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UNIT 2: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, ITS IMPORTANCE

AND THREATS
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
a. Explain the importance of soil and land use;
b. Define mining, fossil fuels, minerals, water, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect,
climate change, and pollution, and
c. Explain the meaning of atmosphere and its strata.

2.1Introduction
This unit presents the vital concepts and principles of the physical
environment including its importance and the threats brough about by the
human activities that eventually alter the beauty of the environment. Further,
details on mining, fossil fuels, minerals, water, ozone depletion, greenhouse
effect, climate change, and pollution are also discussed.
2.2 Topics
2.2.1 Soil and Land Use
2.2.2 Mining, Fossil Fuels, and Minerals
2.2.3 Water: Its Resources and Uses
2.2.4 The Atmosphere and Its Strata
2.2.4.1 Ozone Depletion
2.2.4.2 Greenhouse Effect
2.2.4.3 Causes and Rates of Natural Climate Change
2.2.4.4 Air Pollution and Man’s Contribution to Climatic Change

2.2.1 Soil and Land Use

One of the important elements that is necessary for human survival if we are going to
trace back the History of Chemistry as mentioned by Aristotle is “Earth”, which also means
the “soil” where living and non-living things are found. Knowing this, what do you think is
the importance of soil to all things that you see around?

Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases
that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the
following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of
additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support
rooted plants in a natural environment.

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The upper limit of soil is the boundary between soil and air, shallow water, live plants, or
plant materials that have not begun to decompose. Areas are not considered to have soil if
the surface is permanently covered by water too deep (typically more than 2.5 meters) for the
growth of rooted plants.

The lower boundary that separates soil from the non-soil underneath is most difficult to
define. Soil consists of horizons near the Earth's surface that, in contrast to the underlying
parent material, have been altered by the interactions of climate, relief, and living organisms
over time. Commonly, soil grades at its lower boundary to hard rock or to earthy materials
virtually devoid of animals, roots, or other marks of biological activity. For purposes of
classification, the lower boundary of soil is arbitrarily set at 200 cm.

Figure 1: Horizons of Soil

The horizons are:

O – (humus or organic) Mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves. The O

horizon is thin in some soils, thick in others, and not present at all in others.
A - (topsoil) Mostly minerals from parent material with organic matter incorporated.
A good material for plants and other organisms to live.
E – (eluviated) Leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter, leaving a concentration
of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials – missing in some soils
but often found in older soils and forest soils.
B – (subsoil) Rich in minerals that leached (moved down) from the A or E horizons
and accumulated here.
C – (parent material) The deposit at Earth’s surface from which the soil developed.
R – (bedrock) A mass of rock such as granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone or sandstone

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that forms the parent material for some soils – if the bedrock is close enough to the
surface to weather. This is not soil and is located under the C horizon.

There are seven general roles that soils play:

1. Soils serve as media for growth of all kinds of plants.

2. Soils modify the atmosphere by emitting and absorbing gases (carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapor, and the like) and dust.
3. Soils provide habitat for animals that live in the soil (such as groundhogs and mice) to
organisms (such as bacteria and fungi), that account for most of the living things on
Earth.
4. Soils absorb, hold, release, alter, and purify most of the water in terrestrial systems.
5. Soils process recycled nutrients, including carbon, so that living things can use them
over and over again.
6. Soils serve as engineering media for construction of foundations, roadbeds, dams and
buildings, and preserve or destroy artifacts of human endeavors.
7. Soils act as a living filter to clean water before it moves into an aquifer.

2.2.2 Mining, Fossil Fuels and Minerals

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the
Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposit. These deposits
form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner.

Figure 2. Mining activity

History
Archaeological discoveries indicate that mining was conducted in prehistoric times.
Apparently, the first mineral used was flint, which, because of its conchoidal fracturing
pattern, could be broken into sharp-edged pieces that were useful as scrapers, knives, and
arrowheads. During the Neolithic Period, or New Stone Age (about 8000–2000 BCE), shafts
up to 100 meters (330 feet) deep were sunk in soft chalk deposits in France and Britain in
order to extract the flint pebbles found there. Other minerals, such as red ochre and the

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copper mineral malachite, were used as pigments. The oldest known underground mine in
the world was sunk more than 40,000 years ago at Bomvu Ridge in the Ngwenya
mountains, Swaziland, to mine ochre used in burial ceremonies and as body coloring.

