Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 104, No. 5, pp. 2503–2511, October 2014, doi: 10.

1785/0120130249

Evaluation of Site Effects on Strong-Motion Records in Concepción

during the 2010 Maule, Chile, Earthquake
by Saburoh Midorikawa, Hiroaki Yamanaka, Kosuke Chimoto, Rafael Riddell,
Hiroyuki Miura, and Koichiro Saguchi

Abstract In the 2010 Maule, Chile, earthquake (M w 8.8), many high-rise buildings
in downtown Concepción (CONC) sustained severe damage. The accelerogram ob-
served at CONC had large amplitudes and long periods. The spectra contained strong
peaks with periods around 2 s, whereas the spectra from a neighboring site (CCSP) did
not exhibit strong peaks. Because CONC and CCSP are located in the Concepción
basin and at the edge of the basin, respectively, these observations suggest that the
spectral differences are due to site geological effects. To quantitatively evaluate site
effects, microtremor array observations were conducted as a subsurface structure sur-
vey in Concepción. The S-wave velocity profiles were estimated from the inversion of
the Rayleigh-wave phase velocity and the horizontal-to-vertical ratio. The different
spectral characteristics of the records at CONC and CCSP could be explained by
the theoretical amplification factors computed from the velocity profiles. Further stud-
ies on seismic microzoning of the city with an emphasis on the subsurface structure
should improve disaster planning in Concepción.

Introduction
A gigantic earthquake (M w 8.8), which occurred in
Chile on 27 February 2010, impacted an area exceeding
50;000 km2 , damaged 370,000 houses, and affected over
two million people (Elnashai et al., 2010). The earthquake
produced many strong-motion records (Barrientos, 2010;
Boroschek et al., 2010), including ones with large ampli-
tudes and long periods in Concepción, Chile. The city of
Concepción sustained extensive damage. For example, 58
buildings with three or more stories suffered severe damage
(Leyton et al., 2012). The damage distribution of the earth-
quake was very similar to that of the Mw 9.5 earthquake in
1960, suggesting that severe damage is due to site and/or
basin effects (Assimaki et al., 2012). Thus, it is important
to investigate site effects in the city to understand potential
damage and to establish an effective disaster plan.
Although site effects in the city of Concepción have
been discussed (Nicolau del Roure et al., 1980; Ramirez and
Vivallos, 2009; Assimaki et al., 2012; Boroschek, Contreras,
et al., 2012; Leyton et al., 2012), many of the discussions
were qualitative. Preliminary subsurface profile models have
been proposed from a gravity survey (Nicolau del Roure
et al., 1980; Vivallos et al., 2010), but quantitative assess-
ments are limited due to insufficient information on the sub-
surface structure of the city. To develop a more reliable
subsurface model and to realize a more quantitative discus-
sion on the site effects, a geophysical survey in the city is
necessary. Herein, we investigate the impact of site geologic
effects on records with an emphasis on the subsurface struc-
ture using a microtremor array survey in Concepción.
Earthquake and Strong-Motion Records
Large earthquakes frequently occur along the coast of
Chile due to subduction of the Nazca plate under the South
American continental plate. The 2010 Maule, Chile, earth-
quake occurred in the seismic gap along the coast of Chile,
where the last large earthquake (M 8.5) occurred in 1835
(Beck et al., 1998). The magnitude of the 2010 earthquake
was M w 8.8, and the aftershock area was approximately
500 km long by 150 km wide. Several researchers have pro-
posed earthquake fault models. For example, Poiata and Ko-
ketsu (2010) estimated a reverse-fault model with strike and
dip of 11° and 18°, respectively. Figure 1 shows the surface
projection of the slip distribution. Concepción is located just
above the southern part of the fault plane.
Strong-motion records from the Maule earthquake were
obtained at approximately 30 sites (Barrientos, 2010; Boro-
schek et al., 2010). The accelerogram recorded in downtown
Concepción (Concepción Centro, CONC) is characterized by
large amplitudes and long periods, and many high-rise build-
ings suffered severe damage. On the other hand, the accelero-
gram of a suburb of Concepción (Concepción San Pedro,
CCSP), which is about 6 km southwest of CONC, does not
exhibit such features. Figure 2 shows the locations of CONC

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 2504
Figure 1. Fault model by Poiata and Koketsu (2010).
and CCSP, along with a geological map modified from Ser-
vicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria (1982).
Figure 3 compares the velocity time histories of the re-
cords at CONC and CCSP. The peak horizontal velocity at
CONC is about 70 cm=s, which is almost twice that observed
at CCSP. Figure 4 compares the velocity response spectra of
the records. The CONC spectra have strong peaks at around
2 s with response amplitudes as high as 350 cm=s. The peak
spectral velocities are comparable to the records observed in
Kobe, Japan, during the 1995 Kobe earthquake (M s 6.9;
Ohba, 1995) and in Mexico City during the 1985 Michoacan
earthquake (Ms 8.1; Seed et al., 1988). Both Kobe and
Mexico City sustained catastrophic damage.
On the contrary, the spectra at CCSP do not contain
strong peaks, and the spectral amplitudes at longer periods
are much smaller than those at CONC. The different spectral
features at CONC and CCSP suggest that site geological
effects strongly impact the records; CONC is located on
Quaternary deposits in the Concepción basin, whereas CCSP
is near the edge of the basin where the surface geology con-
sists of the Paleozoic basement rock (Servicio Nacional de
Geologia y Mineria, 1982; Fig. 2).
A downhole measurement of the shear-wave velocity at
CCSP provided the velocity structure down to a depth of
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S. Midorikawa, H. Yamanaka, K. Chimoto, R. Riddell, H. Miura, and K. Saguchi
Figure 2. Locations of CONC and CCSP.
80 m (Boroschek, Yanez, et al., 2012). The obtained shear-
wave velocities near the surface and at a depth of 70 m are
370 and 1600 m=s, respectively. At CONC, a velocity struc-
ture model with a sediment depth of 134 m was initially pro-
posed based on borehole data with depth of about 30 m and a
gravity survey (Nicolau del Roure et al., 1980). Because
depths below 30 m were roughly estimated from a gravity
survey, the model may be less reliable below 30 m. There-
fore, a geophysical survey of the deeper layers is necessary
at CONC.
Microtremor Array Observations
We conducted microtremor array observations at CONC
and CCSP in November 2012 using four or seven vertical ac-
celerometers (Fig. 5). Five arrays were temporarily installed
with different spacings. The array size L was 2–54 m at
CONC and 1.9–30 m at CCSP. Although we also conducted
measurements of microtremors using arrays with spacings of
more than 100 m, we did not use the data due to the low co-
herence of microtremors at long periods. In this study, the
accelerometer used was a highly sensitive moving-coil type
sensor with a high damping coefficient of 26 and a natural
frequency of 3 Hz (Kudo et al., 2002). This type of acceler-
ometer has been successfully used for microtremor observa-
tions. The ground acceleration from the vertical seismometer
was digitized in a data logger at a sampling interval of 0.01 s.
The sampled data were transmitted to a personal computer via
a wireless local area network connection, allowing
microtremor data for frequencies up to 30 Hz to be quickly
acquired (Grutas and Yamanaka, 2012). For each array, micro-
tremor data were recorded in 15–20 min intervals.
The microtremor data were processed to obtain the
phase velocity of the Rayleigh waves. We applied the spatial
auto correlation (SPAC) method (Okada, 2003). First, the ac-
celeration records were divided into 20.48 s segments with-
out impulsive artificial disturbances due to traffic and/or
pedestrians near the sensors. After the SPAC coefficients
were calculated for all segments, the segments were stacked
 Evaluation of Site Effects on Strong-Motion Records in Concepción 2505

Figure 3. Velocity time histories at (a) CONC and (b) CCSP.

