Adamson University Waveguides & Microwave Communications

Microwave Communications Transverse Magnetic (TM)

 Is simply a high radio frequency link specifically
designed to provide signal connection between two
specific points.
 Also coined as Line-of-Sight or LOS communications,
Radio Link, Point-to-Point communications.
 The H field is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
 The H lines form loops in planes perpendicular to the
walls of guide and no part of the H lines is lengthwise of
the guide.

Advantages of Microwave System Dominant Mode

1. A 1% bandwidth provides more frequency range at
microwave frequencies than that of HF.
2. Microwave signals travel predominantly by LOS.
3. There is much less background noise at microwave
frequencies than at RF.
4. Microwave systems do not require a right-of-way
acquisition between stations.
5. Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.
6. Underground facilities are minimized.
7. Increased reliability and less maintenance.
 A single-mode propagation that is achieved by using
only the mode with the lowest cut-off frequency.
 TE10 & TM11 – for rectangular waveguide
 TE11 & TM01 – for circular waveguide
Cut-off Frequency
 It is the lowest frequency that is used to mark the
propagation of a signal in waveguide.

Disadvantage of Microwave System

1. More difficult to analyze electronic circuits (Dominant mode)
2. Conventional components (resistors, inductors, and
capacitors) cannot be used at microwave frequencies.
3. There are physical limitations in creating resonant
circuits at microwave frequencies.
4. Conventional semi-conductor devices do not work
properly at microwave frequencies because of inherent (Non-dominant mode)
inductances and capacitances of the terminal leads and
5. For amplification, vacuum tubes are used such as Cut-off Wavelength
klystrons, magnetrons and traveling wave tubes (TWT).
6. Distance of operation is limited by line of sight (LOS). λco = 2a (for rectangular waveguide)
7. Microwave signals are easily reflected and/or diverted λco = 2πr/ρmn (for circular waveguide)
because of the very short wavelength.
8. Atmospheric conditions such as rain/fog can attenuate TE Mode
and absorb the microwave signal especially at 20 GHz m ρm1 ρm2 ρm3
and up. 0 3.83 7.02 10.17
1 1.84 5.33 5.54
Types of Microwave Stations 2 3.05 6.71 9.97
 Terminals – are points in the system where the
baseband signals either originate or terminate
TM Mode
 Repeaters – are points in the system where the
baseband signals maybe reconfigured or simply m ρm1 ρm2 ρm3
repeated or amplified. 0 2.41 5.52 8.65
Passive Microwave repeaters – a device that re-radiates
1 3.83 7.02 10.17
microwave energy without additional electronic power.
Active Microwave repeater – a receiver and a 2 5.13 8.42 11.62
transmitter placed back to back or in tandem with the
system. It receives the signal, amplifies and reshapes it, Group Velocity
then retransmits the signal to the next station.  The actual speed at which signals travels down the
guide.
Waveguides
 A hollow metal tube designed to carry microwave Vg = c[√(1 - (fco/f)²)]
energy from one place to another. Vg = c[√(1 - (λ/2a)²)]
 It is made from copper, aluminum or brass extruded to
long rectangular or circular pipes. Phase Velocity
 They are classified based on the aperture (opening)  The rate at which the wave appears to move along the
shape. wall of the guide based on the way the phase angle
varies along the walls.
 The apparent velocity.

Vph = c/[√(1 - (fco/f)²)]

Vph = c/[√(1 - (λ/2a)²)]

Mode Waveguide Impedance

 It is the number of ways in which electrical energy can  The characteristic impedance of a waveguide is always
propagate along a waveguide. greater than the characteristic impedance of free space.

Classification of Modes Zo(wg) = 377/[√(1 - (fco/f)²)]

Zo (wg) = 377/[√(1 - (λ/2a)²)]
Transverse Electric (TE)
 The E field is perpendicular to the direction of Microwave Tubes
propagation.
 The E field exist across the guide and no E lines extend Linear Microwave Tubes
lengthwise along the guide. Klystron
 A velocity modulation device.

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 Adamson University Waveguides & Microwave Communications
 A microwave vacuum tube using cavity resonators to d1d 2
produce velocity modulation of the electron beam and h
produce amplification. 12.75K
where:
h = distance in meters from horizontal reference line
d1 = distance in kilometers from one end
d2 = distance from the other end of the path

Reflex Klystron
 Commonly used as microwave oscillator.
 It uses only one cavity resonator.
 It is gradually replaced by Gunn Diode.
Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)
 The most versatile microwave RF power amplifier.
 It has an extremely wide bandwidth of operation.
 Operates to frequency of 40GHz with efficiencies above
45%.
Fresnel Zone
 Areas of constructive and destructive interference
created when electromagnetic wave propagation in free
space is reflected (multipath) or diffracted as the wave
intersects obstacles. Fresnel zones are specified
employing ordinal numbers that correspond to the
number of half wavelength multiples that represent the
difference in radio wave propagation path from the
direct path
The direct path between the transmitter and the receiver needs a
clearance above ground of at least 60% of the radius of the first
Fresnel zone to achieve free space propagation conditions.

Cross Field Microwave Tubes

Magnetron
 It is a cross field device used to generate microwave
frequency in the cm-mm wavelength region.
 It is a combination of a simple diode vacuum tube with
built-in cavity resonator and an extremely powerful
permanent magnet.

Duty Cycle
D = Ton/Ttotal
D = Pave/Ppk

Earth Curvature on RF Propagation

The earth, being spherical, limits the distance of which of line of
sight in possible. The parameter which considers wave bending on
the earth’s curvature is the K-factor.

K-Factor
First Fresnel Radius
Unitless value which is the ratio of a hypothetical effective earth
radius over 6370km, which is the true mean earth radius. d1d 2
F1  72.1
DFGHz
Effective Earth Radius re
k  where:
True Earth Radius ro
F1 = radius of the first Fresnel zone in feet
d1 = distance in statute miles from one end
K-Curve Conditions d2 = distance from the other end of the path
 Sub-standard Condition D = total distance in statute miles
The microwave beam is bent away from the Earth
 Standard Condition
The fictitious earth radius appears to the microwave beams to be d1d 2
longer than the true earth radius. F1  17.3
 Super-standard Condition.
DFGHz
This condition results in an effective flattening of the equivalent where:
earth’s curvature. F1 = radius of the first Fresnel zone in meters
 Infinity Condition (Flat Earth Condition) d1 = distance in kilometers from one end
This condition results to zero curvature (as if the earth is flat) d2 = distance from the other end of the path
and the microwave beam follows the curvature of the earth. D = total distance in kilometers

Effective Earth Radius Path Calculations / Link Budget

ro  Basically the summary of all possible losses and gains
re  that a signal may encounter along a microwave path.
1 0.04665e 0.005577 N S 
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
Earth Bulge and Curvature  It is defined by the radiated power by an antenna in its
The number of feet or meters an obstacle is raised higher in favored direction, taking into account as referenced to
elevation (into the path) owing to earth curvature or earth bulge. the isotropic radiator.

d1d 2 EIRP = PtGt

h
1.5K Free Space Loss (FSL)
where:
 Also known as FREE SPACE PATH LOSS and
h = distance in feet from horizontal reference line
SPREADING LOSS.
d1 = distance in statute miles from one end
d2 = distance from the other end of the path

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 Adamson University Waveguides & Microwave Communications
 It is the loss that would be obtained between two Space Diversity
isotropic antennas in free space, where there are no  The transmitter uses two transmit antennas, spaced in a
obstruction or influences. specific distance with each other, which transmit the
same frequency and the receiver is tuned in this
FSL = (4πD/λ)² particular frequency.
FSL(dB) = 32.4 + 20 log f (MHz) + 20 log D (km)  The output of the transmitter is fed to two or more
FSL(dB) =36.6 + 20 log f (MHz) + 20 log D (mi) antennas that are physically separated by an
appreciable number of wavelengths.
Isotropic Receiver Level (IRL)
 The RF signal level impinging on the far end receiver S = 3λRe/L
antenna as if it were an isotropic antenna. S = 200λ
Where:
IRL(dBm) = EIRP(dBm) - FSL(dB) S = spacing, m
Re = effective Earth's radius
Received Signal Level (RSL) L = path length, km
 It is simply the level of signal at the receiving end of the
transmission. Polarization Diversity
 The transmitter transmit the signal into two different
RSL(dBm) = Pt(dBm) + Gt(dB) + Gr(dB) - FSL(dB) polarizations and the receiver is tuned in either of the
- Ltx(dB) - Lrx (dB) two polarization of the signal.
RSL(dBm) = FM(dB) + Threshold(dBm)  A single RF carrier is propagated with two different
electromagnetic polarization either vertical or
Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (C/N) horizontal.
 It is simply the ratio of the received power and noise
power. Receiver Diversity
C/N = Prx/Pn  The transmitter transmit a particular frequency and the
C/N(dB) = RSL(dBm) - Pn(dBm) receiver uses two receive antennas both tuned in that
C/N(dB) = EIRP(dBW) - FSL(dB) + Gr/Te(dB) - 10logK - frequency.
10logB
Pn = KTB Hybrid Diversity
 It is the combination of two or more diversity schemes.
Fade Margin (FM)
 It is the attenuation allowance so that anticipated fading Quad Diversity
will still keep the signal above specified minimum RF  It is a combination of all the diversity schemes.
input.  Provides the most reliable transmission.
 Sometimes called LINK MARGIN.  It combines frequency, space, polarization, and receiver
diversity into one system.
FM = RSL – Threshold(Rx)
FM = 30logD + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) - 70
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Roughness Factor, A
OVER WATER OR A VERY SMOOTH TERRAIN 4 1. What is the principal mode of a rectangular waveguide?
OVER AVERAGE TERRAIN 1 a. TEM c. TE10
OVER VERY ROUGH, MOUNTAINEOUS b. TE11 d. TM11
0.25
TERRAIN
2. What microwave device combines the advantages of the
Climatic Factor, B klystron and the Travelling Wave Tube?
CONVERT ANNUAL AVAILABILITY TO WORST a. Stripline c. CFA
1 b. Microstrip d. Twystron
MONTH BASIS
HOT, HUMID AREAS 0.5
AVERAGE INLAND AREAS 0.25 3. A waveguide acts as a
VERY DRY, MOUNTAINEOUS AREAS 0.125 a. LPF c. BPF
b. HPF d. Resonator
Receiver Threshold
 The minimum wideband carrier power at the input to a 4. Which of the following is a microwave frequency?
a. 1.7 MHz c. 0.98 GHz
receiver that will provide a usable baseband output.
b. 750 MHz d. 22 GHz
System Gain
 It is the difference between the nominal output power of 5. A waveguide has a cut-off frequency of 17 GHz. Which of
the following signals will not pass thru the waveguide?
a transmitter and the minimum input power required by
a. 15 GHz c. 22 GHz
a receiver.
b. 18 GHz d. 255 GHz
GS = Pt - Cmin
6. When the electric field is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation, the mode is said to be
Diversity
 It suggest that there is more than one transmission path a. Vertically polarized c. Transverse electric
or method of transmission available between a b. Horizontally polarized d. Transverse magnetic
transmitter and a receiver.
7. A microwave band of 18 to 27 GHz is considered as the
Frequency Diversity ______ band.
 The transmitter uses two different frequencies and the a. C c. Q
b. X d. K
receiver is tuned in either of the two frequencies.
 It is simply modulating two different RF carrier
frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then 8. The velocity of a resultant wave as it travels through the
transmitting both RF signals to a given destination. waveguide.
a. Speed of light c. Phase velocity
b. Group velocity d. Incident velocity
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 Adamson University Waveguides & Microwave Communications

9. Indicate which of the following cannot be followed by the 23. A line-of-sight radio link operating at a frequency of
word "waveguide". 6GHz has a separation of 40 km between antennas. An
a. Elliptical c. Coaxial obstacle in the path is located 10 km from the
b. Flexible d. Ridge transmitting antenna. By how much must the beam clear
the obstacle?
10. A rectangular waveguide is 5.1 cm by 2.4 cm. The cut-off a. 11.6 m c. 19.3 m
frequency for the dominant mode is b. 15.2 m d. 12.8 m
a. 2.94 GHz c. 664 MHz
b. 6.25 GHz d. 57.7 GHz 24. To install an antenna with an LOS transmission at a
distance of 75 miles, determine the height of a receiving
11. A waveguide section used to couple a circular to a antenna if the transmitting antenna is 250 ft.
rectangular waveguide. a. 1385 ft c. 400 ft
a. Taper c. Bend b. 600 ft d. 255 ft
b. Twist d. Tee
25. What would be the ERP, in watts, if the transmitter
12. A signal propagated in a waveguide has a full wave of output is 30 dBm and the waveguide loss is 20 dB and the
electric field intensity change between two further walls antenna connected to it has a power gain of 60 dB?
and no component of the electric field in the direction of a. 10000 watts c. 100 watts
propagation. The mode is b. 1000 watts d. 10 watts
a. TE11 c. TM22
b. TE10 d. TE20 26. What is the free space loss, in dB, between two
microwave antennas 38 km apart operating at 7 GHz?
13. Which of the following frequency bands fall under the a. 145.6 dB c. 135.5 dB
microwave band? b. 138.5 dB d. 140.89 dB
a. UHF and SHF c. UHF, SHF and EHF
b. SHF and EHF d. VLF, LF and MF 27. A transmitter and receiver operating at 6 GHz are
separated by 40 km. How much power (in dBm) is
14. Find the cut-off frequency for a waveguide in the TE21 delivered to the receiver if the transmitter has an output
mode if the dimensions of the guide are 3 by 1.5 cm with power of 2W, the transmitting antenna has a gain of 20
wall thickness of 0.08 cm. dBi, and the receiving antenna has a gain of 25 dBi?
a. 12.14 GHz c. 5.28 GHz a. –59.8 dBm c. –62 dBm
b. 5 GHz d. 15.39 GHz b. –82 dBm d. –72 dBm

15. The subscript which indicates the number of half 28. How many receiving antenna(s) are used with frequency
wavelengths along the waveguide height diversity?
a. m c. a a. 1 c. 3
b. n d. b b. 2 d. 4

16. Calculate the cut-off wavelength and the characteristic 29. A type of diversity reception, where the output of the
impedance of a circular waveguide whose internal transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that are
diameter is 4 cm for a 10 GHz signal propagated in it in physically separated by an appreciable number of
the dominant mode. (kr = 1.84) wavelengths.
a. 1.5 cm, 204 ohms c. 6.83 cm, 420 ohms a. Frequency c. Angle
b. 3 cm, 420 ohms d. 6.83 cm, 338 ohms b. Space d. Polarization

17. Which of the following is used as a high power 30. Determine the fade margin for the following conditions:
microwave oscillator? distance between sites, D = 24.85 mi; frequency, f = 1.5
a. Thyristor c. Klystron GHz; smooth terrain; humid climate; and a reliability
b. Magnetron d. Twystron objective 99.99%.
a. 1510.8 c. 1105.8
18. Which of the following permits a microwave signal to b. 1550.8 d. 1150.8
travel in one direction with virtually no loss but severely
attenuates any signal attempting to travel in the reverse
direction? TO GOD BE THE GLORY!
a. Isolator c. Twist
b. Tee d. Circulator

19. Which of the following is not a microwave tube?

a. TWT c. Klystron
b. CRT d. Magnetron

20. A metal wrapped around the parabolic antenna aperture

to eliminate sidelobes interfere in nearby stations.
a. Radome c. Shroud
b. Shield d. Bass drum

21. When microwave signals follow the curvature of the

earth, this is known as
a. Faraday effect c. Troposcatter
b. Ducting d. Ionospheric reflection

22. The radius in the circular zone is in the first fresnel zone
when the reflected path is ______ longer than the direct
path.
a. Half wavelength c. Quarter wavelength
b. Wavelength d. 2 wavelengths
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