?

Three important features would be to enact global legislation to protect and restore: (1) coral reefs, (2)
inland and coastal wetlands, and (3) fisheries, so that they are operated only by harvesting the maximum
sustainable yield. These three things would help to sustain the world’s aquatic biodiversity.

10. List two questions that you would like to have answered as a result of reading this chapter.

Student answers will vary and provide a good starting point for class discussion.

Data Analysis
Assessing the Recovery of Coral Reefs in Belize
At least 25% of the world’s coral reefs have been severely damaged. A number of factors have played a
role in this serious loss of aquatic biodiversity (Figure 8-13), including ocean warming, sediment from coastal soil
erosion, excessive algae growth from fertilizer runoff, coral bleaching, rising sea levels, overfishing, and damage
from hurricanes.
In 2005, scientists Nadia Bood, Melanie McField, and Rich Aronsosn conducted research to evaluate the
recovery of coral reefs in Belize from the combined effects of mass bleaching and Hurricane Mitch in 1998. Some
of these reefs are in protected waters where no fishing is allowed. The researchers speculated that reefs in waters
where no fishing is allowed should recover faster than reefs in water where fishing is allowed. The graph below
shows some of the data they collected from three highly protected (unfished) sites and three unprotected (fished)
sites to evaluate their hypothesis.

1. By about what percentage did the mean coral cover drop in the protected (unfished) reefs between 1997 and
1999?
2. By about what percentage did the mean coral cover drop in the protected (unfished) reefs between 1997 and
2005?
3. By about what percentage did the coral cover drop in the unprotected (fished) reefs between 1997 and 1999?
4. By about what percentage did the coral cover change in the unprotected (fished) reefs between 1997 and 2005?
5. Do these data support the hypothesis that coral reef recovery should occur faster in areas there fishing is
prohibited? Explain.

ANSWERS
1. Dropped from about 28% to 12%. Percent drop= (28-12)/28 x 100 = 6/28 x 100 = 21% drop
2. Dropped from about 12% to 8%. Percent drop = (12-8)/12 x 100 = 4/12 x 100 = 33%
3. Dropped from about 26% to 11%. Percent drop= (26-11)/26 x 100 = 5/26 x 100 = 19% drop
4. They remained about the same with a 11% cover.
5. These data do not support the hypothesis that the coral reefs in waters where no fishing was allowed should
recover faster than reefs in water where fishing is allowed.

Aquatic Biodiversity 103

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