(a) Concepcion Centro (CONC) (b) Concepcion San Pedro (CCSP)

1000 1000
h = 0.05

Velocity Response Spectra (cm/s)

Velocity Response Spectra (cm/s)

100 100

10 10

L-comp(N240E) N000E
T-comp(N150E) N090E
Up Up

1 1
0.1 1 10 0.1 1 10
Period (s) Period (s)

Figure 4. Velocity response spectra at (a) CONC and (b) CCSP.

to obtain the average, which was subsequently used to esti-
mate the phase velocity. Each of the arrays used 14–25 seg-
ments. Figure 6 displays an example of the SPAC coefficients
obtained at CONC. The SPAC coefficients tend to decrease at
frequencies below 2 or 3 Hz.
Figure 7 shows the Rayleigh-wave phase velocities es-
timated at CONC and CCSP. The thin lines denote the high
and low limits of the phase velocity from our analysis of the
array data. From the wavelength, the high limit was deter-
mined to be five times as large as the maximum station spac-
ing of the arrays, whereas the low limit was controlled with a
spatial aliasing, which is related with the minimum distances
of the stations. Although we tried to estimate the phase
velocities within these limits, at CONC the appropriate phase
velocity of the Rayleigh waves could not be estimated at
frequencies below 2.6 Hz. This is probably because the
power of the low-frequency microtremors was below the in-
strumental noise level, as can be inferred from the SPAC co-
efficients in Figure 6.
The phase velocity at CONC is characterized by low val-
ues at frequencies above 5 Hz. Similarly, the phase velocity
at CCSP is also small at frequencies above 10 Hz, suggesting
a low S-wave velocity near the surface. At low frequencies,
the velocity at CCSP is higher than that at CONC, suggesting
the basement depth is shallower at CCSP. Because of the
city-noise environment around CONC, the standard devia-
tions of the observed phase velocity are larger in the entire
frequency range, as shown by the bars in Figure 7. On the
other hand, the phase velocity observed at CCSP has smaller
observation errors at frequencies above 5 Hz.
The two horizontal components of the microtremors
were measured at both sites, and the horizontal-to-vertical
(H/V) spectral ratio was calculated. The horizontal spectrum
is defined as the root mean square of the two horizontal spec-

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 2506
Figure 5. Array configuration using four sensors.
tra. Figure 8 shows the ratios at the two sites. The ratio at
CONC exhibits a narrow peak at a period of about 1.4 s,
whereas CCSP has a broad peak from 0.6 to 0.9 s. Because
the processing averaged the spectral ratios for 10 segments of
the records with a duration of 81.92 s, variations in the ratios
could be also estimated. The error bars are slightly larger at
periods greater than 1 s at the two sites (Fig. 8).
The phase velocities and the H/V ratios were jointly in-
verted into 1D S-wave velocity profiles (Arai and Tokimatsu,
2005), assuming the four-layer model. An optimal model
was searched with simulated annealing by Yamanaka (2005),
which is a Monte Carlo method with an efficiency algorithm
to reach an optimal model. The S-wave velocity and thickness
of each layer were determined so that the observed phase
velocity C0
f i  at frequency fi and the H/V ratio R0
fj  at
frequency f j fit the theoretical ones for the Rayleigh wave
CC
fi  and RC
f j  using the misfit defined as
N  0  the phase velocities and ratios, respectively. The observed
1X C
fi  − CC
fi  2
φ
N i1 σ C
fi 
M  0  of CCSP at periods longer than 1 s. This large ratio in the
1X R
fj  − RC
fj  2
 ;
M j1 σ R
f j 
in which σ C
fi  and σ R
f j  are the standard deviations of the
observed phase velocities and the H/V ratio, respectively. N
and M are the numbers of the observed data of the phase
velocity and ratio, respectively. We assumed an ellipticity
for the fundamental Rayleigh wave to determine the theoreti-
cal H/V ratio. The ratios at frequencies from 0.3 to 10 Hz
were used in the inversion. The P-wave velocity was calcu-
lated from the S-wave velocity using the empirical relation
determined by Kitsunezaki et al. (1990) and the density of
each layer. Table 1 shows the search limits after considering
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S. Midorikawa, H. Yamanaka, K. Chimoto, R. Riddell, H. Miura, and K. Saguchi
Figure 6. Examples of spatial auto correlation (SPAC) coeffi-
cients at CONC. Numbers denote the array radii.
previous results (Nicolau del Roure et al., 1980; Boroschek,
Yanez, et al., 2012). The S-wave velocity of the bottom layer
was determined in advance because the low-frequency phase
velocity was unavailable.
Figure 9 shows the S-wave profiles from the inversions
at the two sites. The thick lines in Figure 9 and Table 1 show
the optimal models with the minimum misfit. The dashed
lines in the figure show the previous results (Nicolau del
Roure et al., 1980; Boroschek, Yanez, et al., 2012). Because
many models were examined in the inversions, we selected
acceptable models that had misfits less than 1.1 times the
minimum misfits. The thin lines in the figure denote the
acceptable models. The S-wave velocity at CONC is well
determined, with a small variation of the acceptable models.
Despite the large fluctuation of the phase velocity at high
frequencies at CONC, the S-wave velocity profile is well
constrained by the large and narrow peak in the H/V ratio.
Figures 7 and 8 compare the observed and calculated data for
phase velocities and ratios are adequately explained by the
theoretical ones, except for differences in the spectral ratios
observation may be due to contributions of Love waves
and/or body waves (Arai and Tokimatsu, 2004; Bonnefoy-
Claudet et al., 2008).
Compared to CCSP, the S-wave profile at CONC is char-
acterized by thicker layers with S-wave velocities less than
400 m=s over the basement. The obtained velocity profile at
CONC is consistent with that of the previous study (Nicolau
del Roure et al., 1980). At CCSP, based on the observed low
phase velocity at higher frequencies, a layer with a smaller
S-wave velocity (about 110 m=s) covers the surface down to
a depth of 7 m. Although the basement depth is deeper in our
model, the S-wave velocities at CCSP are consistent with
previous results (Boroschek, Yanez, et al., 2012).
 Evaluation of Site Effects on Strong-Motion Records in Concepción 2507

Figure 7. Comparison between the observed phase velocities and the theoretical Rayleigh-wave phase velocities for the inverted models
at (a) CONC and (b) CCSP. Bars indicate standard deviations of the observed phase velocities. Phase velocity limits are shown as thin lines
considering the maximum and minimum wavelengths.

Figure 8. Comparison of the observed horizontal-to-vertical ratio to the theoretical ellipticity for a fundamental Rayleigh wave at
(a) CONC and (b) CCSP. Bars indicate standard deviations of the observed ratios.

Table 1
Inverted S-Wave Velocity Models
CONC CCSP
V S (m=s) H (m) Density (t=m3 ) V S (m=s) H (m) Density (t=m3 )

155 (100–250) 3 (1–20) 1.8 110 (80–150) 7 (1–10) 1.8

220 (200–300) 23 (1–30) 1.8 360 (300–450) 38 (10–40) 1.8
370 (300–450) 98 (10–200) 1.9 510 (450–650) 55(20–100) 2.0
3300 — 2.3 1600 — 2.3

Parentheses denote the search limits.

Figures 10 shows the theoretical amplification factors which V S is the shear-wave velocity in m=s. Because of the
due to multiple reflections of the SH waves calculated from thick, soft layers, CONC has a higher amplication. The res-
the S-wave velocity profiles at CONC and CCSP. The con- onance periods of the ground are 1.4 and 0.8 s at CONC and
stant Q-value for each layer was assumed to be V S =10, in CCSP, respectively.

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 2508
Figure 9. S-wave velocity profiles inverted from the phase velocities observed at (a) CONC and (b) CCSP. Thin lines indicate models
with misfits less than 1.1 times that of a thick line. Dashed lines indicate S-wave profiles from previous studies.
Evaluation of the Site Effects in Concepción
The available digital strong-motion data at CONC is
very limited, which is probably because an SMA-1 accelero-
graph was used to record an analog trace of acceleration on
70 mm film and its signal-to-noise ratio is insufficient to rec-
ord weak motion. We found one digitized record at CONC
from the Chilean strong-motion data set (1945–1981), which
was obtained during the 1978 earthquake (M 5.3) and com-
Figure 10. Theoretical amplification factors due to multiple re-
flections of the SH waves at CONC and CCSP.
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S. Midorikawa, H. Yamanaka, K. Chimoto, R. Riddell, H. Miura, and K. Saguchi
piled by Riddell et al. (1985). The peak acceleration and
velocity of the record are about 0:1g and 8 cm=s, respec-
tively, which are 5–10 times smaller than the 2010 main-
shock record. Figure 11 compares the velocity response
spectra of the 1978 and the 2010 earthquakes at CONC.
The sharp peak periods of 1.6 s (1978) and 2.0 s (2010) sug-
gest that this location has strong site effects.
A very small aftershock of the 2010 event was also ob-
served at this site about one month after the mainshock (31
March 2010) during microtremor measurements (Midori-
kawa and Miura, 2011). The aftershock record shows a pre-
dominant period of 1.5 s (Fig. 12). The H/V spectral ratio of
the microtremors at the site also shows a predominant period
of 1.4–1.5 s (Ramirez and Vivallos, 2009; Midorikawa and
Miura, 2011). The predominant periods in the 1978, the 2010
aftershock, and the microtremor records all correspond to
the resonance period from the structure model shown in
Figure 10, validating the model.
The predominant period of the 2010 mainshock record,
however, shifts to a longer one than those of smaller records.
Such a period shift has been observed in strong-motion re-
cords on soft soil and has been attributed to a nonlinear soil
response (Tokimatsu et al., 1989; Wen et al., 2006). To dis-
cuss site effects, including nonlinear ones, quantitatively, we
computed the spectral ratio of the 2010 record at CONC
compared to that at CCSP (Fig. 13a). The peaks at a period
around 1.8 s have an amplification of about 10. At periods
less than 1 s, the ratios are less than 1, and a trough appears at
a period of 0.9 s. The solid line in Figure 13b shows the ratio
of the theoretical amplification factor at CONC compared to
that at CCSP. Similarly, the theoretical ratio shows a peak
and trough at periods of 1.4 and 0.7 s, respectively. However,
 Evaluation of Site Effects on Strong-Motion Records in Concepción
Concepcion Centro (CONC)
h = 0.05
2010 Mainshock
Velocity Response Spectra (cm/s)
100
10
0.1
Period (s)
Figure 11. Comparison of the response spectra for the 1978
and 2010 earthquakes at CONC.
the observed peak and trough periods are about 30% longer
than those of the theoretical ones, suggesting a nonlinear soil
response.
The shear modulus and damping of soil vary with the
amplitude of shear strain. Assuming that the soil profile can
be represented as a two-layer model composed of the surface
soil and the bedrock, the effective shear strain γ eff that is
developed in soils during an earthquake can be roughly esti-
mated as
γ eff  0:3 PGV=V S
(Tokimatsu et al., 1989), in which PGV is the peak ground
velocity and V S is the shear-wave velocity of the soil layers.
For CONC, PGV is about 70 cm=s and V S is around 300 m=s,
yielding an estimated γ eff of 0:7 × 10−3 . At this strain level,
the equivalent shear-wave velocity and damping factor are
estimated to be about 80% of that at the low strain level and
about 5% of the critical (Q-value of 10), respectively, which
are taken from the data for clay in Ishihara (1996). For CCSP,
PGV and V S are about 40 cm=s and 450 m=s, respectively,
yielding an estimated γ eff of 0:3 × 10−3 . At this strain level,
the equivalent shear-wave velocity and damping factor are
about 90% of that at the low strain level and about 3% of the
critical (Q-value of 15), respectively (Ishihara, 1996).
The amplification factors at CONC and CCSP were re-
calculated using the equivalent shear-wave velocities and
damping factors at the large strain level as pseudononlinear
calculations. It should be noted that the simplified pseudo-
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2509
0.1
NS
EW
UD
0.01
Fourier Spectra (cm/s*s)
1978 earthquake
0.001
L-comp
T-comp
1 10
0.0001
0.1 1 10
Period (s)
Figure 12. Fourier velocity spectra of an aftershock record at
CONC.
nonlinear calculation is applicable when the soil model is
approximated to be a two-layer model. The ratio of the am-
plification factor at CONC to that at CCSP was also recom-
puted considering nonlinear soil response and is shown by a
dotted line in Figure 13b. The ratio shows a peak and trough
at periods of 1.8 and 0.9 s, respectively, which agree well
with the observed ones shown in Figure 13a. Thus, the large
amplitude of the long-period ground motion recorded at
CONC can be explained quantitatively with site effects from
the proposed subsurface structures. Such strong site effects
should be considered in the seismic design of buildings in the
city, and further studies on seismic microzoning of the city
should improve disaster planning in Concepción.
Conclusions
The 2010 Maule, Chile, earthquake (M w 8.8) produced
many strong-motion records. In particular, CONC, which
had an accelerogram with large amplitudes and long periods,
sustained severe damage to many of its high-rise buildings.
The spectra for CONC had strong periods of around 2 s,
whereas the spectra at a neighboring site near the edge of the
Concepción basin (CCSP) did not have strong peaks. The
aftershock and smaller strong-motion records at CONC also
 2510
(a) CONC/CCSP
Parzen window = 0.1Hz
10
Spectral Ratio
N000E
0.1
N090E
0.2 1 5.0
Period (s)
Figure 13. (a) Observed and (b) theoretical spectral ratios of CONC to CCSP.
show a predominant period of 1.5 s. These observations sug-
gest strong site effects at CONC.
To evaluate the site effects, microtremor array observa-
tions were conducted as a subsurface structure survey in
Concepción. The Rayleigh-wave phase velocities were esti-
mated at two sites. The phase velocity at each site was in-
verted jointly with the H/V ratio of the microtremors to the
S-wave velocity profile over the basement. The S-wave pro-
file at CONC is characterized by thicker layers, with S-wave
velocities around 350 m=s over the basement. The theoretical
amplification factors were calculated from the velocity pro-
files obtained. At CONC, the calculated predominant period
agrees with those of the aftershock and the smaller strong-
motion records, confirming the validity of the obtained pro-
file. However, the period of the 2010 mainshock record is
about 30% longer than the calculated one. To explain this
longer period, the effect of a nonlinear soil response is con-
sidered using a simple procedure proposed by Tokimatsu
et al. (1989). The calculation results considering the nonlin-
ear effect agree with the spectral ratio of the records at CONC
and CCSP. Thus, the large amplitude of the long-period
ground motion recorded at CONC can quantitatively be ex-
plained from the subsurface structures by microtremor array
observations. Further studies on seismic microzoning in the
city with an emphasis on the subsurface structure should im-
prove disaster planning in Concepción.
Data and Resources
The strong-motion records of the 2010 Maule earth-
quake were obtained from the Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, University of Chile, at http://terremotos.ing.uchile.cl/
registros/164 (last accessed June 2013) and the Department
of Geophysics, University of Chile, at http://www.sismologia.
cl/ (last accessed at July 2013). The strong-motion record of the
1978 earthquake was obtained from a magnetic tape compiled
by the Department of Structural Engineering, Catholic Univer-
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S. Midorikawa, H. Yamanaka, K. Chimoto, R. Riddell, H. Miura, and K. Saguchi
(b) CONC/CCSP
sity of Chile (Riddell et al., 1985). The 2010 aftershock record
was obtained from a data file prepared by Tokyo Institute of
Technology (Midorikawa and Miura, 2011).
Acknowledgments
We thank the two reviewers whose comments improved our manuscript.
This study was jointly supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture
and Sports of Japan (MEXT) Global Centre-of-Excellence (COE) Program,
“International Urban Earthquake Engineering Center for Mitigating Seismic
Mega Risk” in Japan, and the FONDEF Research Project D10I1027 “Desar-
rollo de plataforma de amenaza sísmica para el norte de Chile y propuesta de
actualización de normas de diseño sismo-resistente: Análisis de los efectos del
terremoto del Maule 2010 y caracterización de terremotos tipo en el segmento
Taltal-Arica” in Chile. Microtremor measurements were conducted with the
assistance of the staff at Catholic University of Chile. Information on
strong-motion stations was provided by R. Boroschek, University of Chile.
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