CHAPTER 1

ROCKS AND MINERALS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION

Formation of rocks
Learning objectives: State and explain the formation and characteristics of named igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks
Video link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wm11qyt8pCA

The crust is made up of three different classes of rock Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
Rocks are made from minerals – substances which vary in size, shape and colour.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rock is formed when magma from the earth’s mantle rises, cools and hardens – during a
volcanic eruption for example. It does not always reach the surface in a spectacular explosion!
Sometimes the magma cools enough on it’s way through the mantle and crust to harden
underground. As surface layers of the crust are worn away or excavated, the underground
formations appear. This type of rock can form above ground too from the result of a volcanic
eruption.
Rocks of this class contain closely-packed crystals, formed as the magma cools. When magma
cools slowly like beneath the crust’s surface, large crystals form such as those found in granite. If
the magma cools quickly on the surface, tiny crystals are formed such as those in obsidian.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rock is formed on the surface of the crust form materials collected together from
natural processes. Particles of rock worn off by water, wind or ice can be carried away elsewhere
to form a sediment. As the layers of sediment get built up the bottom layers get squeezed together
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and become a stratum. As this process continues, many layers can build up. The specific type of
rock formed depends on the material that it is made from. When stratum is formed from rock
particles we get rocks such as sandstone. Sometimes instead of rock particles, it is the remains of
small animals and plants that make up the sediment to later form coal and limestone.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are any rocks, whether igneous or sedimentary, subjected to varying degrees
of pressure and temperature conditions which consequently alter their forms. Such pressure and
temperature are different from those which the rocks are originally formed and are always higher
than at the Earth’s surface. This way, the original minerals of the rock are transformed into other
mineral type or else into other forms of the same minerals. There is an alteration on the structure,
mineral alignment, or chemical composition as these rocks are squeezed by large pressure or
exposed to extreme temperature. Metamorphic rocks are commonly found in areas of mountain
building. Examples of metamorphic rocks are slate, quartzite, marble, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

Made from liquid magma Made from other rock Made from existing rocks
fragment
Magma cools to form solid Rocks fragments become The original rock is changed
rock buried and increases in form by heat and pressure
pressure forms rock
Mineral crystal sometimes Crystal absent Mineral crystal present
present: the size of the
crystals depends on the
speed of cooling
No fossil present Fossils may be present No fossil present
No layers/stratum Present of layers/stratum No layers/stratum

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Rock cycle
Learning objective: Describe and interpret the rock cycle

1.1 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth

Video link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hYEMIGMyVGo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSFlDlgTziY
Method of extraction
Surface mining is a form of mining in which the soil and the rock covering the mineral deposits
are removed.

Surface mining is basically employed when deposits of commercially viable minerals or rock are
found closer to the surface; that is, where overstrain (surface material covering the valuable
deposit) is relatively very less. Surface mines are naturally extended until either the valuable
deposit is exhausted, or the cost of de-cresting larger volumes of overburden makes further mining
an uneconomic option to shoulder.
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In most types of surface mining, heavy paraphernalia's such as earthmovers are utilized. They 1st
remove the overburden the soil and rock above the deposit. Then followed by the huge machines,
such as dragline excavators, extract the mineral.

It is a known fact that Mother Earth contributes largely to the wealth of the world. The mining
takes place in those areas where the growth of vegetation is very minimal or at times does not exist
due to the surface conditions. The most important method used to extract the minerals from the
earth is surface mining. It is surprising to notice that 70 percent of the minerals extracted from the
earth are through this process.

Types of surface mining

Strip mining:

This process involves the method of extracting the mineral by removing soil and rock which are
deposited on the surface. Coal and Lignite are the two principle minerals that are extracted through
this method. This kind of mining can be done when the mineral to be extracted almost near to the
surface. This process is divided into area stripping and contour stripping. This method of striping
is common on flat land to extract the mineral over a large area

Open-pit mining:

This type of mining involves the extraction of rock or minerals from the earth by forming an open
pit. This process differs from the other method which requires digging into the earth. This method
of mining is carried out where useful minerals or rocks are found near the surface. When the
surface material covering the valuable material is relatively thin this kind of mining is more
suitable.

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 SUB SURFACE

Underground mining is carried out when the rocks, minerals, or precious stones are located at a
distance far beneath the ground to be extracted with surface mining. To facilitate the minerals to
be taken out of the mine, the miners construct underground rooms to work in. The mining company
selects the best feasible way to get the minerals extracted out.

Most mining is carried out using; Continuous mining that employs a continuous mining
mechanism to cut the coal deposits from the walls. This means there is less of blasting and drilling
and utilizes fewer miners down in the mines. It is safer than the yester year techniques of mining
that is being described on our coal mine tour page.

This kind of mining is done when the rock or mineral is on the side of a mountain. This makes it
an easy, cheaper way to mine. Minerals that are mined with draft mining are gold, coal etc. with
slope mining, the coal or mineral bed is located very deep and parallel to the ground. It is called a
slope mine because the shafts are slanted. Shaft mining has a vertical man shaft, a tunnel where
men travel up and down in an elevator. Shrinkage stoping is a flexible mining method for narrow
ore bodies that need no backfill during stoping. Long wall mining consists of multiple coal shearers
mounted on a series of self-advancing hydraulic ceiling supports.

What is the difference between surface and subsurface mining? Open-pit and strip mines?
Shaft and slope? When is each most likely to be used?

a) The difference between surface and subsurface mining is that surface mining is on the Earth’s
surface and moves the un-needed materials out of the way in order to obtain the desired minerals
and energy. Subsurface mining doesn’t remove the un-needed soils or rock out of the way instead
it uses big machines to dig deep underground into deposits that hold the same minerals and energy
there just deep under the Earth’s surface.

b) Open pit and strip mining are a form of surface mining. Both of these forms of surface mining
extract iron, copper, stone, and gravel but, open pit mining is where a giant hole or quarry is dug.
Strip mining is where a trench is dug to obtain the materials.
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c) Shaft mining and slope mining area from of subsurface mining. Shaft mining is a direct vertical
shaft that breaks through the ore, or hard stone and hoists it up so we may find the materials we
ever so desire that is trapped in it. Strip mines have more of a slanted passage so it’s easier to haul
up the broken ore.

Learning Objective: discuss the factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals

 The cost of exploration or extraction: Open-cast mining is the cheapest and shaft mines
are the most expensive ones. The cost also depends on the how large scale the
operation is. If the mining is done at a large scale, then the capital and running costs
can be low.
 geology
 Accessibility: The accessibility of places where the mining operation will take place is
important. The climate and topography tells whether the mining operation will be
accessible or there will be obstructions.
 environmental impact assessment
 supply and demand
1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction
Learning objectives: describe and explain the environmental, economic and social impacts of rock
and mineral extraction
 loss of habitat/biodiversity
 noise, water, land, air, visual pollution
 management of waste
 employment opportunities
 improvements in local/national economy
 improvements in facilities and infrastructure
1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction
Learning Objectives: strategies for restoring landscapes damaged by rock and mineral
extraction
 safe disposal of mining waste
 land restoration: soil improvement, bioremediation, tree planting
 making lakes and nature reserves
 using as land fill sites
1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals

Learning objectives: define sustainable resource and sustainable development

Sustainable resource: is one that is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the environment so
that it does not run out.

Sustainable development: is development providing for the needs of an increasing human

population without harming the environment
Learning Objectives: describe and evaluate strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and
minerals
1. increased efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals

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 2. increased efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals
3. the need to recycle rocks and minerals
4. legislation
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
2 Limestone is a rock extracted from the Earth.

The photograph shows limestone being extracted from the Earth.

(a) Name the method of rock extraction shown in the photograph.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Suggest one positive effect and one negative effect of this method of rock extraction.

positive effect ............................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

negative effect ..........................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................[2]

(c) Describe two strategies for the sustainable use of rocks.

1 ................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

2 ................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

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Specimen paper 1

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Specimen paper 2

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Answers

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