Gold as one of the first metals utilized, being mined from streambeds of sand
and gravel where it occurred as a pure metal because of its chemical stability. Although
chemically less stable, copper occurs in native form and was probably the second metal
discovered and used. Silver was also found in a pure state and at one time was valued more
highly than gold.

FOSSIL FUELS
A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of
buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules originating in ancient photosynthesis.
that release energy in combustion. Such organisms and their resulting fossil fuels typically
have an age of millions of years, and sometimes more than 650 million years. Fossil fuels
contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Peat is also
sometimes considered a fossil fuel. Commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels
include kerosene and propane. Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-to-
hydrogen ratios (like methane), to liquids (like petroleum), to nonvolatile materials
composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found
in hydrocarbon fields alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates.

Figure 3. Fossil fuel

As of 2018, the world's main primary energy sources consisted of petroleum (34%),
coal (27%), and natural gas (24%), amounting to an 85% share for fossil fuels in primary
energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources
included nuclear (4.4%), hydroelectric (6.8%), and other renewables (4.0%,
including geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, and waste). The share of renewables
(including traditional biomass) in the world's total final energy consumption was 18% in
2018. Compared with 2017, world energy-consumption grew at a rate of 2.9%, almost double
its 10-year average of 1.5% per year, and the fastest since 2010.

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Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are generally
classified as non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and known
viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are generated.
Most air pollution deaths are due to fossil fuel combustion products, it is estimated to cost
over 3% of global GDP, and fossil fuel phase-out would save 3.6 million lives each year.
The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil
fuels produces around 35 billion tons (35 gigatons) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year. It is
estimated that natural processes can only absorb a small part of that amount, so there is a net
increase of many billion tons of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. CO2 is a greenhouse
gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming and ocean
acidification. A global movement towards the generation of low-carbon renewable energy is
underway to help reduce global greenhouse-gas emissions.
Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities
under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a
result of anaerobic decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter, mixed
with mud, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting
high temperature and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy
material known as kerogen, which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. Despite this heat driven
transformations (which increase the energy density compared to typical organic matter by
removal of oxygen atoms), the energy released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin.
Terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal and methane. Many of the
coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also
form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. There is a wide range of organic compounds
in any given fuel. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic
properties, such as density, viscosity, boiling point, melting point, etc. Some fuels like natural
gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline
or diesel contain much higher boiling components.
Importance of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (oxidized to carbon
dioxide and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit mass. The use of coal as
a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the smelting of metal ore.
While semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, they were
mostly used for waterproofing and embalming.
Commercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century, largely to replace
oils from animal sources (notably whale oil) for use in oil lamps. Natural gas, once flared-
off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable
resource. Natural gas deposits are also the main source of helium.
Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and oil
sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, began to become more important
as sources of fossil fuel in the early 2000s. Oil shale and similar materials

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are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high-molecular weight

organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). With
additional processing, they can be employed in lieu of other established fossil fuels. More
recently, there has been disinvestment from exploitation of such resources due to their
high carbon cost relative to more easily processed reserves.

Figure 4. Huge emission of gases due to collection of crude oil

Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the
energy needed for industry such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, while
burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at first
and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution. At the same
time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of
the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the
demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of
transportation, railways and aircraft, also require fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil
fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Tar, a
leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads.
The principle of supply and demand holds that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish,
prices will rise. Therefore, higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable
energy supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit.
Artificial gasolines and other renewable energy sources currently require more expensive
production and processing technologies than conventional petroleum reserves, but may
become economically viable in the near future. Different alternative sources of
energy include nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal.
One of the more promising energy alternatives is the use of inedible feed stocks and
biomass for carbon dioxide capture as well as biofuel production. While these processes are
not without problems, they are currently in practice around the world. Biodiesels are being
produced by several companies and are the subject of research at several universities.
Processes for converting renewable lipids into usable fuels
include hydrotreating and decarboxylation.
Minerals
A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has
a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure.

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(One organic substance, coal, is often discussed as a mineral as well.) Ore is a

metalliferous mineral, or an aggregate of metalliferous minerals
and gangue (associated rock of no economic value), that can be mined at a profit. Mineral
deposit designates a natural occurrence of a useful mineral, while ore deposit denotes a mineral
deposit of sufficient extent and concentration to invite exploitation.

Figure 5. Different kinds of rock minerals

When evaluating mineral deposits, it is extremely important to keep profit in mind.

The total quantity of mineral in a given deposit is referred to as the mineral inventory, but
only that quantity which can be mined at a profit is termed the ore reserve. As the selling price
of the mineral rises or the extraction costs fall, the proportion of the mineral inventory
classified as ore increases. Obviously, the opposite is also true, and a mine may cease
production because (1) the mineral is exhausted or (2) the prices have dropped or costs risen
so much that what was once ore is now only mineral.

Figure 5. Appealing colors of rock minerals

What Essential Metals Do for Us

Many metals are used to make strong and durable everyday objects, like copper pipes
or iron skillets. But they don't form such strong and durable objects in our bodies. Instead,
many essential metals are needed to activate enzymes — molecules with important jobs in
the body. And metals have many other essential roles as well. For example:

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 Calcium builds bones and teeth; activates enzymes throughout the body; helps regulate
blood pressure; and helps muscles to contract, nerves to send messages, and blood to clot.

 Chromium helps maintain normal blood sugar levels and helps cells draw energy from
blood sugar.

 Copper assists with metabolizing fuel, making red blood cells, regulating neurotransmitters,
and mopping up free radicals.

 Iron helps make hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying chemical in the body's red blood cells)
and myoglobin (a protein in muscle cells). Iron is essential for activating certain enzymes and
for making amino acids, collagen, neurotransmitters, and hormones.

 Magnesium, like calcium, builds bones and teeth. It also helps to regulate blood pressure
and blood sugar and enables muscles to contract, nerves to send messages, blood to clot, and
enzymes to work.

 Manganese helps form bones and helps metabolize amino acids, cholesterol, and
carbohydrates.

 Molybdenum activates several enzymes that break down toxins and prevents the buildup
of harmful sulfites in the body.

 Potassium balances fluids in the body, helps to maintain a steady heartbeat and to make
muscles contract, and may benefit bones and blood pressure.

 Sodium balances fluids in the body, helps send nerve impulses, and helps make muscles
contract.

 Zinc helps blood clot, helps make proteins and DNA, bolsters the immune system, and helps
with wound healing and cell division.

Two groups of essential minerals

Essential minerals — that is, those necessary for human health — are classified into two
equally important groups: major minerals and trace minerals.

The major minerals, which are used and stored in large quantities in the body, are calcium,
chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur. The trace minerals are
just as vital to our health as the major minerals, but we don't need large amounts. Minerals
in this category include chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum,
selenium, and zinc.

Where do they come from?

We do not manufacture essential minerals in the body. We get them from our diet. The
minerals come from rocks, soil, and water, and they're absorbed as the plants grow or by
animals as the animals eat the plants.

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Fresh foods are not our only source of dietary minerals, however. Some processed foods,
like breakfast cereal, may be fortified with minerals. And if you walk into any drugstore or
look online, you will see endless options for mineral supplements in the form of pills,
powders, and chewables.

Easy to obtain

Dr. Bistrian says that when you eat a healthy diet that includes a variety of vegetables, beans,
fruits, whole grains, lean protein, dairy products, and unsaturated fats (like olive oil), you're
likely consuming all the healthy minerals you need. You probably don't need to pay attention
to your daily intake.

For example, adequate intake of manganese is 1.8 milligrams (mg) per day for women and
2.3 mg per day for men. It's fairly easy to meet those goals with half a cup of cooked spinach
(0.84 mg manganese), half a cup of cooked brown rice (1.07 mg manganese), and an ounce of
almonds (0.65 mg manganese). The same is true for many dietary minerals, like chromium,
copper, molybdenum, sodium, and zinc; eating a healthy diet should cover your needs.

Not as easy

But some minerals are harder to obtain in the right amounts. For example:

Calcium. Deficiency is common in older adults, especially in women and in people who eat
few dairy products. A lack of calcium in the body increases the risk for brittle bones and
fractures.

Iron. Women lose a lot of iron when they pass menstrual blood, and their bodies can become
deficient in iron. Another cause of iron deficiency is less well known. "Obese individuals,
especially premenopausal women, have a high risk for iron deficiency, in part because severe
obesity is associated with low-level inflammation, which reduces iron absorption and use by
the body," Dr. Bistrian says. Low iron levels can lead to iron-deficiency anemia. In this
condition, there are too few red blood cells, and the red blood cells are too small. That makes
it harder for the blood to carry oxygen to organs.

Magnesium. "Some drugs, like diuretics to treat blood pressure, cause you to excrete
magnesium in urine. And magnesium also is commonly lacking in people with diseases that
cause diarrhea," Dr. Bistrian says.

Potassium. Most older adults take in only about half to three-quarters of the potassium they
should, according to the Department of Agriculture. A low-potassium, high-sodium diet is
thought to contribute to high blood pressure.

ASSESSMENT

Answer the following questions:

1. Define the following terms: (2 points each)

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a. Soil
b. Mining
c. Fossils
d. Fossil fuels
e. Minerals
2. What are the different horizons of soil? Discuss the characteristics of each horizon. (20
points)

2.2.3 Water: Its Resources and Uses

Water is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical

substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known
living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or
organic nutrients. The chemical formula of water is H2O, which means that water molecule
is made up of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen.

Figure 6. Water molecule in liquid form

Water is one of the most vital natural resources for all life on Earth. The availability
and quality of water always have played an important part in determining not only where
people can live, but also their quality of life. Even though there always has been plenty of
fresh water on Earth, water has not always been available when and where it is needed, nor
is it always of suitable quality for all uses. Water must be considered as a finite resource that
has limits and boundaries to its availability and suitability for use.
The balance between supply and demand for water is a delicate one. The availability
of usable water has and will continue to dictate where and to what extent development will
occur. Water must be in sufficient supply for an area to develop, and an area cannot continue
to develop if water demand far outstrips available supply. Further, a water supply will be
called upon to meet an array of offstream uses (in which the water is withdrawn from the
source) in addition to instream uses (in which the water remains in place).
Traditionally, water management in the United States focused on expanding or
manipulating the country's supplies of fresh water to meet the needs of users. A number of
large dams were built during the early twentieth century to increase the supply of fresh water

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for any given time and place. This era of building large dams has passed. In the twenty-first
century, the finite water supply and established infrastructure require that demand be
managed more effectively within the available sustainable supply. Water-use information
can be used to evaluate the impacts of population growth and the effectiveness of alternative
water management policies, regulations, and conservation activities.
Water is constantly in motion by way of the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates as
vapor from oceans, lakes, and rivers; is transpired from plants; condenses in the air and falls
as precipitation; and then moves over and through the ground into waterbodies, where the
cycle begins again. *
The water-use cycle is composed of the water cycle with the added influence of human
activity. Dams, reservoirs, canals, aqueducts , withdrawal pipes in rivers,
and groundwater wells all reveal that humans have a major impact on the water cycle. In the
water-use cycle, water moves from a source to a point of use, and then to a point of
disposition. The sources of water are either surface water or groundwater. Water is
withdrawn and moved from a source to a point of use, such as an industry, restaurant, home,
or farm. After water is used, it must be disposed of (or sometimes, reused). Used water is
either directly returned to the environment or passes through a treatment processing plant
before being returned.
Water Resources in the Philippines
Philippines is a country richly endowed with natural resources, including abundant
surface and groundwater resources. Its total internal water resource is estimated at 130
km^3/year. However, despite the vastness of this potential supply, the country has a low
freshwater availability per capita and experiences water-related problems.

Figure 7. A water resource

Analyzed holistically, the problems will redound to institutional and management

failures. The water governance sector is fragmented and the institutional framework is weak,
as it is also given less priority by the government. Though there is already the consciousness
of solving the seemingly worsening problem and several moves were already undertaken,
much has to be done for the country to attain "water supply and demand balance", as there
are a lot of things to do to conserve one of the nature's very important resource- water.

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Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans.
It is important because it is needed for life to exist. Many uses of water include the following:
 commercial
 domestic
 industrial
 irrigation
 livestock
 mining
 public supply
 thermoelectric power

Figure 8. Water Falls

Categories of Water Use

1. Commercial water use includes fresh water for motels, hotels, restaurants, office
buildings, other commercial facilities, and civilian and military institutions. Domestic
water use is probably the most important daily use of water for most people.
2. Domestic use includes water that is used in the home every day, including water for
normal household purposes, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing
clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens.
3. Industrial water use is a valuable resource to the nation's industries for such purposes
as processing, cleaning, transportation, dilution, and cooling in manufacturing
facilities. Major water-using industries include steel, chemical, paper, and petroleum
refining. Industries often reuse the same water over and over for more than one
purpose.
4. Irrigation water use is water artificially applied to farm, orchard, pasture, and
horticultural crops, as well as water used to irrigate pastures, for frost and freeze
protection, chemical application, crop cooling, harvesting, and for the leaching of salts
from the crop root zone. Nonagricultural activities include self-supplied water to
irrigate public and private golf courses, parks,
5. Livestock water use includes water for stock animals, feed lots, dairies, fish farms, and
other nonfarm needs. Water is needed for the production of red meat, poultry, eggs,

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milk, and wool, and for horses, rabbits, and pets. Livestock water use only includes
fresh water.
6. Mining water use includes water for the extraction of naturally occurring minerals;
solids, such as coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such as
natural gas. The category includes quarrying, milling (such as crushing, screening,
washing, and flotation), and other operations as part of mining activity. A significant
portion of the water used for mining, about 32 percent, is saline.
7. Public Supply water use refers to water withdrawn by public and private water
suppliers, such as county and municipal water works, and delivered to users for
domestic, commercial, and industrial purposes. In 1995, the majority of the nation's
population, about 225 million, or 84 percent, used water delivered from public water
suppliers. About 42 million people supplied their own water, with about 99 percent
of that water being groundwater, usually from a local well.

8. Thermoelectric Power water use is the amount of water used in the production of
electric power generated with heat. The source of the heat may be from fossil fuels,
nuclear fission, or geothermal. Fossil fuel power plants typically reuse water. They
generate electricity by turning a turbine using steam power. After the steam is used to
turn the turbines, it is condensed back to water by cooling it. The condensed water is
then routed back to the boiler, where the cycle begins again.

ASSESSMENT

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the characteristics of water? What would be the world like without water?
(20 points)
2. With the abovementioned categories of water, which one has the biggest consumption
of water? Explain. (20 points)

2.2.4 The Atmosphere and Its Strata

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, retained
by Earth's gravity, surrounding the planet Earth and forming its planetary atmosphere. The
atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to
exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface
through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes
between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon,
0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases.[8] Air also contains a variable
amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire
atmosphere. Air composition, temperature, and atmospheric pressure vary with altitude,
and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial
animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.

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Earth's atmosphere has changed much since its formation as primarily a hydrogen
atmosphere, and has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the Great
Oxidation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from
practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to
significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially
since industrialization, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone
depletion and global warming.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×1018 kg, three quarters of which is within
about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner
with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.
The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border
between the atmosphere and outer space. The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere
are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere
by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from
around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by
volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically
quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor).
The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are
the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides
argon, already mentioned, other noble gases, neon, helium, krypton, and xenon are also
present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many
substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts
as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic
composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various
industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or
in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such
as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO2) may be derived from natural sources or from
industrial air pollution. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric
reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be
distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and
composition.

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Figure 9. Composition of Earth's atmosphere by volume, excluding water vapor.

Strata

In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, the
temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively
constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below).
Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or lapse rate, is constant and
measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior
provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere
can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the
exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:

 Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

 Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)
 Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
 Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
 Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)
Exosphere
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the
atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at
an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where
it merges into the solar wind. This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of
hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel
hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer

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behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles
follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar
wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be
possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower
part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains
many of the satellites orbiting Earth.
Thermosphere
The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from
the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi;
260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–
3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar
activity.[18] Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also
referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50
to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as
1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual
sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen,
for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other
molecules.[20] Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high
energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to
conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-
hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are
occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer,
between. 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi). It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting
the earth are present.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region
above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an
altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–
280,000 ft) above sea level. Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that
marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has
an average temperature around −85 °C (−120 °F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at
this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the
highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off
them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily
visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced
discharges known as transient luminous events (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere

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above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where

most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible
to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The
mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the
troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of
the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at
an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea
level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains
relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which
temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the
absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which
restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at
the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so
the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the
troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other
forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in
the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the
highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.
Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's
surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this altitude varies
from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the geographic poles to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at
the Equator,[19] with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by
the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of
relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with
height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing
altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer
from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the
warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its
name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly
80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying
atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and
causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is
located in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi; 18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is
the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated

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cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus
thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the
stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the
only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.
Other layers
Within the five principal layers above, that are largely determined by temperature, several
secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

 The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations
are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but
still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located
in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi; 49,000–
115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the
ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
 The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is
responsible for auroras. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to
621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of
the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so
auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere
forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it
influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
 The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are
well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition
of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by
turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the turbopause found at about
100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very edge of space itself as accepted by the FAI, which
places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause.
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of
the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because
the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared
with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular
weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom
of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely
of hydrogen, the lightest element.

 The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's
surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the
day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes
stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary
boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights
to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

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The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K)[29] or
15 °C (59 °F; 288 K),[30] depending on the reference.

Figure 10. Space Shuttle Endeavour, orbiting in the thermosphere. Because of the angle of the photo, it
appears to straddle the stratosphere and mesosphere that actually lie more than 250 km (160 mi) below. The
orange layer is the troposphere, which gives way to the whitish stratosphere and then the blue mesosphere

2.2.4.1 Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady
lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone
layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar
regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime
polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals,
especially manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam- blowing
agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting
substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent
mixing after being emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can
settle.[2] Once in the stratosphere, they release atoms from the halogen group
through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen
(O2). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons
increased.
Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over
increased cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful
wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) light from passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These
wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, permanent blindness, and cataracts, which were
projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants
and animals. These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans
the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals.
The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began
to recover in the 2000s, as the shifting of the jet stream in the southern hemisphere towards
the south pole has stopped and might even be reversing.[4] Recovery is projected to continue
over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around

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2075.[5] In 2019, NASA reported that the ozone hole was the smallest ever since it was first
discovered in 1982.
2.2.4.2 Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere
warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere.
Radiatively active gases in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all directions .

Figure 11. The Greenhouse Effect

2.2.4.3 Causes and Rates of Natural Climate Change

Climate change includes both global warming driven by human emissions

of greenhouse gases, and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. Though there
have been previous periods of climatic change, since the mid-20th century, humans have
had unprecedented impact on Earth's climate system and caused change on a global scale.
The largest driver of warming is the emission of greenhouse gases, of which more than
90% are carbon dioxide (CO
2) and methane. Fossil fuel burning (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy consumption is
the main source of these emissions, with additional contributions from agriculture,
deforestation, and manufacturing. The human cause of climate change is not disputed by
any scientific body of national or international standing. Temperature rise is accelerated
or tempered by climate feedbacks, such as loss of sunlight-reflecting snow and ice cover,
increased water vapor (a greenhouse gas itself), and changes to land and ocean carbon
sinks.
Temperature rise on land is about twice the global average increase, leading to desert
expansion and more common heat waves and wildfires. Increasing rates of evaporation
cause more intense storms and weather extremes. Temperature rise is amplified in the
Arctic, where it has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice
loss.[8] Additional warming also increases the risk of triggering critical thresholds
called tipping points. Impacts on ecosystems include the relocation or extinction of many
species as their environment changes, most immediately in coral reefs, mountains,
and the Arctic. Climate change threatens food security and access to water, leads
to economic losses, and is projected to increase displacement of people. It further
magnifies risks of flooding, infectious diseases and extreme heat, with the World Health
Organization calling climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st
century. Even if efforts to minimize future warming are successful, some effects will

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continue for centuries, including rising sea levels, rising ocean temperatures, and ocean
acidification.
The Earth absorbs sunlight, then radiates it as heat. Some of this infrared radiation is
absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and is trapped on Earth instead of escaping
into space. Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally-occurring amounts of greenhouse
gases caused the air near the surface to be about 33 °C (59 °F) warmer than it would have
been in their absence. Without the Earth's atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature
would be well below the freezing point of water. While water vapor (~50%) and clouds
(~25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they increase as a function of
temperature and are therefore considered feedbacks. On the other hand, concentrations of
gases such as CO2 (~20%), ozone and nitrous oxide are not temperature-dependent, and are
hence considered external forcing.
Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere (as
opposed to the stratospheric ozone layer). Furthermore, ozone is highly reactive and interacts
with other greenhouse gases and aerosols. Human activity since the Industrial Revolution,
mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), has increased the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These elevated levels of gases such as CO2,
methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs, and nitrous oxide drive up temperatures via radiative
forcing.
2.2.4.4 Air Pollution and Man’s Contribution to Climatic Change

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to
the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.
There are different types of air pollutants, such as gases (such as ammonia, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous
oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both organic and inorganic),
and biological molecules. Air pollution may cause diseases, allergies and even death to
humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops,
and may damage the natural or built environment. Both human activity and natural
processes can generate air pollution.
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases,
including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The human
health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory
system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the
type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health
status and genetics. Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the
world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst
Polluted Places report. Outdoor air pollution alone causes 2.1 to 4.21 million deaths
annually. Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each
year, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk.

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Productivity losses and degraded quality of life caused by air pollution are estimated
to cost the world economy $5 trillion per year. Various pollution control technologies and
strategies are available to reduce air pollution.
An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and
the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can
be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary
pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other
examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur
dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they
form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent
example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they
are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant
in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3)
increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels
of nitrogen oxides.

Thermal oxidizers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs),
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions

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Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

1. Sulfur oxides (SOx)-particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the

formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal
and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates
sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as
NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain is formed.[2] This is one of the causes for concern
over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled
from high temperature combustion, and are also produced
during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome
above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the
formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air
pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
3. Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas.[21] It is a product
of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to
the majority of carbon monoxide let into our atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation
in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural
environment and animals.
4. Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They
are categorized as either methane (CH 4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other
hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating
ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending
on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected
carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another
dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
5. Particulate matter / particles, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM),
atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid
suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some
particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and
grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of
fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate
significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols—those
made by human activities—currently account for approximately 10 percent of our
atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such
as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to
respiratory infections and can be particularly harmful to those already suffering from
conditions like asthma.
6. Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary
disease.
7. Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.

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8. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are
currently banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners,
refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere.
Here they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows
harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to skin cancer, eye
disease and can even cause damage to plants.
9. Ammonia – emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides
of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.
10. Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
11. Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives,
and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
12. Carbon dioxide (CO2)– Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been
described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollutant". Carbon dioxide is
a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the
human respiratory system.
Humans are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature by burning
fossil fuels, cutting down rainforests and farming livestock. These activities add enormous
amounts of greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring in the atmosphere, increasing the
greenhouse effect and global warming. Human activities are impacting the climate system.
Due to the basic physics of heat-trapping gases and an exponential rise in population and
energy consumption, humans have become a force of nature. Clearly, this is a topic with
enormous political, socio-economic and emotional dimensions, but the scientific results show
clearly that:
 Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, are altering the climate system.
 Human-driven changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation, urbanization, and
shifts in vegetation patterns also alter the climate, resulting in changes to the reflectivity of the
Earth surface (albedo), emissions from burning forests, urban heat island effects and changes
in the natural water cycle.
 Because the primary cause of recent global climate change is human, the solutions are
also within the human domain.
 Because we understand the causes of climate change, that paves the way for effective
solutions to be developed and deployed.
ASSESSMENT
Answer the following questions comprehensively.
1. What are the causes of climate change? How could this phenomenon be
prevented?

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2. What are the activities of humans that cause climate change? Discuss each.

2.3 References

1. Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker,

Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750-1800.
2. Enger, Eldon D. and Bradley F. Smith.(2009) Environmental Science. A Study of
Relationships. 11 Edition. Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. New Yor.
3. National Center for Education Statistics. Classification of Instructional Programs.
United States Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, 2000.
(Accessed 29 February 2021).

2.4 Acknowledgment
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay