Start systems for aero gas turbines

A.G. Pascoe
Lytham, Lancashire, UK

Abstract
Purpose – This paper is an overview of aero gas turbine engine starting systems and discusses the system design considerations and integration with
other aircraft systems.
Design/methodology/approach – Review of a range of recent publications on the subject, aiming to provide an introduction to modern aero gas
turbine engine starting systems.
Findings – Provides basic information on starter types and their limitations, and why some starter types are more favoured in modern installations. The
effects of altitude and temperature are discussed which may not be initially considered as variables affecting aero start systems.
Originality/value – This paper provides further information on the starting systems of modern aero gas turbines and the considerations associated
with integration and efficiency.

Keywords Aerospace industry, Turbines, Aircraft engines

Paper type General review

Nomenclature air carts or power generation systems. The requirement is for

Windage ¼ The resistance to rotation from air across
the rotating parts.
Dry cranking ¼ The rotation and acceleration of the engine
with the fuel system turned-off and,
therefore, no fuel reaching the combustor.
This method is used when attempting to
remove any residual fuel in the combustor
or jet pipe that remains from a previous
failed start.
Wet cranking ¼ The rotation and acceleration of the engine
with the fuel system turned on and the
ignition system turned-off. This method is
used after installation of an engine which
has had its fuel system inhibited whilst in
storage. The engine may be wet cranked to
push the inhibiting fluid through the fuel
system until sufficient fuel can be metered
to the combustor for ignition.
Introduction
An aero gas turbine start system is a combination of two sub-
systems. One sub-system should rotate the gas turbine to a
satisfactory speed where a sufficient mass of air flows into the
combustor to mix with the fuel. A second sub-system will
have to ignite the fuel/air mixture and allow the engine to
accelerate up to a self-sustaining speed.
The start system should be able to operate effectively with
or without external electrical power and/or air supplies from
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
77/6 (2005) 448– 454
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0002-2667]
[DOI 10.1108/00022660510628435]
a self-sufficient system permitting the aircraft to operate
autonomously at airfields, both at home and in remote areas.
There is also the added requirement of the start system to
provide in-flight relight assistance especially as the pressure
ratios of modern gas turbines increases and higher aircraft
speeds necessary for satisfactory windmill starts is a
consequence. If the start system is to provide a relight
capability then it will need to be carried on-board and a
further consideration of system component weight and size,
and associated penalties, will be important factors.
As the ability of aircraft to fly ever longer distances has
increased with technology, they have long since passed the
point where they could experience the widest range of weather
extremes. Long haul aircraft could be routed between a
southern and northern hemisphere airfield where the start
system will be required to produce reliable engine starting at
altitude in hot and humid conditions then possibly at below
zero degrees at sea-level for the return leg of the journey.
Part of the start system (the ignition system) will also be
required to sustain combustion and, therefore, gas turbine
operation in various conditions. For civil use operation from a
wet or icy runway and for military use operations such as
weapon firing, for example, may require extended use of the
ignition system to ensure safe and satisfactory engine running
takes place.
The system will also be used where the aircraft main
engine(s) will need to be dry-cranked, wet-cranked and the
aircraft secondary power systems (SPS) will need to be run-
up to carry out maintenance on other aircraft systems. A start
system’s failure could render an aircraft inoperable and,
therefore, it must be ultra-reliable. All of the above prove that
modern start systems are a design challenge.
System architecture
The starting system is closely associated with the SPS and in
most cases the starter is directly attached to the SPS gearbox.
With the starter (and other ancillaries) attached to the SPS
gearbox there is no requirement to attach some components
to the engine gearbox. This reduces maintenance time when
changing engines but more importantly, provides a means of

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 Start systems for aero gas turbines
A.G. Pascoe
operating hydraulic systems, electrical generation systems and
to provide modern aircraft electronic systems with cooling air
without starting the main engines. The engine gearbox would
normally still provide all independent functions such as oil
and fuel pumping (both for the dry and afterburner ranges)
(Figure 1).
The starter motor would normally drive the HP spool
through a clutch mechanism and a power take-off (PTO)
shaft between the SPS and the engine gearbox.
The rotation of the HP spool induces a flow over the LP
spool which, in turn, accelerates up to speed. Rotating the HP
spool is the most efficient means of providing the mass flow of
air to the combustion chamber especially as the HP spool will
be the provider of the majority of the total pressure ratio of the
compressors. Rotating the LP spool instead of the HP spool
can increase start times due to high LP spool inertia.
The clutch mechanism in the SPS gearbox disengages the
starter at a pre-determined point of the start sequence and
stops the main engine from driving the starter motor as the
main engine torque increases with speed.
There have been many different starter motors used to
rotate the main engine(s) but the most common are described
below.
Gas turbine characteristics
All aero-engine gas turbines have an “idle” speed – a lowest
self-sustaining stable speed. This self-sustaining speed will
vary depending upon the characteristics and the operation of
the engine.
Starting has to be completed in a certain time with the
starting time for military gas turbine engines required to be as
short as possible as the aircraft may be needed at very short
notice to “scramble” to intercept enemy aircraft. Civil gas
turbines can be started a little slower but still within a 30-40 s
time period.
If a starter does not have enough torque to get the gas
turbine to a self-sustaining speed, a hung or hot start could
occur. In a hot start, the engine lights up but does not
Figure 1 Typical SPS
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accelerate quickly enough to idle, the exhaust gas temperature
will then exceed the limits for an engine start. In a hung start
the engine lights up normally but does not accelerate at all,
the rpm remaining below idle and possibly turning into a hot
start.
Starter performance
The start system must produce the required amount of torque
to accelerate the gas turbine to a self-sustaining speed quickly
avoiding stalled or hung starts. The torque must be in excess
of that required to overcome the inertia of the rotating parts,
engine bearing, seal and gearbox friction and air loads
(windage). The aero gas turbine start system must be capable
of starting the engine on the ground and in-flight in a wide
variety of atmospheric conditions and temperatures. It will
have to operate independently of other aircraft systems and
give the aircraft a self-start ability. The start system must be
light enough not to be too much of a weight penalty as it will
not be used apart from starting the engines on the ground
(except in emergencies).
Engine drag and starter torque
The friction and windage resulting from a compressor and
engine gearbox loads provide a resisting torque or drag which
the starter motor has to overcome at all starting conditions.
The starter torque which is in excess of the engine drag
torque is known as the accelerating torque. This excess torque
is the torque that accelerates the engine to the point where
ignition occurs. Once ignition starts, the starter motor may
keep rotating to assist the engine to a speed closer to the self-
sustaining speed or even idle (Figure 2).
When the starter begins turning the engine, the torque it
produces overcomes the drag of the engine and the engine
starts to rotate (point 1). At the point where ignition occurs
the engine begins to assist the starter thereby reducing the
starter torque. When the starter torque is reduced to zero
(point 2), the engine is deemed to be self-sustaining. Shortly
 Start systems for aero gas turbines
A.G. Pascoe
Figure 2 Starter torque
after this point, the starter motor will shut-down (point 3) and
the engine will accelerate to its idle speed without assistance.
Starter sizing
The size of the start system varies greatly with operational
requirements and operational environment. Many start
systems are designed using previous knowledge and refining
the system as the development phase progresses. Pressure
losses, temperature and altitude requirements are some of the
factors to be considered when sizing a starter system.
When an engine design size is increased, the starter system
will also need to be increased to match the new requirements.
The starter requirement now becomes the square of the factor
of engine increase to achieve similar crank blade tip speeds or
the cubed of the factor of engine increase to achieve similar
engine acceleration times.
Starting sequence
Over the years, aero gas turbine starting systems have
diversified although the basic procedure for starting remains
the same. Whether the aero gas turbine starting system is
independent of ground equipment, is fully automatic or
requires input from the operator, the sequence of events will
follow a similar pattern (Figure 3).
The gas turbine needs to be rotated up to a speed where the
ignition system will start the igniters operating. Once the
igniters are operating and the engine has accelerated a little
further up the rpm range the fuel can be metered to the
combustion chamber. The gas turbine should then be able to
accelerate up past the speed where the igniters will cancel with
or without starter assistance. At some point during this
acceleration, the starter will cut-out and the engine will
proceed until it reaches the idle speed. Once at this idle speed
it is usual to sustain it for a short time (a couple of minutes) to
allow the gas turbine to heat soak and allow the engine
components to stabilise at the running temperature. This heat
soak increases thermal cyclic life.
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Figure 3 A typical start sequence
The cartridge starter
The cartridge starter motor is rarely seen today but its
operation is similar to that of the air turbine starter in that a
gas drives an internal turbine. Electrical ignition triggers a
cartridge in a chamber, which may burn for 15-20 s
depending on the size of the cordite charge. The high-
pressure, high-temperature charge produced is used to turn
the small turbine, and through a reduction gearbox, the
engine (Figure 4).
Cartridge starter operation is limited by the number of
cartridges the starter can hold and the size of the charge will
limit the size of the engine a cartridge starter can successfully
accelerate up to the self-sustaining speed. The fact that the
cartridge system will require reloading limits the operational
use of this type of starter.
The electric starter
The electric starter motor is normally a direct current (DC)
motor connected to the engine gearbox through a clutch
mechanism. Once operated the starter motor will turn the
engine through the gearbox until the self-sustaining engine
speed has been reached. The clutch would then disengage the
starter motor from the engine. The starter motor may provide
the ignition circuit with the power to operate the igniters or
the starter may actually be a generator itself. In the latter, the
starter-generator would be turned by battery power until the
torque of the engine overcomes the torque of the starter and
powers the starter-generator to produce aircraft systems
electrical power as a “normal” generator would. The starter-
generator will also always be directly connected to the engine
and not require a clutch for disengagement.
The hydraulic starter
The hydraulic starter is commonly used to start small gas
turbines and like the starter-generator it will have dual use.
The engine gearbox mounted hydraulic starter would include
a reduction gear and clutch. Electrical valves in this type of
starter would control the torque to the main engine and
 Start systems for aero gas turbines
A.G. Pascoe
Figure 4 Cartridge starter (courtesy Rolls Royce (1996))
shut-off the starter function when necessary, reverting it back
to a normal hydraulic pump. An electrical motor would power
the starter providing hydraulic pressure to rotate the gas
turbine. Hydraulic starters can be found in helicopters,
marine and industrial gas turbine installations. As hydraulic
starters may only require electrical power, a single hydraulic
starter and electrical motor can be considered where multiple
engines are gathered in one installation.
The gas turbine starter
The gas turbine starter (GTS) is very similar to an auxiliary
power unit (APU) but directly connected to the engine
through the engine gearbox. An example of this type of starter
is found on the BAe Systems Harrier where the Rolls Royce
Pegasus engine is installed.
The GTS is totally self-contained, having its own oil, fuel
and starting systems. The starting system is most commonly
an electric motor that drives the starter up to a self-sustaining
speed where the ignition and starter will be turned-off similar
to that of a main aero-engine.
The starter unit may contain a power or free turbine that
would be used to extract the power used for main engine
starting. As the GTS accelerates up to its self-sustaining
speed, the exhaust gases are passed over the free turbine. As
the free turbine accelerates it rotates the main engine up
towards its self-sustaining speed through the reduction
gearbox. When the main engine reaches this speed, the
clutch in the starter disengages the drive shaft and the starter
is shut-down. The main engine is then free to accelerate up to
its idle speed without assistance or hindrance from the starter.
The pneumatic starter
The pneumatic starter, air starter or sometimes called the air-
turbine starter, is the most common in use today (Figure 5).
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Most commercial and military aircraft use variations of this
type of starter. The starter includes a turbine with a preceding
nozzle guide vane (NGV) stage, a reduction gear and a clutch.
High-pressure air from either a ground supply cart, APU or
from another, already running main engine is directed at the
correct angle to the turbine through the NGV. The air rotates
the turbine at a very high speed. The rotational power of the
turbine, through the reduction gear, is then translated into the
lower-speed high torque required to rotate the engine.
This type of starter has many advantages over other starter
systems. The most obvious is its lightweight and simple
construction. A disadvantage of this starter is that it requires a
separate air supply to operate although aircraft designers have
accepted the integration of APU and the benefits associated
with them.
The ignition system
The ignition system initiates the combustion of the fuel in the
primary zone of the combustion chamber. If the temperature
and pressure in the combustor are both high and the air flow
velocity in the combustor is low, the ignition of the fuel/air
mixture is easiest. Any variation on this degrades the fuel/air
ignition ability of the system.
The ignition system will usually consist of two igniter plugs
and a high-energy ignition unit (HEIU) connected to each
igniter plug. For system redundancy, each igniter plug and
HEIU set will operate independently of each other.
The high energy ignition unit
Each HEIU supplies one igniter plug with stored electrical
energy between 1 and 12 J, depending on system
requirements. The HEIU has a low tension (LT) voltage
and a high tension (HT) voltage connection, and contains
relatively simple circuitry. Older trembler type units have
 Start systems for aero gas turbines
A.G. Pascoe
Figure 5 Pneumatic starter (courtesy Rolls Royce (1996))
moving parts (the trembler circuit) and modern transistorized
units are solid state, more compact and tend to have a longer
operating life. The LT voltage from the battery enters the unit
and passes through an induction coil which is operated by the
trembler circuit. This charges the reservoir capacitor through
a high voltage rectifier. When the voltage in the capacitor
reaches the required level, the now high-energy charge is
passed to the igniter plug where it discharges across the igniter
plug surface. A choke is installed in the unit to control the
length of the discharge at the igniter plug. An internal safety
circuit dissipates any high energy stored in the capacitor
within a short time period for safety. Maintenance can
normally be carried out on the ignition system after a minute
of it being switched off. The transistorized type of HEIU
provides a high energy source for the igniter plug in a similar
fashion as the trembler type.
The igniter plug
The igniter plugs are the surface discharge type. The igniter
plug has no air gap like reciprocating engine type plugs but a
semi-conductor between the central electrode and the igniter
body. This semi-conductor surface ionises during operation
providing a low-resistance path for the electrical discharge to
flashover from the central electrode to the igniter body. The
energy from the HEIU is discharged across the igniter plug as
a high-voltage, high amperage charge.
The spark from each igniter plug protrudes into the
combustion chamber by approximately 2.5 mm with the spark
from each travelling into the combustion chamber a further
20 mm.
Fuel and air combustion
The fuel/air mixture supplied to the combustion chamber will
only burn within a range of rich and weak limits (fuel/air
ratios) and air mass flows. Similarly, the initial ignition of this
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fuel/air mixture can only take place within a smaller range
inside of this.
As the air mass flow through the combustion chamber
increases the range of combustion of the fuel/air mixture is
reduced. So, if the mass flow were to increase to very high rate
and beyond the stability loop, it would blow out the
combustion flame. Also, if the fuel/air ratio (for kerosene)
was to move towards or even beyond the design range,
combustion would become less likely or unsustainable.
After the fuel/air mixture has been ignited and the engine is
accelerating towards the idle speed, the fuel scheduling is
normally controlled by the rate of change of HP spool speed.
This is known as “NHdot” control and is also the normal
method of controlling fuel flow above idle.
The stability loop and ignition loop
The stable region for combustion is known as the stability
loop. The stability loop encompasses the full range of fuel/air
mixture and mass flows for a particular combustion chamber
(Figure 6).
The region where ignition of the fuel/air mixture against
mass flow can take place is known as the ignition loop. The
size of the ignition loop is vital not only for a ground starts
under normal conditions but also relight at altitude. If the
ignition loop is much smaller than the stability loop, ignition
problems may be experienced.
Increasing the distance the igniter plug protrudes into the
combustion chamber or altering the position of the igniter
itself may increase the ignition loop. If the ignition loop is
large and very close to the stability loop or if ignition is
required outside of the stability loop, the spray pattern of the
fuel nozzles or the design of the combustion chamber may
have to be reconsidered.
The ignition loop is dependent on the pressure in the
combustion chamber. Variable inlet guide vanes (VIGV) and
blow-off valves (BOV) that alter the compressor delivery air
and, therefore, the combustion chamber inlet conditions can
 Start systems for aero gas turbines
A.G. Pascoe
Figure 6 Ignition and stability loops
be scheduled to assist with engine starting. To give the highest
rotating stall line the VIGV are normally fully closed during
engine start. BOV are the opposite and usually open during
start to give the lowest working line for interstage bleed and to
raise the stall line.
Starter primer jets
Some gas turbine fuel systems may not produce enough fuel
atomisation at lower fuel flows. Although the spark across the
Figure 7 Altitude and Mach number. Source: Adapted from Saravanamuttoo (2001)
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igniter plug face is in the relatively stable (boundary) flow of
the combustion chamber, some aero gas turbines may require
starter-primer jets to provide satisfactory fuel atomisation and
light-up. Starter-primer jets supply a measured amount of fuel
close to the igniter surface to increase the acceleration rate of
the engine and heat up the combustion chamber more
quickly. This, in-turn, improves the flame propagation of the
main fuel/air mixture and with it, starting performance.
Altitude and Mach number
As previously mentioned, the range of the ignition loop is
dependent on the pressure in the combustion chamber. The
lower the pressure is in the combustion chamber, the lower
the chance of fuel/air ignition. The design of the combustion
chamber is critical to the ability of the aero gas turbine to be
able to perform high-altitude low-mach relight. The pressure
losses associated with annular combustion chambers are lower
than tubular or tubo-annular combustion chambers
(Figure 7).
At high altitude, the reaction rate inside the combustion
chamber primary zone (where the fuel is ignited) is slower
because of the reduced concentration of the fuel/air mixture.
To aid ignition at high altitudes the surface tension igniter
plug is employed which has a much higher energy spark than
the reciprocating engines air gap type.
The starter may be required to assist the engine
acceleration to increase the combustion chamber mass flow
at altitude and low Mach. Without assistance from the starter,
the mass flow may be outside the range of the ignition loop.
Even at an acceptable fuel/air ratio for combustion, the engine
may hang and experience a hot start.
At high Mach numbers the mass flow may exceed the
ignition loop range and blow out any attempts to ignite the
fuel/air mixture. Inside the windmill envelope the starter need
 Start systems for aero gas turbines
A.G. Pascoe
not be used to assist with engine acceleration. The low end of
the windmill envelope is dictated by the low mass flow where
high fuel/air ratios may be needed. At the high end of the
windmill envelope the Mach number inside the combustion
chamber is the dictating factor.
Temperature conditions
On the ground low temperatures affect the start by increasing
oil viscosity and, therefore, bearing resistance. As bearing
resistance increases the resistance of the engine to start is
dramatically increased.
Engine relight can be affected immensely by a temperature
drop to those associated with high altitude. The tropopause
begins at around 11,000 m (depending on latitude) and most
military and civil aircraft gas turbines are designed to operate
at that altitude (or higher). This means that these gas turbines
are in boundary layer of constant thermal gradient where the
temperature is at 2 56.58C. Main fuel scheduling will be
increased and also longer starter primer jet operation (in gas
turbines that utilise them) will improve starting times.
High temperatures do not affect the oil viscosity from ISA
conditions to any real degree. However, the fuel flow must be
scheduled so as not to exceed turbine entry temperature
(TET) limits and hence the engine assistance when starting in
high temperatures is lowered.
Conclusion
Aero gas turbine starting systems have become more
integrated with aircraft systems as modern aircraft have
been developed. Initially thought of as a simple and stand-
alone system it has proved to be complex and require much
consideration in the conceptual stage to be fully integrated
into the complete aircraft system. Future starter systems for
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higher performance aircraft will have to overcome ever higher
drag, windmill start speeds and temperature range.
References
Rolls Royce Plc (1996), The Jet Engine: Starting and Ignition,
5th ed., Rolls Royce Plc, London, pp. 121-31.
Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H. (2001), Gas Turbine Theory:
Combustion Systems, 5th ed., Longman, Harlow, pp. 286-8.
Further reading
Ian, M. and Allan, S. (2001), Aircraft Systems: Engine Control
Systems, 2nd ed., Wiley, Chichester, pp. 51-4.
Klaus, H. (2003), Jet Engines – Fundamentals of Theory, Design
and Operation: Engine Systems, 3rd ed., Motorbooks
International, Osceola, WI, pp. 127, 131 and 197-203.
Walsh, P.P. and Fletcher, P. (2004), Gas Turbine Performance:
Starting, 2nd ed., Blackwell, London, pp. 477-500.
About the author
A.G. Pascoe lives (42) Lytham, Lancashire, UK. He joined
the Royal Air Force and trained at Halton before spending
some enjoyable years on fast jet squadrons specializing in
propulsion. After leaving the RAF he started a career with
BAe Systems and with it, some years in the Middle East as
HoD of the RB199 (MK 103 and 104) Engine Repair and
Test Facility. On returning to England he worked at BAe
Systems Warton Aerodrome as an ILS Engineer on Nimrod
MRA4 then Eurofigher Typhoon before transferring to Flight
Test as an Engineer on the Typhoon. He has since worked for
both GE (through FW Marsh) and Rolls Royce in Service
Engineering.