HELLO WORLD!

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
REAL NUMBER LINE
Each point on the real number line represents a
real number (or simply a number)
REAL NUMBER LINE
Each point on the real number line represents a
real number (or simply a number)

1 3
0 1 -2 − -0.076 15
2 5
REAL NUMBER LINE
Each point on the real number line represents a
real number (or simply a number)

1 3
0 1 -2 − -5.076 15
2 5
SET OF REAL NUMBERS ℝ
• Set of all Real Numbers or Numbers
• Set of all the points on the Number Line
• Set of all possible length from a
reference point
SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS

• NATURAL NUMBERS ℕ

ℕ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 …
SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS

• WHOLE NUMBERS 𝑊

𝑊 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 …
SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS

• INTEGERS ℤ

ℤ = … , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …

SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS
• RATIONAL NUMBERS ℚ
𝑎
ℚ = 𝑥 ȁ 𝑥 = , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑏 ≠ 0 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑏
0 0 0
, , ,…,
1 2 3
1 1 1
± ,± ,± ,…,
ℚ= 1 2 3
2 2 2
± ,± ,± ,…,
1 2 3
⋮
SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS
𝑐
• IRRATIONAL NUMBERS ℚ

𝑐
ℚ = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁𝐴𝐿

± 2, ± 3,± ± 5, … ,

ℚ𝐶 = 𝜋 = 3.1415 … , 𝑒 = 2.718 …

𝑒𝑡𝑐.
REAL NUMBER VENN DIAGRAM
OPERATIONS ON REAL NUMBERS

•ADDITION +

•MULTIPLICATION ,×, ⋅
PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBER OPERATIONS
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ

1. CLOSURE PROPERTY
𝑎+𝑏 ∈ℝ
𝑎⋅𝑏 ∈ℝ

2. COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY
𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎
𝑎⋅𝑏 =𝑏⋅𝑎
3. ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY

𝑎+ 𝑏+𝑐 = 𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

𝑎⋅ 𝑏⋅𝑐 = 𝑎⋅𝑏 ⋅𝑐 =𝑎⋅𝑏⋅𝑐

4. DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY OF MULTIPLICATION OVER ADDITION

𝑎⋅ 𝑏+𝑐 =𝑎⋅𝑏+𝑎⋅𝑐
𝑎+𝑏 ⋅𝑐 =𝑎⋅𝑐+𝑏⋅𝑐
IDENTITY ELEMENT
Definition
Given a set equipped by some
operation, the Identity element of a set
under the given operation is an element
that doesn’t change anything when
applying the operation with other
elements.
ADDITIVE IDENTITY
The identity element of ℝ under addition or
Additive identity is 𝟎 since for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
𝑎+0=0+𝑎 =𝑎

MULTIPLICATIVE IDENTITY
The identity element of ℝ under multiplication
or Multiplicative identity is 𝟏 since for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
𝑎⋅1=1⋅𝑎 =𝑎
INVERSE OF AN ELEMENT
Definition
Given a set equipped with an operation,
and has an identity element, the Inverse of
an element is an element of the same set
such that if the operation was applied
between the element and its inverse, the
result is the identity element of the set under
the applied operation.
ADDITIVE INVERSE
For an element a ∈ ℝ, the Addivive inverse of 𝑎,
denoted by −𝑎 is a real number such that
𝑎 + −𝑎 = −𝑎 + 𝑎 = 0

MULTIPLICATIVE INVERSE
For an element a ∈ ℝ ∖ 0 , the Multiplicative
1
inverse of 𝑎, denoted by , is a real number such that
𝑎
1 1
𝑎⋅ = ⋅𝑎 =1
𝑎 𝑎
PROPERTIES INVOLVING IDENTITIES AND
INVERSES
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, 𝑐, 𝑑 ≠ 0

