Fs2324 Cells Ha12

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Global Edition
Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson
Chapter 3
The Cellular Level of Organization
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The purpose of the chapter is to:
1. Introduce the parts of a cell
2. Discuss the importance of the plasma membrane
3. Discuss the components of the cytoplasm
PARTS OF A CELL
Structures of a Cell
Cell Anatomy Link

Parts of a Cell
The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:

1. Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
• Organelles
3. Nucleus
Cell Anatomy Link

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
The Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy
barrier that surrounds and contains the
cytoplasm of the cell
Membrane Anatomy Link

Membrane Proteins
Two types of membrane proteins are
1. Integral (also called transmembrane) proteins
2. Peripheral proteins
Membrane Anatomy Link

Functions of Membrane
Proteins
❑ Membrane proteins
can serve a variety of
functions
❑ The different proteins
help determine many
of the functions of the
cell membrane
Membrane Fluidity
■ Membranes are fluid structures because most
of the membrane lipids and many of the
membrane proteins move easily in the bilayer
❑ Membrane lipids and proteins are mobile in their
own half of the bilayer
■ Cholesterol serves to stabilize the membrane
and reduce membrane fluidity
Membrane Permeability
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
❑ The lipid bilayer is always permeable to small,
nonpolar, uncharged molecules
❑ Transmembrane proteins that act as channels or
transporters increase the permeability of the
membrane
❑ Macromolecules are only able to pass through the
plasma membrane by vesicular transport
Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane
■ A concentration gradient is the difference in

the concentration of a chemical between one
side of the plasma membrane and the other
■ An electrical gradient is the difference in
concentration of ions between one side of the
plasma membrane and the other
■ Together, these gradients make up an
electrochemical gradient
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
Transport processes that move substances

across the cell membrane are:
❑ Passive processes
■ Simple diffusion
■ Facilitated diffusion
■ Osmosis
❑ Active processes
■ Primary and Secondary transport
■ Vesicular transport
Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion
Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are

too polar or too highly charged move through
the lipid bilayer
The processes involved are:
❑ Channel mediated facilitated diffusion
❑ Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion
Diffusion: A Comparison
Passive Transport: Channel Mediated
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive Transport: Carrier Mediated
Facilitated Diffusion
Structures of a Cell
Cell Anatomy Link

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm has 2 components:

1. Cytosol - also known as the intracellular fluid
portion of the cytoplasm
2. Organelles - the specialized structures that have
specific shapes and perform specific functions
Cell Parts and Their Functions
Cell Parts and Their Functions
Cytoskeleton
Centrosome/Centrioles
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and Flagella
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Complex
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are structures that are similar in
shape to lysosomes, but are smaller and
contain enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize
(break down) organic substances
Proteasomes
Proteasomes are barrel-shaped structures that
destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins
by cutting long proteins into smaller peptides
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Nucleus
■ The nucleus contains
the hereditary units
of the cell, called
genes
■ Genes are arranged

along chromosomes
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Global Edition
Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson
Chapter 4
The Tissue Level of Organization
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to:
❑ Learn about the various types of tissues and their
origins
❑ Discuss how cells of a tissue are held together
❑ Compare and contrast epithelial, connective,
muscular, and nervous tissue
❑ Learn about the structure and function of
membranes
TYPES OF TISSUES
What is a tissue?
■ A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a

common embryonic origin in an embryo and
function together to carry out specialized
activities
■ There are 4 basic types of tissues in the
human body and they are categorized
according to their structure and function
The 4 Tissue Types
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous
Cell Junctions
Cells can be held together in a number of ways.
These points of contact between cells are called
cell junctions.
Tight Junctions
Adherens Junctions
Desmosomes
Hemidesmosomes
Gap Junctions
COMPARISON BETWEEN
EPITHELIAL AND CONNECTIVE
TISSUES
Epithelial vs. Connective Tissue
What differences can you see?
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
General Features of Epithelial Tissue
■ Cells are arranged in sheets and are densely
packed
■ Many cell junctions are present
■ Epithelial cells attach to a basement
membrane
■ Epithelial tissue is avascular but does have a
nerve supply
■ Mitosis occurs frequently
Surfaces of Epithelial Cells and the
Basement Membrane
Classification of Epithelial Tissue
Covering and lining epithelia are classified
according to the shape of the cells and how
many layers thick they are
Epithelial Tissue Naming Combinations
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
Simple x x x
Pseudostratified x
Stratified x x x
Transitional
Glandular Epithelium
A gland is a single cell or a mass of epithelial
cells adapted for secretion
❑ The secretions of endocrine glands enter the
interstitial fluid and diffuse into the bloodstream
❑ The secretions of exocrine glands enter ducts that
empty onto the surface of a covering/lining
epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of
the stomach
Structural Classification of Glandular
Epithelium
Unicellular – single cells
❑ Goblet cells
Multicellular – composed of many cells that form
a distinctive microscopic structure or
macroscopic organ
❑ Sweat glands
❑ Oil glands
❑ Salivary glands
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Functional
Classification of
Glandular
Epithelium
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
General Features of Connective Tissue
■ Consists of two basic elements:

1. Cells
2. Extracellular matrix
■ Connective tissue cells do not have any free
surfaces
■ Connective tissue is highly vascularized and
has a nerve supply
❑ Exceptions: tendons and cartilage
Connective Tissue Cells
Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix
■ Extracellular matrix is located in the spaces

between connective tissue cells
■ Extracellular matrix is composed of fibers and
ground substance
Connective Tissue Fibers
Fibers in the extracellular matrix provide
strength and support to a tissue
❑ Collagen fibers
❑ Elastic fibers
❑ Reticular fibers
Classification of Connective Tissue
Embryonic
❑ Mesenchyme
❑ Mucous
Classification of Connective Tissue
Mature
❑ Loose
❑ Dense
❑ Cartilage
❑ Bone
❑ Blood
MEMBRANES
Membranes
■ Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissue
that cover or line a part of the body
■ 2 types of membranes
1. Epithelial membranes
■ Mucous membranes
■ Serous membranes
■ Cutaneous membranes
2. Synovial membranes
Membranes
Membranes
MUSCULAR TISSUE
General Characteristics of Muscular
Tissue
Muscle tissue consists of fibers that provide
motion, maintain posture, and produce heat
3 types of muscle tissue:
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac muscle
3. Smooth muscle
NERVOUS TISSUE
General Characteristics of Nervous Tissue
Two kinds of cells:

1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia
Most neurons have a cell body, dendrites, and
axons
❑ Neurons can carry sensory or motor information
and they can perform integrative functions
Neuroglia protect and support neurons
EXCITABLE CELLS
Excitable Cells
Neurons and muscle fibers are considered

excitable cells because they exhibit electrical
excitability
❑ Electrical excitability is the ability to respond to
certain stimuli by producing electrical signals, such
as action potentials, which travel along the plasma
membrane of a neuron or muscle fiber due to the
presence of specific voltage-gated channels

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Principles of Anatomy and Physiology

Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson

Cell Anatomy Link

The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:

Cell Anatomy Link

Membrane Anatomy Link

Membrane Anatomy Link

■ A concentration gradient is the difference in

Transport processes that move substances

Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are

Cell Anatomy Link

The cytoplasm has 2 components:

■ Genes are arranged

Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson

■ A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

■ Consists of two basic elements:

■ Extracellular matrix is located in the spaces

Two kinds of cells:

Neurons and muscle fibers are considered

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