1. 𝑎⋅0=0⋅𝑎 =0
2. − −𝑎 = 𝑎
3. −1 ⋅ 𝑎 = −𝑎
4. −𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = − 𝑎𝑏
5. −𝑎 −𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
6. − 𝑎 + 𝑏 = −𝑎 + −𝑏
1
7. 1 = 𝑐
𝑐
1 1 1
8. ⋅ =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐𝑑
REMARK
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑐 ≠ 0,
• SUBTRACTION −
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 + −𝑏

[𝑎 minus b is same as a plus the additive inverse of 𝑏]

• DIVISION / ,÷
𝑎 1
𝑎÷𝑐 = =𝑎⋅
𝑐 𝑐

[𝑎 divided by 𝑐 is same as 𝑎 times the multiplicative inverse of 𝑐]

 EXERCISE. Evaluate the following
1. 1+2+3
2. 4⋅5 ⋅6
3. 3 19 + 4
4. 2+5 3+6
5
5. 3 − 3
6. 7 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
7. 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3 − 2
8. 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6.96969
9. 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜋/3
EXPONENTIATION

Given 𝑎 ∈ ℝ ∖ 0 and 𝑚 ∈ ℕ
𝑚
𝑎 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ …⋅ 𝑎
𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
LAWS OF EXPONENT
Given 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ ∖ 0 and m, n ∈ ℚ,

1. PRODUCT RULE
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑛 = 2

34 ⋅ 32 = 81 9 = 729 = 36 = 34+2
2. QUOTIENT RULE
𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
𝑎𝑛

Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑛 = 2

34 81 2 4−2
= = 9 = 3 = 3
32 9
3. POWER OF A POWER RULE
𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛

Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑛 = 2

34 2
= 81 2
= 6561 = 38 = 34⋅2
4. POWER OF A PRODUCT RULE
𝑎𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚

Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑚 = 4,

4 4
3⋅2 = 6 = 1296 = 81 ⋅ 16 = 34 ⋅ 24
5. POWER OF A QUOTIENT RULE
𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚
=
𝑏 𝑏𝑚

Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑚 = 4,

4
3 3 3 3 3 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 34
= = = 4
2 2 2 2 2 2⋅2⋅2⋅2 2
6. ZERO EXPONENT RULE

𝑎0 = 1
Example:
𝑎 = 3,
32 9
30 = 32−2 = 2= =1
3 9
7. NEGATIVE EXPONENT RULE

−𝑚
1
𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑎
Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑚 = 4 → −𝑚 = −4
30 1
3−4 = 30−4 = 4= 4
3 3
8. FRACTIONAL EXPONENT RULE
𝑚 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚
Example:
𝑎 = 3, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑛 = 5
4 5 5
35 = 34 = 81
EXERCISE. Simplify the following
Given 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
1. 32 ⋅ 42 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 33
2. 𝑥 4 𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝑥 6 𝑦 7 𝑧 8
3. 𝑥 3 𝑦 6 𝑥 4 𝑧 2 𝑦𝑧 5
𝑥7𝑦7
4. 𝑥𝑦𝑧 6
𝑥 2𝑦+𝑧
5. 𝑥 𝑧+2𝑦
𝑥 100 𝑦 150 𝑧 72
6. 𝑥 31 𝑦 219 𝑧 141
VARIABLES and CONSTANTS
VARIABLE
• Any symbol/term that represents an unknown number,
value, quantity, expression, or object.
• Its value is not fixed and is liable to change depending on
the situation.

CONSTANT
• Any symbol/term that represents a known number, value,
quantity, expression, or object.
• Its value is fixed.
Example:
1. “A number from 1 to 69, is multiplied by 5”.

This statement can be expressed as: “5𝑥”

Here, there are two terms/symbols: 5 and 𝑥

The term “5” is a constant because its value is known

The term "𝑥” is a variable because its value is not known, we
only know that its value ranges from 1 to 69.
2. “The sum of two distinct integers is 35. “

This statement can be expressed as: “𝑥 + 𝑦 = 35”

Here, there are three terms/symbols: 𝑥, 𝑦, and 35

The term “35” is a constant because its value is known

The terms "𝑥” and “𝑦” are variables because their value is not
known, we only know that they are integers.
POLYNOMIALS
Definition
A Polynomial is an expression which is
composed of variables, constants, and exponents,
that are combined using mathematical operations;
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division (no
division by a variable)
Examples
With One Variable:
1
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥2 − 2, 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3, 𝑥−7
2

With Two Variables:

3 2
𝑥𝑦 − 2, 0.5𝑥 77 + 𝑦, 2𝑥 7 + 5𝑦, 1 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦
4

Not A Polynomial:
1 2
1 𝑥 −2 25𝑥 + 𝑦 1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1
, , 𝑥 + 1, , 𝑥2 + , 3
𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥−𝑦 𝑦 𝑥3 + 5
TERMS OF A POLYNOMIAL
MONOMIAL – A polynomial with exactly one term
5, 6𝑥, 7𝑥𝑦 2 , −4𝑦 8 , 0.001𝑧13

BINOMIAL – A polynomial with exactly two terms

2 3 2
2 2
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥𝑦 + 2, 𝑥 𝑦 +𝑧 , 0.5𝑧 + 𝑦
3

TRINOMIAL – A polynomial with exactly three terms

2 3 2 2
1
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1, 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑦
2
EXERCISE: Determine if the following is a polynomial, if
it is, count the number of terms.
Given 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
1. 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 69
2. 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1
1
3. 𝑥𝑧 𝑥 + , 𝑥 ≠ 0𝑥
4. 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦
2
5. 0.05𝑥 − 25𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 + 1
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
6. 𝑥+1
POLYNOMIALS IN ONE VARIABLE
STANDARD FORM:

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ ℝ and the variable here is 𝑥.

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are called coefficients of 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , … , 𝑥 𝑛

respectively.
OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS
Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be polynomials where

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑝 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑞 = 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0
ADDITION
The terms from the addends that has
identical set of powers of variables are
called “like terms”. In addition of two
polynomials, just add the coefficients of
those “like terms”.
ADDITION
𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 + 𝑎0 + 𝑏0

Example:
𝑝 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1, 𝑞 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 2

𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2
= 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
= 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 1 𝑥3 + 1 + 0 𝑥2 + 3 − 1 𝑥 + 1 + 2
= 1 𝑥3 + 1 𝑥2 + 2 𝑥 + 3
= 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
SUBTRACTION

Change each terms of the

subtrahend to their respective
Additive Inverses, and then proceed
to Addition.
SUBTRACTION
𝑝 − 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 − 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎1 − 𝑏1 + 𝑎0 − 𝑏0

Example:
𝑝 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1, 𝑞 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 2

𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2
= 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
= 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 + −𝑥 3 − 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
= 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 0𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 − 2
= 0 − 1 𝑥3 + 1 − 0 𝑥2 + 3 + 1 𝑥 + 1 − 2
= −1 𝑥 3 + 1 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 + −1
= −𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏
MULTIPLICATION

USE THE DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY!!

MULTIPLICATION
𝑝 ⋅ 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 𝑞
= 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑞 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥𝑞 + 𝑎0 𝑞
= 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0 +
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0 +
⋮
+
𝑎1 𝑥 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0 +
𝑎0 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0
𝑛

=෍ ෍ 𝑎𝑖 𝑏𝑗 𝑥 𝑘
𝑘=1 𝑖+𝑗=𝑘
Example:
𝑝 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1, 𝑞 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 2

𝑝 ⋅ 𝑞 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥2 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 2 + 3 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 2 + 1 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥 + 𝑥 2 2 + 3 𝑥 + 3 −𝑥 + 3 2
+1 𝑥 3 + 1 −𝑥 + 1 2
= 𝑥 5 + −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + −3𝑥 + 6 + 𝑥 3 + −𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥 5 + −𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + −3𝑥 + −𝑥 + 6 + 2
= 1 𝑥 5 + −1 + 1 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 3 + −3 + −1 𝑥 + 6 + 2
= 𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + −1 𝑥 + 8
= 𝒙𝟓 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟖
REMARKS
1. THE PROPERTIES OF OPERATION ON NUMBERS ALSO
APPLIES TO OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS.

2. THE SUM OF TWO POLYNOMIALS IS A POLYNOMIAL

3. THE PRODUCT OF TWO POLYNOMIALS IS A

POLYNOMIAL
EXERCISE:
For each item, find 𝑝 + 𝑞, 𝑝 − 𝑞, 𝑞 − 𝑝, and 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑞
Given 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

1. 𝑝 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 69, 𝑞 = −7𝑥 2

2 4 2
2. 𝑝 = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑞 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1

1 2 3
3. 𝑝 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 , 𝑞 = 5𝑥 − 1
2
DEGREE OF A POLYNOMIAL
The degree of a polynomial 𝑝, denoted by deg 𝑝 , is the largest
exponent of the variable with nonzero coefficients. That is if

𝑝 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then deg 𝑝 = 𝑛

Example:
𝑝 = 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 8 − 9𝑥 2 , 𝑞 = 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 8 + 𝑥 4
deg 𝑝 = 8 deg 𝑞 = 4
FACTORING
Factoring a polynomial 𝑝 is finding polynomials 𝑝1
and 𝑝2 , where each of the degree of 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 is
less than or equal to degree of 𝑝, and

𝑝 = 𝑝1 𝑝2

𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are called factors of 𝑝.

Examples:
1. Let 𝑝 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2. Take 𝑝1 = 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑝2 = 𝑥 + 2

𝑝 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑝1 𝑝2

Therefore, 𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 2 are factors of 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2

2. Let 𝑝 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 . Take 𝑝1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 and 𝑝2 = 𝑥 − 𝑦

𝑝 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑝1 𝑝2

Therefore, 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 𝑦 are factors of 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

 FACTORING
TECHNIQUES
COMMON MONOMIAL FACTOR 𝑪𝑴𝑭

- Finding the common

monomial factor of each
term of the polynomial.
COMMON MONOMIAL FACTOR 𝑪𝑴𝑭
Example: Factor the polynomial 𝑝 = 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 .
Observe that:
𝑝 = 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2
= 5𝑥 3 𝑥𝑦 + 5 ⋅ 2𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦
= 5𝑥 3 𝑦 𝑥 + 5𝑥 3 𝑦 2𝑦
= 5𝑥 3 𝑦 𝑥 + 2𝑦

Therefore, 5𝑥 3 𝑦 and 1 + 2𝑥𝑦 are factors of 𝑝 = 5𝑥 3 𝑦 + 10𝑥 4 𝑦 2

and
5𝑥 3 𝑦 is the common monomial factor (CMF) of each term of 𝑝
EXERCISE: Determine the common monomial factor.

Given 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
1. 168𝑥 3 + 207𝑥 2 + 345
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 + 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑥
39 65 17 100 15 75
3. 16𝑥 𝑦 + 24𝑥 𝑦 + 96𝑥 𝑦
2 3 4
4. 99𝑥 + 999𝑥 + 9999𝑥 + 99999
5 16 8 8 9 4
5. 15𝑥 + 17𝑥 𝑦 + 18𝑥 𝑦 + 15𝑥
6. 10𝑥 5 + 100𝑥 4 + 1000𝑥 3 + 10000𝑥 2
FACTORING BY GROUPING
Requirements:
-Factoring by Grouping can only be done if the Polynomial
has at least 4 terms.

Factoring Procedure:
- Grouping the terms of the polynomial. Each group must
consist of at least two terms.
- Factor each grouping
- Finding the common factor in each of the group factored.
FACTORING BY GROUPING
Example: Factor the polynomial 𝑝 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2.

𝑝 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 1
= 𝑥 + 2 𝑥2𝑦 + 1

𝑥 + 2 and 𝑥 2 + 1 are the factors of 𝑝 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2.

EXERCISE: Factor each given by grouping.

Given 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
1. 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3
5 4 4 5
2. 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥 − 𝑦
5 2 3 4
3. 𝑧 + 6𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 3𝑧
4. 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑦
2 2
5. 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 − 𝑦
6. 10𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 6𝑦 + 100𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 − 60𝑦𝑧
NOTE

Any Polynomial can be

factored using CMF and
FACTORING BY GROUPING.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
 2 2
TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦
(F.O.I.L.)
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. Then

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2 = 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠𝑦

Where 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ ℝ, and

𝑝⋅𝑟 =𝑎
𝑝⋅𝑠+𝑞⋅𝑟 =𝑏
𝑞⋅𝑠 =𝑐
 2 2
TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦
(F.O.I.L.)

Factoring by grouping can also be used in factoring

trinomials of this form. You just have to split the middle
term 𝑏𝑥𝑦 into two separate terms. The breakdown is
precisely

𝑏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑠 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑟 𝑥𝑦
TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2
Example: Factor 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2

Solution: Its factor is of the form 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠

You have to think of four numbers 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠 where:

𝑝⋅𝑟 =6
𝑝⋅𝑠+𝑞⋅𝑟 =7
𝑞⋅𝑠 =2

Verify that 𝑝 = 3, 𝑞 = 2, 𝑟 = 2, and 𝑠 = 1 satisfies the conditions

above. Hence the given can be written as product of polynomials
3𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 + 1
TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2

Example: Factor 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2

If factoring by grouping is applied here, the middle term 7𝑥 can be

expressed as
7𝑥 = 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑟 𝑥
= 3⋅1 𝑥+ 2⋅2 𝑥
= 3𝑥 + 4𝑥
Thus,
6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2 = 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2
= 3𝑥 2𝑥 + 1 + 2 2𝑥 + 1
= 3𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 + 1
EXERCISE: Factor each given trinomial by grouping.

Given 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
1. 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 18
2
2. 𝑥 + 58𝑥 − 759
2
3. 3𝑥 + 17𝑥 − 28
2
4. 25𝑥 + 10𝑥 − 24
5. 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥𝑦 + 56𝑦 2
2
6. 21𝑥 − 53𝑥 + 30
SQUARE OF BINOMIAL

Let 𝑠 and 𝑡 be the terms of a binomial. Then

2 2 2
𝑠+𝑡 = 𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑡 + 𝑡
SQUARE OF BINOMIAL
Example
⋅ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 2
= 2𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 2
2 2
= 4𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦

2 2
⋅ 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + −2𝑦
2 2
= 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 −2𝑦 + −2𝑦
= 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2
SQUARE OF BINOMIAL
Exercise
Multiply the following: Factor the following:

1. 2𝑥 + 7𝑦 2 6. 𝑥 2 + 18𝑥𝑦 + 81𝑦 2
2. −𝑎 − 𝑏 2 7. 4𝑥 4 − 28𝑥 2 + 49
3. 𝑐 2 𝑏 7 − 20𝑥 3 2
8. 9𝑥 8 𝑦 4 + 24𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 16𝑧 6
4. 𝑎+𝑏+1 2 9. 𝑥 + 1 2 + 2 𝑥 + 1 + 1
5. 10,005 2 10. 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be polynomials. Then, the

difference of their squares is just the product
of their sum and difference. That is

2 2
𝑝 −𝑞 = 𝑝+𝑞 𝑝−𝑞
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES

Example:

2 2 2
⋅ 𝑥 −1=𝑥 −1 = 𝑥+1 𝑥−1

⋅ 4𝑥 4 − 𝑦 2 2
= 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2

= 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2𝑥 − 𝑦
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES
Exercise
Multiply the following: Factor the following:

1. 2𝑥 + 7𝑦 2𝑥 − 7𝑦 6. 144𝑥 4 𝑦 6 − 49𝑎12
2. −𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 7. −36𝑧 96 + 4761𝑏138
3. 𝑐 2 𝑏 7 − 20𝑥 3 20𝑥 3 + 𝑏 7 𝑐 2 8. 𝑎4 − 𝑏 4
4. 𝑎+𝑏+1 𝑎+𝑏−1 9. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 𝑦 2
5. 10,005 9,995 10. 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏 − 1
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO CUBES
Difference of two cubes

𝑝 3 − 𝑞 3 = 𝑝−𝑞 𝑝 2 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2

Sum of two cubes

𝑝 3 + 𝑞 3 = 𝑝+𝑞 𝑝 2 − 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO CUBES
Example:

⋅ 𝑥 3 − 1 = 𝑥 3 − 13
= 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 1 + 12
= 𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1

⋅ 8𝑥 6 + 𝑦 3 = 2𝑥 2 3 + 𝑦 3
= 2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2𝑥 2 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 2

= 2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 4𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 2
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO CUBES
Exercise
Factor the following:

1. 𝑥 3 ± 27𝑦 3
2. 64𝑎9 𝑏12 ± 1000𝑥 69
3. 216𝑢99 ± 𝑣 15 𝑤 72
4. 𝑚+𝑛 3±8
5. 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ± 1
2 2 3
6. 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 ± 𝑧
DIFFERENCE OF TWO PERFECT POWERS OF 𝒏
Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be polynomials and 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, Then,
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛

𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑛−3 𝑞 2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑞 𝑛−2 + 𝑞 𝑛−1

DIFFERENCE OF TWO POWERS OF 𝒏
Example:
16𝑥 4 − 1 = 2𝑥 4
− 14

3 2
= 2𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 ⋅ 1 + 2𝑥 ⋅ 11 + 2𝑥 ⋅ 12 + 13

= 2𝑥 − 1 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
DIFFERENCE OF TWO POWERS OF 𝒏
Exercise
Factor the following:

1. 𝑥 5 − 243𝑦 5
2. 81𝑥 20 − 256𝑦 8 𝑧12
3. 216𝑢99 − 8𝑎6
4. 𝑚8 𝑛20 𝑝32 − 16
5. 𝑥+𝑦 4−1
5 10
6. −𝑧 + 243𝑥
7. 𝑎7 − 128
BINOMIAL
EXPANSION
COMBINATION
Combination is the number of ways that 𝑟 out of 𝑛
objects can be selected, without considering the order
of those 𝑟 objects selected.

The formula for combination is given by:

𝑛 𝑛!
=
𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑟 ! 𝑟!
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
𝑛
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛−𝑖 𝑖
𝑎+𝑏 =෍ 𝑎 𝑏
𝑖
𝑖=0

𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−2 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑏+ 𝑎 𝑏 …+ 𝑏
0 1 2 𝑛
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Pascal’s Triangle
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Pascal’s Triangle
𝑎+𝑏 0 = 1

𝑎+𝑏 1 = 𝑎+𝑏

𝑎+𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 +2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

𝑎+𝑏 3 = 𝑎3 +3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3

𝑎+𝑏 4 = 𝑎4 +4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4

𝑎+𝑏 5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑏 + 10𝑎3 𝑏 2 + 10𝑎2 𝑏3 + 5𝑎𝑏 4 + 𝑏 4

BINOMIAL EXPANSION
4
Example: Expand 2𝑥 + 3

Here: 𝑛 = 4, 𝑎 = 2𝑥, 𝑏 = 3. Plugging these to the Binomial

Expansion formula;

4
4 4
4 3
4 2 2
4 3
4 4
2𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 3 + 3
0 1 2 3 4

= 1 16𝑥 4 + 4 8𝑥 3 3 + 6 4𝑥 2 9 + 4 2𝑥 27 + 1 81

= 16𝑥 4 + 96𝑥 3 + 216𝑥 2 + 216𝑥 + 81

BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Exercise: Expand the following:

1. 𝑥+2 5
4
2. 3𝑥 − 𝑦
3. 𝑎−𝑏 7
6
4. −𝑚 − 𝑛
5. 𝑘+1 8
6. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 4
LONG DIVISION and SYNTHETIC DIVISION
Requirements: Can only be used the dividend is a polynomial with
one variable and the divisor is a binomial of degree 1.

In other words, the dividend must be of the form

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

and the divisor must be of the form

𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Here, 𝑎0 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ
LONG DIVISION
Procedure:
• Divide the first term of the dividend by the first
term of the divisor, and put that in the answer.
• Multiply the divisor by that answer, put that
below the dividend
• Subtract to create a new polynomial
• Repeat
REMAINDER
& FACTOR
THEOREM
REMAINDER THEOREM
When a polynomial
𝑝 𝑥 is divided by
𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐, the remainder
𝑐
is 𝑝 .
𝑏
REMAINDER THEOREM
Example:
What is the remainder when 𝑝 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 3 is
divided by
i. 𝑥 − 3
ii. 𝑥 + 3
iii. 2𝑥 − 1
iv. 2𝑥 + 1
REMAINDER THEOREM
𝑐
𝑖. If 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = 𝑥 − 3 → = 3. Hence, the remainder
𝑏
when 𝑝 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 − 3 is 𝑝(3)
𝑝 3 =2 3 2+7 3 +3
= 18 + 21 + 3
= 42
𝑐
𝑖𝑖. If 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = 𝑥 + 3 → = −3. Hence, the remainder
𝑏
when 𝑝 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 + 3 is 𝑝(−3)
𝑝 3 = 2 −3 2 + 7 −3 + 3
= 18 − 21 + 3
=0
REMAINDER THEOREM
𝑐 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖. If 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = 2𝑥 − 1 → = . Hence, the remainder when 𝑝 𝑥 is divided by
𝑏 2
1
2𝑥 − 1 is 𝑝
2
2
1 1 1
𝑝 =2 +7 +3
2 2 2
1 7
= + +3
2 2
=7
𝑐 1
𝑖𝑣. If 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = 2𝑥 + 1 → = − . Hence, the remainder when 𝑝 𝑥 is divided
𝑏 2
1
by 2𝑥 + 1 is 𝑝 −
2
2
1 1 1
𝑝 − =2 − +7 − +3
2 2 2
1 7
= − +3
2 2
=0
REMAINDER THEOREM

EXERCISE
Find the remainder when the polynomials on the
left is divided by the polynomials on the right

DIVIDENDS DIVISORS
1. 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 24 1. 𝑥 + 2
2. 𝑞 𝑥 = 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 9 2. 3𝑥 − 1
FACTOR THEOREM

𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of a
polynomial 𝑝 𝑥 if
𝑐
𝑝 =0
𝑏
FACTOR THEOREM
EXERCISE
Determine which polynomials from the right is a factor of the
polynomials on the left.

1. 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 A. 𝑥 − 2
2. 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 B. 2𝑥 − 1
2 11 C. 𝑥 + 3
3. 𝑥 + 2
𝑥 +2
4. 4𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 D. 3𝑥 + 2
5. 2𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 E. 𝑥
 Long Quiz 1 Cheat Sheet
Factoring Methods: CMF and By Grouping
Square of Binomial: 𝑠 + 𝑡 2 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑡 + 𝑡 2
Difference of two squares: 𝑝2 − 𝑞 2 = 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝 + 𝑞
Difference of two cubes: 𝑝3 − 𝑞 3 = 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝2 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2
Difference of two powers of 𝑛:
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛 = 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑛−3 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑞 𝑛−2 + 𝑞 𝑛−1
Binomial expansion:
𝑛
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛−𝑖 𝑖 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−2 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎+𝑏 =෍ 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑏+ 𝑎 𝑏 …+ 𝑏
𝑖 0 1 2 𝑛
𝑖=0

Combination formula:
𝑛 𝑛!
=
𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑟 ! 𝑟!
 Long Quiz 1 Cheat Sheet
Laws of Exponents Properties involving Identites
and Inverses

1. 𝑎⋅0=0⋅𝑎 =0
2. − −𝑎 = 𝑎
3. −1 ⋅ 𝑎 = −𝑎
4. −𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = − 𝑎𝑏
5. −𝑎 −𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
6. − 𝑎 + 𝑏 = −𝑎 + −𝑏
1
7. 1 = 𝑐
𝑐
1 1 1
8. ⋅ =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐𝑑