Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

Scheduling electric vehicle (EV) charging in grid-connected parking lots with

renewable sources is an important topic in the realm of sustainable transportation. The
integration of renewable energy sources into EV charging infrastructure can help reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and promote the use of clean energy [1].

To effectively schedule EV charging in grid-connected parking lots with renewable

sources, several considerations need to be taken into account:

1-Renewable Energy Generation: The availability and variability of renewable energy

sources, such as solar or wind, should be assessed. This involves monitoring the power
output of renewable sources to determine their capacity for supplying electricity to the
charging infrastructure [2].

2-Charging Demand: The charging demand of EVs in the parking lots needs to be
estimated. This can be done by considering factors such as the number of EVs, their
battery capacities, and expected charging patterns [3].

3-Load Balancing: The scheduling algorithm should aim to balance the charging load
across the available charging stations to avoid overloading the grid or any specific
charging points. This can be achieved by distributing the charging load based on the
availability of renewable energy and the charging requirements of individual EVs [4].

4-Time-of-Use Tariffs: Time-of-use tariffs can incentivize EV owners to charge their

vehicles during periods of high renewable energy generation. By offering lower
electricity rates during peak renewable energy periods, EV owners can be encouraged to
align their charging needs with the availability of clean energy [5].

5-Energy Storage Integration: Energy storage systems, such as batteries, can be

incorporated into the charging infrastructure to store excess renewable energy and
discharge it during periods of high charging demand. This helps in reducing the strain
on the grid and maximizing the utilization of renewable energy [6].

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6-Communication and Control Systems: An efficient communication and control
system is necessary to coordinate the scheduling of EV charging with the renewable
energy generation and other factors. This involves real-time monitoring of renewable
energy availability, charging station occupancy, and charging progress, as well as
implementing algorithms for optimal charging scheduling [7].

7-Grid Interaction: The scheduling algorithm should also consider the interaction with
the grid, taking into account any grid constraints or requirements. This ensures that the
charging infrastructure operates within the limits set by the grid operator and avoids any
adverse impacts on the overall grid stability [8].

The number of consumers, their needs, and their rising expectations will likely have an
enormous impact on the electricity grid over the following decades. On the other side,
the use of renewable power, energy storage technologies, and other factors forces
planners and operators to operate the grid under ever-stricter constraints. Plug-in electric
vehicles (PEV) in significant numbers will place a sizable burden on the electrical grid.
In order to create a more robust and interactive intelligent environment that is better
able to handle all the uncertainties related to generation and demand, utilities are
working to integrate operational tools into the facility grid using technology,
communication, sensors, and digital information. A smart grid is one that uses two-way
communication and control capabilities, permits bidirectional energy flows, and will
enable a variety of new functions and applications. The integration of communication
networks and IT infrastructure with the power and energy layer, as shown in Figure 1.1,
defines the smart grid conceptual framework for a smart parking lot.

Fig. 1.1: Smart grid conceptual model for smart parking lot
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The movement of electricity and money from utilities to parking lots and from parking
lots to electrical vehicles is depicted in Figure 1.2. However, this also brings forth
additional difficulties for the utility and parking lot manager in terms of grid operation
and pricing schedule. PEVs are often charged using grid power. The cost of purchasing
electricity from the grid will go up if the owner of the parking lot depends entirely on it,
which would eventually lower his profit. One of the alternatives is to install a solar-
powered micro-grid for automobile charging in order to boost the parking lot owner's
profit. Parking lot owners will make more money if they use solar electricity while grid
prices are high.

Fig. 1.2: Flowchart

Overall, scheduling EV charging in grid-connected parking lots with renewable sources

requires a comprehensive approach that integrates renewable energy generation,
charging demand, load balancing, time-of-use tariffs, energy storage, communication
systems, and grid interaction. By optimizing these factors, it is possible to promote the
use of renewable energy and facilitate sustainable EV charging.

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 Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to the need for effective
scheduling of EV charging to optimize energy usage, minimize grid stress, and improve
user convenience. This literature review aims to provide an overview of existing
research studies and approaches related to the scheduling of EV charging.

Electric power providers are demonstrating a strong interest in the smart grid
technology, which integrates dispersed generation with efficient communication and
control, in order to give benefits to the green energy economy [1] and [2]. Distributed
generation (DG) units are primarily used to inject energy into the grid, but strategically
placed and operated DG units can also improve the grid's voltage and load-ability,
reliability, and network upgrade, as discussed in [3] and [4]. There is a large research
interest available to find the effective solution to address these challenges. However,
this large PEVs penetration to grid should have been addressed properly, since
uncoordinated charging management would effect on power grid and electricity market
operation at the distribution level [5].PEV charging load and its effects on the system
have been studied in the area of distribution system planning [6]. The results in [7] omit
the arrival and departure timings of PEVs and are based on a strict charging schedule.
Although coordinated PEV charging is more advantageous to the utilities and customers
than uncontrolled charging, the studies in [8] and [7] only took into account the
uncoordinated charging scheme [9]. In recent years, a great deal of researchers have
become interested in the location of DGs for reducing peak load. The majority of them
have concentrated on creating methods for reducing power losses with the presumption
that solid DG sources would be assigned at peak load [10]. By charging the EV batteries
in a controlled manner, the congested peak load times and under-voltages can be
avoided [11]. Such method- ologies may not be able to solve a practical case of variable
demand and generation, and the size of DG units at the peak demand may not remain
optimal at other loading levels are mentioned in [10]. Enabling coordinated charging
may also make it easier for RE to integrate its decentralised energy production. [12].
However, because it involves numerous stakeholders, each with their own interests, the
managed EV charging cannot be simply implemented. Coordinated PEV charging is a
concept that is comparable to energy shifting programmes, which try to move electricity

4
demand from peak to off-peak times. In the domain of coordinated PEV charging, some
work has been done. The benefits of smart metering and energy management in the
distribution system have been quantified in work done in [13]. The work that has been
provided takes into account managing PEV charging, but it ignores the driver's travel
habits. [14] suggests a strategy for optimally allocating PEV charging stations while
taking drivers' preferences into account. There are still difficulties in modelling and
organising PEV demand, despite the fact that various solutions have been offered to
solve the problem of scheduling charging stations.

2.1 Optimization Techniques for EV Charging Scheduling:

Numerous studies have employed optimization techniques to develop scheduling
algorithms for EV charging. These algorithms aim to minimize charging costs,
manage charging load, and consider factors such as renewable energy integration,
grid constraints, and user preferences. Optimization methods include linear
programming, dynamic programming, genetic algorithms, and particle swarm
optimization [15-16]. Optimization techniques play a crucial role in developing
effective scheduling algorithms for EV charging. These techniques aim to minimize
charging costs, manage charging load, and consider various constraints and
objectives. Here are details of some commonly used optimization techniques for EV
charging scheduling:
2.1.1 Linear Programming (LP):
Linear programming is a mathematical optimization technique used to solve
problems with linear objective functions and linear constraints. In the context of
EV charging scheduling, LP can be applied to minimize the overall charging
cost while considering constraints such as grid capacity, time-of-use pricing, and
user preferences. LP models can incorporate variables such as charging start
time, charging duration, and charging rates to optimize the scheduling decision
[15-16].
2.1.2 Dynamic Programming (DP):
Dynamic programming is a mathematical optimization method that breaks down
a complex problem into simpler sub-problems and solves them recursively. DP
can be used for EV charging scheduling by considering time intervals and the
state of the charging system at each interval. The objective is to find an optimal
charging policy that minimizes costs or maximizes a defined performance

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 metric, such as energy utilization or user satisfaction. DP is particularly useful
when the charging system has a dynamic environment or uncertain parameters
[17].

2.1.3 Genetic Algorithms (GA):

Genetic algorithms are heuristic optimization techniques inspired by the process
of natural selection and genetic evolution. In the context of EV charging
scheduling, GA involves the generation of a population of potential charging
schedules represented as chromosomes. These schedules undergo genetic
operations like crossover and mutation to create new generations with improved
fitness. The fitness function can be defined based on objectives like cost
minimization, load balancing, or renewable energy utilization. The GA
iteratively refines the population until an optimal or near-optimal charging
schedule is obtained [18].
2.1.4 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO):
Particle swarm optimization is a population-based optimization algorithm
inspired by the social behavior of bird flocking or fish schooling. In PSO, a
group of particles represents potential solutions, and each particle adjusts its
position based on its own experience and the best experience of the swarm. PSO
can be applied to EV charging scheduling by representing charging schedules as
particles in the search space. The particles move towards better solutions over
iterations, considering objectives like cost minimization or load balancing [19].
2.1.5 Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP):
Mixed-integer linear programming is an extension of linear programming that
allows for decision variables to take integer values. MILP is used when
scheduling EV charging involves discrete decisions, such as selecting the
charging start time from a finite set of options. MILP models can optimize the
charging schedule while considering constraints like grid capacity, time-of-use
pricing, and user preferences. MILP solvers search for the optimal solution by
exploring the solution space systematically [20].

These are just a few examples of optimization techniques used for EV charging
scheduling. Other methods, such as nonlinear programming, metaheuristics (e.g.,
simulated annealing, tabu search), and machine learning approaches, can also be

6
 employed depending on the complexity of the problem and the specific
objectives and constraints of the scheduling task. The choice of optimization
technique depends on factors such as problem complexity, solution quality
requirements, computational efficiency, and available data.

2.2 Renewable Energy Integration in EV Charging Scheduling:

The integration of renewable energy sources with EV charging scheduling has
gained significant attention. Researchers have proposed various approaches to
incorporate renewable energy generation data into scheduling algorithms. These
approaches aim to maximize the utilization of renewable energy, reduce reliance on
fossil fuels, and decrease greenhouse gas emissions associated with EV charging
[21].
Renewable energy integration in EV charging scheduling involves incorporating the
availability and variability of renewable energy sources into the charging schedule.
The goal is to maximize the utilization of renewable energy, reduce reliance on
fossil fuels, and minimize greenhouse gas emissions. Here are some details on
renewable energy integration in EV charging scheduling [22]:

2.2.1 Real-Time Renewable Energy Data:

To effectively integrate renewable energy sources, real-time data on renewable

energy generation is essential. This data can come from sources such as solar panels,
wind turbines, or other renewable energy installations. The scheduling algorithm
should have access to up-to-date information on the current and forecasted
renewable energy generation to make informed decisions about EV charging
schedules [23].

2.2.2 Renewable Energy Forecasting:

In addition to real-time data, renewable energy forecasting techniques can be

employed to predict future renewable energy generation. These forecasting models
use historical data, weather patterns, and other relevant factors to estimate the
amount of renewable energy that will be available in the future. By incorporating
these forecasts into the scheduling algorithm, EV charging can be optimized to align
with periods of high renewable energy generation [24].

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2.2.3 Charging Prioritization:

Renewable energy integration can be achieved by prioritizing EV charging during

periods of high renewable energy availability. The scheduling algorithm can be
designed to identify time slots when renewable energy generation is expected to be
abundant and allocate charging resources accordingly. This ensures that EVs are
charged when renewable energy sources are most productive, maximizing the use of
clean energy [25].

2.2.4 Demand Response and Load Shifting:

Renewable energy integration can also involve demand response strategies and load
shifting techniques. In response to fluctuations in renewable energy generation, EV
charging can be dynamically adjusted to match the available renewable energy
supply. Load shifting involves shifting the charging demand to align with periods of
high renewable energy generation, allowing EVs to serve as a flexible load for
absorbing excess renewable energy [26].

2.2.5 Smart Grid Communication:

Effective communication and coordination between EV charging stations,

renewable energy sources, and the grid infrastructure are vital for renewable energy
integration. Smart grid communication protocols enable real-time information
exchange, allowing the charging infrastructure to adjust charging schedules based
on the available renewable energy supply. Integration with the smart grid also
enables grid operators to have visibility and control over the EV charging process to
manage grid stability and optimize renewable energy utilization [27].

2.2.6 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration:

V2G technology enables bidirectional power flow between EVs and the grid,
allowing EVs to supply electricity back to the grid when needed. By integrating
V2G capabilities into the charging scheduling algorithm, excess renewable energy
can be stored in EV batteries during periods of high generation and discharged back
to the grid during periods of high demand or low renewable energy availability. This
supports grid stability and enhances renewable energy integration [28].
Overall, renewable energy integration in EV charging scheduling involves real-
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 time data, renewable energy forecasting, charging prioritization, demand response
strategies, smart grid communication, and V2G integration. By considering the
availability and variability of renewable energy sources, EV charging can be
optimized to align with periods of high renewable energy generation, reducing the
reliance on fossil fuels and promoting sustainable transportation.

2.3 Demand Response Strategies:

Demand response programs play a vital role in scheduling EV charging to support
grid stability and reliability. These programs allow charging to be adjusted based on
electricity demand and supply conditions. Studies have investigated the
effectiveness of different demand response strategies, such as time-of-use pricing,
load shifting, and incentive programs, to encourage off-peak charging and minimize
the impact on the electrical grid.
Demand response strategies in EV scheduling aim to optimize the charging process
by adjusting charging patterns based on grid conditions and electricity demand.
These strategies help to balance the load on the electrical grid, reduce peak demand,
and improve grid stability. Here are some details on demand response strategies in
EV scheduling:
2.3.1 Time-of-Use (TOU) Pricing:
TOU pricing involves varying the electricity prices based on the time of day to
reflect the changing cost of electricity production. In this strategy, EV owners
are incentivized to charge their vehicles during off-peak hours when electricity
demand and prices are lower. By shifting EV charging to off-peak periods,
demand response helps to reduce strain on the grid during peak hours and
optimize the utilization of existing electricity infrastructure [29].
2.3.2 Critical Peak Pricing (CPP):
CPP is a pricing strategy that applies additional charges during periods of high
electricity demand, typically during critical peak events. EV owners are
encouraged to reduce or delay charging during these peak events to alleviate the
strain on the grid. CPP provides a financial incentive for EV owners to adjust
their charging behavior and helps to avoid or minimize grid disruptions during
critical peak periods [30].
2.3.3 Load Shifting:
Load shifting involves adjusting the timing of EV charging to optimize grid load
9
 distribution. EVs can be charged during periods of lower demand or excess
generation capacity, effectively shifting the load away from peak demand
periods. Load shifting can be achieved through smart charging algorithms that
consider grid conditions and prioritize charging when demand is low or
renewable energy generation is high. By intelligently managing charging
schedules, load shifting helps to reduce stress on the grid and optimize energy
utilization [31].
2.3.4 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration:
V2G technology enables bidirectional power flow between EVs and the grid,
allowing EVs to not only consume electricity but also supply it back to the grid.
With V2G integration, EVs can participate in demand response programs by
feeding excess stored energy back to the grid during peak demand periods. V2G-
enabled EVs can act as a flexible grid resource, helping to balance supply and
demand fluctuations and provide grid support services [32].
2.3.5 Incentive Programs:
Incentive programs can be implemented to encourage EV owners to participate
in demand response initiatives. These programs may include financial
incentives, such as rebates or reduced electricity rates, for EV owners who
voluntarily adjust their charging behavior in response to grid conditions. By
offering incentives, utilities and grid operators can motivate EV owners to
actively engage in demand response and contribute to grid stability [33].
2.3.6 Communication and Control Systems:
Effective communication and control systems are crucial for implementing
demand response strategies in EV scheduling. Integration with the smart grid
infrastructure allows real-time communication between EVs, charging stations,
and utility providers. This enables utilities to send signals or price signals to
EVs, notifying them of preferred charging times or critical peak events.
Advanced control systems ensure coordination and optimization of EV charging
schedules based on grid conditions and demand response signals [34].

2.4 Communication and Control Systems:

excellent EV charging schedules must be implemented, which requires excellent
communication and control systems. Modern communication protocols, such the
Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP), make it possible to monitor, manage, and
10
 optimise charging schedules in real time. Coordination and optimisation of charging
activities are made possible by integration with the smart grid infrastructure, which
enables two-way communication between EVs, charging stations, and utility
providers.
Communication and control systems play a crucial role in EV charging scheduling
by enabling real-time monitoring, control, and optimization of charging activities.
These systems facilitate coordination between EVs, charging stations, and utility
providers, allowing for efficient and effective management of the charging process.
Here are some details on communication and control systems in EV charging
scheduling:
2.4.1 Communication Protocols:
Effective communication between EVs, charging stations, and the utility grid is
essential for implementing coordinated charging schedules. Various
communication protocols, such as the Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP), are
used to establish standardized communication interfaces. OCPP allows for
secure and reliable communication, enabling charging stations to interact with
central management systems and receive instructions regarding charging
schedules, pricing information, and demand response signals [35].
2.4.2 Real-Time Monitoring:
Communication systems enable real-time monitoring of charging infrastructure
and EV status. Charging stations can provide information on charging session
details, including charging rate, energy consumption, and charging progress.
EVs can transmit data on battery state of charge, available range, and charging
preferences. Real-time monitoring allows for effective management of charging
resources, identification of charging station availability, and tracking of charging
patterns for optimization purposes [36].
2.4.3 Charging Control and Optimization:
Communication systems facilitate control and optimization of EV charging
schedules. Central management systems can send charging instructions to
individual charging stations or EVs, specifying charging start times, durations,
or charging rates. These instructions can be based on grid conditions, pricing
signals, demand response requirements, or renewable energy availability.
Charging stations and EVs can adjust their charging behavior based on these
instructions, allowing for load balancing, renewable energy integration, and grid
11
 stability [37].
2.4.4 Demand Response Integration:
Communication systems enable the integration of demand response signals into
EV charging scheduling. Grid operators or utilities can send signals to charging
stations or EVs to modify charging behavior during peak demand periods or
critical grid events. These signals can indicate preferred charging times, pricing
information, or requests for load reduction. EVs and charging stations, through
bidirectional communication, can respond to these signals and adjust their
charging schedules accordingly, supporting grid stability and avoiding grid
congestion [38].
2.4.5 Data Exchange and Analytics:
Communication systems facilitate the exchange of data between EVs, charging
infrastructure, and utility providers. This data can include charging session
details, energy consumption, grid conditions, renewable energy availability, and
pricing information. By collecting and analyzing this data, utilities and grid
operators can gain insights into charging patterns, energy demand, and grid load.
Advanced analytics techniques can be applied to optimize charging schedules,
predict future energy demand, and develop strategies for efficient energy
management [39].
2.4.6 Cybersecurity and Privacy:
As communication systems transmit sensitive data, ensuring cybersecurity and
privacy is crucial. Robust security measures, such as encryption, authentication,
and access control, should be implemented to protect communication channels
and prevent unauthorized access or tampering. Privacy concerns related to
personal charging data should also be addressed, with mechanisms in place to
anonymize or protect sensitive information [40].
Communication and control systems provide the foundation for effective EV
charging scheduling. By enabling real-time monitoring, control, and optimization,
these systems facilitate efficient energy management, load balancing, demand
response integration, and grid stability. Standardized communication protocols,
secure data exchange, and advanced analytics contribute to the development of
intelligent charging strategies that align with grid conditions and user preferences.

2.5 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration:

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 V2G technology allows EVs to serve as energy storage devices and participate in
grid services. Studies have explored the integration of V2G capabilities in charging
scheduling algorithms, enabling EVs to provide ancillary services, support grid
stability, and participate in energy markets. V2G scheduling algorithms consider
factors such as grid requirements, EV owner preferences, and energy market
conditions to optimize charging and discharging schedules.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) integration is a concept that allows electric vehicles (EVs) to
not only consume energy from the grid but also provide energy back to the grid
when needed. It involves bidirectional power flow between EVs and the electrical
grid, enabling EVs to function as mobile energy storage units and grid support
resources. Here are some details on V2G integration:
2.5.1 Bidirectional Power Flow:
V2G integration enables EVs to function as energy storage devices by allowing
bidirectional power flow. Typically, EVs are charged from the grid, drawing
power to replenish their battery. With V2G, when the grid requires additional
electricity during peak demand or other grid events, EVs can discharge energy
from their battery back to the grid. This bidirectional power flow provides
flexibility for grid operators to balance supply and demand fluctuations and
manage grid stability [41].
2.5.2 Grid Support Services:
Through V2G integration, EVs can offer various grid support services. These
services include frequency regulation, voltage control, and grid congestion
management. By providing energy back to the grid during periods of high
demand or low supply, EVs can help stabilize grid frequency and voltage levels.
Moreover, when certain areas of the grid are congested, EVs can discharge
energy locally, relieving the strain on overloaded sections and improving overall
grid reliability [42].
2.5.3 Energy Arbitrage:
V2G integration enables EV owners to take advantage of price fluctuations in
the electricity market through energy arbitrage. EVs can charge their batteries
during periods of low electricity prices, such as during off-peak hours when
demand is lower. Subsequently, during periods of high electricity prices or when
grid support is needed, EVs can discharge energy back to the grid and benefit
from selling it at higher rates. Energy arbitrage through V2G integration
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 provides potential financial incentives for EV owners [43].
2.5.4 Renewable Energy Integration:
V2G integration contributes to the effective integration of renewable energy
sources into the grid. As renewable energy generation, such as solar or wind
power, can be intermittent and variable, EVs can store excess renewable energy
during high generation periods and discharge it when renewable energy
availability is low. This helps balance the variability of renewable energy
sources and increases the utilization of clean energy, reducing reliance on
conventional power generation [44].

2.5.5 Grid Operator Control:

V2G integration requires coordination between EV owners, charging
infrastructure, and grid operators. Grid operators need to communicate with EVs
and charging stations to manage the bidirectional power flow. Through smart
grid communication protocols, grid operators can signal EVs to charge,
discharge, or limit their power output based on grid conditions, demand response
requirements, or grid stability needs. This control allows grid operators to
optimize the use of distributed energy resources, including EVs, for grid
management [45].
2.5.6. Benefits for EV Owners:
V2G integration can provide benefits to EV owners, including potential financial
incentives and enhanced charging flexibility. By participating in grid support
services, EV owners may receive compensation for providing energy back to the
grid. Additionally, V2G integration allows EV owners to have more control over
their charging and energy usage. They can choose when to charge their EVs
based on electricity prices or renewable energy availability, optimizing their
charging costs and environmental impact [46].
V2G integration holds great potential for grid stability, renewable energy
integration, and mutual benefits for EV owners and grid operators. It leverages the
large-scale deployment of EVs to support grid management and optimize the
utilization of renewable energy resources. However, challenges such as battery
degradation, standardization, and regulatory frameworks need to be addressed for
widespread implementation of V2G technology.
2.6Real-Time and Predictive Scheduling:
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 Real-time and predictive scheduling approaches have been proposed to optimize EV
charging based on real-time grid conditions and future predictions. These
approaches utilize forecasting techniques, such as load forecasting and renewable
energy forecasting, to adjust charging schedules dynamically. By incorporating real-
time data and predictive analytics, EV charging can be optimized to respond to
changing grid and energy conditions.
Real-time and predictive scheduling in the context of electric vehicle (EV) charging
involves optimizing charging schedules based on real-time data and predictive
models. These scheduling approaches aim to maximize the utilization of charging
infrastructure, consider grid conditions, and improve the overall efficiency of EV
charging. Here are some details on real-time and predictive scheduling:

2.6.1 Real-Time Scheduling:

Real-time scheduling involves adjusting charging schedules based on up-to-date
information and current grid conditions. It takes into account factors such as
electricity demand, grid stability, and the availability of charging resources.
Real-time scheduling algorithms continuously monitor the grid status and
charging station availability to optimize charging schedules accordingly. By
dynamically adapting to real-time changes, EV charging can be efficiently
managed, and grid stability can be maintained [47].
2.6.2 Predictive Scheduling:
Predictive scheduling relies on forecasting models and historical data to
anticipate future grid conditions and optimize charging schedules accordingly.
These models consider factors such as electricity prices, renewable energy
availability, and expected energy demand. By analyzing past patterns and using
predictive algorithms, charging schedules can be optimized in advance, allowing
EV owners to take advantage of off-peak pricing, maximize the use of
renewable energy, and avoid grid congestion [48].
2.6.3 Renewable Energy Integration:
Real-time and predictive scheduling can incorporate renewable energy
integration by leveraging forecasts of renewable energy generation. By
considering the expected output of renewable sources such as solar and wind
power, charging schedules can be optimized to align with periods of high
renewable energy availability. This helps maximize the use of clean energy and
15
 reduce reliance on conventional power sources. By integrating renewable energy
forecasts into the scheduling algorithms, EV charging can be optimized for
sustainability [49].
2.6.4 Grid Constraints and Load Balancing:
Real-time and predictive scheduling take into account grid constraints and aim
to balance the charging load across the grid. They consider the capacity and
limitations of the electrical infrastructure to avoid overloading or straining the
grid. By optimizing charging schedules, these approaches ensure that the
charging demand is distributed evenly, avoiding peak demand periods and
minimizing the risk of grid instability [50].
2.6.5 User Preferences and Constraints:
Real-time and predictive scheduling can incorporate user preferences and
constraints into the charging schedules. EV owners may have specific
requirements, such as the desired state of charge at a particular time or the need
to have the vehicle ready for a specific departure time. These preferences can be
accommodated in the scheduling algorithms to ensure that the charging process
meets individual needs while also considering grid conditions and charging
infrastructure availability [51].
2.6.6 Dynamic Pricing and Incentives:
Real-time and predictive scheduling can leverage dynamic pricing models and
incentives to optimize charging schedules. By adjusting charging rates based on
grid conditions and electricity demand, EV owners can be incentivized to charge
during periods of lower demand or when renewable energy generation is high.
These pricing incentives help shift charging load to off-peak hours, optimize
grid utilization, and potentially lower charging costs for EV owners [52].
Real-time and predictive scheduling techniques enable efficient management of EV
charging by considering real-time data, grid conditions, renewable energy
availability, and user preferences. By optimizing charging schedules based on these
factors, these scheduling approaches help improve the overall efficiency, grid
stability, and sustainability of EV charging infrastructure.

2.7 Field Trials and Case Studies:

Several field trials and case studies have evaluated the effectiveness of different
scheduling approaches in real-world settings. These studies assess the impact of
16
 scheduling on grid performance, EV owner behaviour, and charging infrastructure
utilization. They provide insights into practical implementation challenges, user
acceptance, and the scalability of scheduling solutions.
Field trials and case studies have been conducted worldwide to evaluate and
demonstrate the effectiveness of EV charging scheduling strategies. These trials and
studies provide valuable insights into the practical implementation, benefits, and
challenges associated with different scheduling approaches. Here are some notable
field trials and case studies in EV charging scheduling:
2.7.1 California Vehicle-Grid Integration (VGI) Pilot:
The California VGI Pilot is a field trial that aims to explore the potential benefits
of V2G integration in managing EV charging and grid operations. The trial
involves a large number of participating EVs and tests various V2G scenarios,
including demand response, grid support services, and renewable energy
integration. The pilot examines the feasibility and economic viability of VGI, as
well as its impact on grid stability and EV owner satisfaction [53]-[54].
2.7.2 Nissan LEAF Smart Grid Trials:
Nissan conducted several smart grid trials with its LEAF electric vehicles to
assess the feasibility of advanced charging and energy management systems.
The trials focused on evaluating real-time and predictive charging algorithms
that optimize charging schedules based on grid conditions, pricing signals, and
renewable energy availability. The studies demonstrated the potential of
intelligent charging to reduce grid strain, increase renewable energy utilization,
and provide cost savings for EV owners [55].
2.7.3 My Electric Avenue Project (UK):
The My Electric Avenue project in the UK aimed to evaluate the impact of
clustered EV charging on local electricity networks. The project involved
monitoring and managing the charging behavior of multiple EVs within specific
geographical areas. By implementing dynamic pricing and control strategies, the
project demonstrated the feasibility of avoiding grid overload during peak
demand periods and highlighted the importance of local network planning for
EV charging infrastructure [56].
2.7.4 Electric Nation Project (UK):
The Electric Nation project in the UK focused on assessing the impact of
residential EV charging on local electricity networks. The trial involved
17
 monitoring and analyzing EV charging behavior in residential settings and
implementing load management strategies to balance charging demand. The
project explored the effectiveness of time-of-use pricing and demand response
strategies in reducing peak demand and avoiding grid congestion [57].
2.7.5 Amsterdam Vehicle-to-Grid Project:
The Amsterdam Vehicle-to-Grid project aimed to investigate the technical and
economic feasibility of V2G integration in a real-world urban environment. The
trial involved deploying V2G-enabled EVs and evaluating their ability to
provide grid support services, such as frequency regulation and peak shaving.
The project demonstrated the potential of V2G to contribute to grid stability,
optimize renewable energy utilization, and provide financial benefits for EV
owners [58].

2.7.6 Power Matcher Project (Netherlands):

The Power Matcher project in the Netherlands focused on developing an
advanced energy management system for EV charging. The project utilized real-
time pricing signals and demand response strategies to optimize EV charging
schedules. By dynamically adjusting charging rates based on grid conditions and
renewable energy availability, the project demonstrated the potential to reduce
energy costs, increase renewable energy integration, and alleviate grid stress
[59].

These field trials and case studies provide valuable insights into the implementation and
effectiveness of different EV charging scheduling strategies. They contribute to the
understanding of real-world challenges, benefits, and opportunities associated with
intelligent charging approaches, V2G integration, demand response strategies, and
renewable energy utilization in the context of EV charging.

The literature review highlights the significance of optimization techniques, renewable

energy integration, demand response strategies, communication systems, V2G
integration, real-time and predictive scheduling, and field trials in the scheduling of EV
charging. Further research is needed to address scalability, interoperability, and the
integration of emerging technologies, such as blockchain and artificial intelligence, to
develop robust and efficient EV charging scheduling solutions. The findings from these
studies can inform policymakers, utility providers, and EV stakeholders in making
18
informed decisions regarding the implementation of effective scheduling strategies.

2.8 Objective

“Optimization of Grid-Connected EV Charging with Renewable Energy

Integration in Parking Lots ”

There is a dearth of research on synchronising solar generation with the charging of

electric vehicles. The parking lot management system (PLMS) and charging
management system (CMS) that we defined as the subject of this thesis provide an
algorithm for managing parking lots. The mathematical modelling of vehicle data and
the suggestion of the method for enhancing parking lot owner profit by lowering grid
power consumption are among the major contributions. This profit from the point of
view of the parking lot owner is obtained by implementing a solar production system for
the parking lot and employing a coordinated charging schedule algorithm, while the
profit from the point of view of the PEV owner is accomplished by implementing tariffs
for charging PEV at charging stations.

We are aware that grid prices fluctuate according to grid demand. In the context of the
parking lot, the owner profit goal of the PLMS (Parking lot management system) is to
use more of the available solar generation in order to draw less electricity from the grid
during times of peak price and with the use of coordination in scheduling to charge the
electric vehicle.

Parking Lot Owner:

Profit = Revenue − Cost (2.1)

In terms of PEV owner profit, PEV owners have the freedom to choose from a variety
of parking lots, and parking lot owners can set varied PEV charge costs for various
parking lots.

In order for PEV owners to reduce their charging expenses by choosing a certain
parking lot charging station, CMS (Charging management system) will recommend for
a minimum of Price between the closest charging station.

In order to encourage a greater use of EVs for utility benefits, the proposed work, which
is a component of the IT layer in the conceptual model, gave information on the existing
and future requirements surrounding scheduling charging infrastructure to please EV

19
Owners and parking lot owners. It has also reviewed the challenges and difficulties
associated with integrating EVs into the distribution network without the proper
management system and what utilities must do to counteract these negative effects and
turn them into benefits, namely the implementation of smart charging schedules.

Smart parking lots are defined by the difficulty of calculating the owner's profit and, as
a result, the time needed to recoup the cost of the initial investment. The owner of the
parking lot must cope with the following electric vehicle-related uncertainties:

• How many cars will be parked on the parking lot and for how long will they stay
parked?
• How much electricity a car owner is willing to buy?
• How much money a car owner is willing to pay for a certain amount of electricity?
• How much incentives they can provide to EV owners?
• How scheduling can be done to maximize profit?
Little information is available on coordinating solar generation with the charging of
electric vehicles. In order to manage parking lots, this thesis suggests an algorithm,
which we refer to as a parking lot management system (PLMS). The mathematical
modeling of vehicle data and the suggestion of an algorithm to increase parking lot
owner profit by lowering grid draw are among the major contributions. By
implementing a solar generating for parking lot system and utilising the coordinated
charging schedule algorithm, this profit is made possible.

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 Chapter-3
THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF OPTIMIZATION OF
GRID-CONNECTED EV CHARGING

Optimization of grid-connected electric vehicle (EV) charging involves the application

of various theoretical aspects to improve the efficiency, reliability, and cost-
effectiveness of charging infrastructure. Here are some key theoretical aspects related to
the optimization of grid-connected EV charging:

1. Load Balancing: Load balancing is a technique used to distribute the power

demand evenly across the electrical grid. In the context of EV charging, load
balancing ensures that charging stations are optimally allocated and scheduled to
avoid excessive load on specific grid segments. By considering factors such as
charging station availability, charging requirements, and grid capacity, load
balancing algorithms can optimize the allocation and scheduling of EV charging
resources [16].

2. Demand Response: Demand response refers to the ability to adjust electricity

consumption in response to supply conditions or grid constraints. In the context
of EV charging, demand response techniques can be used to optimize the
charging process based on grid conditions. For example, charging rates can be
adjusted dynamically based on real-time electricity prices or grid congestion
levels. By incorporating demand response mechanisms, EV charging can be
optimized to reduce peak demand, lower electricity costs, and enhance grid
stability [18-19].

3. Smart Charging Strategies: Smart charging strategies involve intelligent

algorithms and decision-making techniques to optimize EV charging. These
strategies consider various factors such as charging station availability, user
preferences, grid conditions, and renewable energy generation. By leveraging
real-time data and advanced optimization algorithms, smart charging strategies
can optimize charging schedules, minimize charging costs, and maximize the
utilization of renewable energy sources [20].

21
 4. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration: Vehicle-to-Grid integration enables
bidirectional power flow between EVs and the electrical grid. It allows EV
batteries to not only charge from the grid but also discharge electricity back to
the grid when needed. The theoretical aspects of V2G integration involve
optimizing the bidirectional power flow, managing the energy exchange between
EVs and the grid, and leveraging EV batteries as flexible storage resources to
support grid operations. V2G integration can help balance the grid, mitigate
renewable energy intermittency, and provide additional revenue streams for EV
owners [21-22].

5. Optimization Algorithms: Various optimization algorithms, such as

mathematical programming, heuristic algorithms, and machine learning
techniques, play a crucial role in the optimization of grid-connected EV
charging. These algorithms can be applied to solve complex optimization
problems, including charging station allocation, charging schedule optimization,
load forecasting, and energy management. By leveraging optimization
algorithms, charging infrastructure operators and grid operators can improve the
overall efficiency and performance of grid-connected EV charging systems [25].

It's important to note that the implementation of these theoretical aspects requires
collaboration between stakeholders, including charging infrastructure providers,
utilities, grid operators, and EV manufacturers. Furthermore, the specific optimization
techniques employed may vary depending on local grid characteristics, charging
infrastructure deployment, and policy/regulatory frameworks.

The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) presents a significant opportunity to transform the
transportation sector and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the widespread
adoption of EVs hinges on the availability of reliable and efficient charging
infrastructure. This article explores the various aspects of EV charging, including
charging technologies, infrastructure deployment, grid integration, and emerging trends
[18-24].

3.1 Electric Vehicle Charging Technologies:

3.1.1 AC Charging:

Level 1: Basic charging through a standard household outlet.

22
Level 2: Faster charging using dedicated EV charging equipment.

AC charging is one of the primary methods used to charge electric vehicles (EVs) and
involves the use of alternating current (AC) power. AC charging can be categorized into
two levels: Level 1 and Level 2. Let's explore each level in detail:

3.1.1.1 Level 1 Charging:

Level 1 charging is the most basic form of AC charging and involves plugging an EV
into a standard household electrical outlet. Here are the key characteristics of Level 1
charging:

 Charging Power: Level 1 charging typically operates at 120 volts (V) in North
America or 230 volts (V) in many other parts of the world. The charging power
output is limited by the standard electrical outlet, usually ranging from 1.4 to 2.4
kilowatts (kW).
 Charging Time: Level 1 charging is relatively slow compared to other charging
options. It typically adds around 4 to 5 miles of range per hour of charging,
depending on the specific EV model. A full charge can take several hours or
even overnight, depending on the battery capacity and starting state of charge.
 Equipment: Level 1 charging does not require any specialized charging
equipment. The EV charging cable that comes with the vehicle is typically
compatible with standard household outlets. However, it's essential to ensure
that the electrical circuit and outlet can handle the continuous charging load
without overheating or causing safety concerns.
 Accessibility: Level 1 charging is widely accessible since it utilizes standard
household outlets that are available in most residential settings. It provides a
convenient option for EV owners who have access to an outlet near their parking
location.
 Use Cases: Level 1 charging is commonly used in residential settings, where EV
owners can plug in their vehicles overnight or during extended periods of
parking. It is suitable for EV owners with low daily mileage requirements or
those who have ample time for charging.

3.1.1.2 Level 2 Charging:

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Level 2 charging offers faster charging speeds compared to Level 1 and requires
dedicated EV charging equipment. Here are the key characteristics of Level 2 charging:

 Charging Power: Level 2 charging typically operates at 240 volts (V) in North
America or 400 volts (V) in many other regions. The charging power output can
range from 3.3 to 19.2 kilowatts (kW), depending on the specific charging
station and EV capabilities.
 Charging Time: Level 2 charging significantly reduces the charging time
compared to Level 1. It can provide around 25 to 30 miles of range per hour of
charging, again depending on the EV model and the charging station's power
output. A full charge usually takes several hours, enabling EV owners to
replenish their batteries more quickly.
 Equipment: Level 2 charging requires the installation of dedicated EV charging
equipment, commonly referred to as Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE)
or charging stations. These charging stations are specifically designed to handle
the higher power levels of Level 2 charging and provide safety features like
overcurrent protection and ground fault detection.
 Accessibility: Level 2 charging infrastructure is typically deployed in public
areas, commercial settings, workplaces, and multi-unit dwellings. It provides a
more convenient and accessible option for EV owners who require faster
charging speeds away from their home.
 Use Cases: Level 2 charging is suitable for a wide range of EV owners,
including those with higher daily mileage requirements or limited charging time.
It is commonly used in public charging networks, workplace charging programs,
and residential installations where dedicated charging stations are installed.

AC charging, with its Level 1 and Level 2 categories, provides flexible and accessible
charging options for electric vehicles. While Level 1 charging is convenient for slower
charging needs, Level 2 charging offers faster

3.1.2 DC Fast Charging (Level 3):

DC fast charging, also known as Level 3 charging, is a high-power charging method

used for electric vehicles (EVs) that enables rapid replenishment of the battery. Unlike
AC charging, which converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) within the

24
vehicle's onboard charger, DC fast charging directly supplies DC power to the EV. Here
are the details of DC fast charging:

 Charging Power: DC fast charging operates at significantly higher power levels

compared to AC charging. The power output of DC fast chargers can range from
50 kilowatts (kW) to over 350 kW, depending on the specific charging
infrastructure and EV capabilities. These high power levels allow for faster
charging speeds, significantly reducing the time required to charge an EV.
 Charging Time: DC fast charging provides rapid charging, allowing EVs to add
substantial range in a short period. The charging time for DC fast charging
varies based on the EV model, battery capacity, and the power output of the
charging station. Typically, a DC fast charger can add around 100 miles of range
in approximately 20-30 minutes of charging, depending on the specific
circumstances.
 Charging Infrastructure: DC fast charging requires dedicated charging
infrastructure, commonly referred to as DC fast chargers or fast charging
stations. These chargers utilize specialized power electronics and high-power
connectors to provide a direct DC connection to the EV's battery system. DC fast
chargers are typically installed in public areas along highways, major travel
routes, and high-traffic locations, allowing EV owners to quickly recharge
during long-distance trips or when time is limited.
 Compatibility: DC fast charging is not universally compatible with all EV
models. Different EV manufacturers utilize different charging standards, such as
CHAdeMO, CCS (Combined Charging System), or Tesla's Supercharger
network. EV owners need to ensure that the DC fast charging infrastructure is
compatible with their vehicle's charging standard to utilize the high-power
charging capability.
 Charging Protocol: DC fast charging utilizes specific charging protocols that
facilitate communication between the charging station and the EV. These
protocols enable power control, safety monitoring, and data exchange during the
charging process. Commonly used protocols include CHAdeMO, which
originated in Japan and is primarily used by Asian automakers, and CCS, which
is widely adopted by European and North American automakers.

25
  Use Cases: DC fast charging is particularly useful for long-distance travel and
quick turnaround times. It allows EV owners to charge their vehicles at high
power levels during rest stops, enabling efficient long-distance journeys. DC fast
chargers are also essential for commercial fleet operations, taxi services, and
other applications that require frequent and fast charging to maintain operational
efficiency.
 Grid Impact: Due to the high power demand associated with DC fast charging,
its deployment and widespread use can have implications for the electrical grid.
Grid operators and charging infrastructure providers need to consider grid
capacity, load management strategies, and potential grid upgrades to ensure the
stability and reliability of the electrical system.

DC fast charging, or Level 3 charging, provides rapid charging capabilities for electric
vehicles, significantly reducing charging times and enabling long-distance travel. With
its high-power infrastructure, compatibility considerations, and impact on the electrical
grid, DC fast charging plays a crucial role in promoting EV adoption and supporting the
growth of sustainable transportation systems.

3.2 Types of Charging Infrastructure:

3.2.1 Residential Charging:

Residential charging refers to EV charging solutions installed at homes, allowing EV

owners to conveniently charge their vehicles overnight or during extended periods of
parking. Here are the key details of residential charging [24-28]:

 Charging Equipment: Residential charging typically involves the installation of

a dedicated Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE), commonly known as a
home charging station. These charging stations are specifically designed for
home use and are available in various power levels, such as Level 1 or Level 2.
 Power Requirements: Residential charging stations are typically connected to
the existing electrical infrastructure of the home. Level 1 charging stations
utilize a standard household electrical outlet (120V in North America), while
Level 2 charging stations require a dedicated 240V circuit. The charging power
output of Level 1 and Level 2 residential charging stations typically ranges from
1.4 to 19.2 kilowatts (kW), depending on the specific charging equipment.

26
  Installation: Residential charging stations can be installed by a licensed
electrician, ensuring proper electrical connections and adherence to safety
regulations. Installation costs may vary depending on the electrical upgrades
required and the complexity of the installation.
 Convenience and Use Cases: Residential charging offers the convenience of
charging at home, allowing EV owners to start each day with a fully charged
vehicle. It is particularly suitable for EV owners with predictable daily driving
patterns and access to private parking spaces near their homes. Residential
charging is often used by individuals, families, and those with low to moderate
daily driving distances.

3.2.2 Public Charging:

Public charging infrastructure consists of charging stations deployed in public areas,

providing accessible charging options for EV owners who are away from their homes.
Here are the key details of public charging:

 Charging Stations: Public charging stations are typically installed in locations

such as parking lots, shopping centers, restaurants, and other high-traffic areas.
These charging stations can offer Level 2 charging or DC fast charging,
depending on the specific infrastructure and target audience.
 Power and Charging Speeds: Public charging stations can provide a range of
power outputs. Level 2 public charging stations typically offer power levels of
6.6 to 19.2 kW, while DC fast charging stations can deliver power outputs
ranging from 50 kW to over 350 kW, enabling faster charging speeds.
 Accessibility and Payment: Public charging stations are designed to be
accessible to a wide range of EV owners. Many stations offer open access, while
some may require membership or payment through various methods like RFID
cards, mobile apps, or credit card readers.
 Use Cases: Public charging infrastructure caters to EV owners who require
charging while away from home, such as during work hours, shopping trips, or
long-distance travel. Public charging stations play a crucial role in addressing
range anxiety, enabling EV owners to extend their driving range and providing
charging options for those without access to residential charging.

27
3.2.3 Workplace Charging:

Workplace charging refers to the installation of EV charging stations at businesses,

offices, or commercial premises. Here are the key details of workplace charging:

 Charging Stations: Workplace charging stations can provide Level 1 or Level 2

charging, depending on the specific needs and requirements of the workplace.
These stations are typically installed in employee parking lots or designated
charging areas.
 Power and Charging Speeds: Workplace charging stations offer power outputs
similar to residential charging stations, ranging from 1.4 to 19.2 kW for Level 1
and Level 2 charging. The charging speed depends on the power output and the
time employees spend at work, allowing for significant charging during the
workday.
 Benefits to Employers and Employees: Workplace charging provides benefits to
both employers and employees. Employers can attract and retain EV-driving
employees, demonstrate environmental stewardship, and contribute to
sustainability goals. Employees, on the other hand, can conveniently charge their
vehicles while at work, reducing the need for additional charging stops during
their daily commutes.
 Charging Management and Access: Workplace charging stations can be
managed through various methods, such as reservation systems or designated
charging spots for employees. Access to workplace charging may be restricted to
employees only or may be available for public use, depending on the employer's
policies and goals.

The different types of charging infrastructure, including residential, public, and

workplace charging, cater to the diverse charging needs of EV owners. By providing
accessible and convenient charging options, these infrastructure types contribute to the
growth and usability of electric vehicles, promoting sustainable transportation systems
and reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

3.3 Grid Integration and Smart Charging:

28
Grid integration and smart charging are crucial components of electric vehicle (EV)
charging infrastructure that aim to optimize the interaction between EV charging, the
electrical grid, and renewable energy sources. Here are the details of grid integration
and smart charging [29-32]:

3.3.1 Grid Integration:

Grid integration refers to the seamless integration of EV charging infrastructure with the
existing electrical grid. It involves managing the charging process in a way that
minimizes the impact on the grid and maximizes the utilization of renewable energy
sources. Here are the key details of grid integration:

 Load Management: Grid integration enables load management strategies to

balance the electricity demand from EV charging with the available grid
capacity. This involves implementing techniques such as demand response,
where EV charging can be adjusted based on grid conditions and load profiles.
 Grid Capacity and Upgrades: Grid integration considers the capacity of the
electrical grid to handle increased EV charging demands. It involves assessing
the grid infrastructure, identifying potential bottlenecks, and planning grid
upgrades to accommodate the growing number of EVs and charging stations.
 Grid Stability and Power Quality: Grid integration ensures that EV charging
does not compromise the stability and power quality of the electrical grid. It
involves monitoring and managing factors such as voltage fluctuations,
frequency regulation, and power factor correction to maintain grid reliability.
 Grid Services and Ancillary Markets: Grid integration allows EVs and charging
infrastructure to provide valuable services to the grid. For example, EVs can
participate in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) programs, where they can supply power
back to the grid during peak demand periods, acting as distributed energy
resources.

3.3.2 Smart Charging:

Smart charging refers to intelligent and dynamic control of EV charging based on

various factors, such as grid conditions, electricity prices, and user preferences. It
utilizes advanced technologies and communication systems to optimize the charging
process. Here are the key details of smart charging:

29
  Load Balancing and Peak Demand Management: Smart charging algorithms
prioritize and distribute charging loads based on grid capacity and peak demand
periods. This helps to avoid excessive strain on the grid during peak hours and
minimizes the need for grid infrastructure upgrades.
 Time-of-Use (TOU) Pricing and Demand Response: Smart charging systems
take advantage of TOU pricing, where electricity rates vary based on the time of
day. By scheduling charging during off-peak hours when electricity is cheaper,
smart charging helps reduce charging costs for EV owners and better utilizes
renewable energy generation.
 Vehicle and User Integration: Smart charging systems can integrate with vehicle
telematics and user preferences to optimize the charging process. They can
consider factors such as battery state of charge, estimated driving needs, and
user-defined charging preferences to determine the most efficient charging
schedule.
 Renewable Energy Integration: Smart charging can be coordinated with
renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power. It enables EV charging
to align with periods of high renewable energy generation, maximizing the
utilization of clean energy and reducing reliance on fossil fuel-based generation.
 Communication and Control Infrastructure: Smart charging relies on
communication systems, such as vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and internet
connectivity, to exchange data and commands between charging stations, EVs,
and the grid. This infrastructure enables real-time monitoring, control, and
optimization of the charging process.

Grid integration and smart charging are integral to the effective deployment of EV
charging infrastructure. By considering grid capacity, load management, grid stability,
and utilizing smart algorithms, these approaches enable efficient and sustainable EV
charging. They facilitate the integration of renewable energy sources, optimize grid
utilization, and provide flexibility and cost savings to EV owners and grid operators,
promoting the transition to a cleaner and more resilient energy system.

3.4 Charging Infrastructure Deployment:

Charging infrastructure deployment is a critical aspect of enabling widespread adoption

and usability of electric vehicles (EVs). It involves the planning, installation, and

30
management of charging stations to ensure convenient access to charging for EV
owners. Here are the details of charging infrastructure deployment [41-43]:

3.4.1 Site Selection and Planning:

Site selection and planning play a crucial role in charging infrastructure deployment. It
involves identifying suitable locations for charging stations based on factors such as
population density, transportation corridors, parking availability, and proximity to
amenities. Key details of site selection and planning include:

 High-Traffic Areas: Charging stations should be strategically located in high-

traffic areas, such as shopping centers, workplaces, public parking lots, and rest
stops along highways, to maximize their accessibility and utilization.
 Urban and Rural Considerations: Charging infrastructure deployment needs to
address the unique needs of both urban and rural areas. In urban areas, focus on
dense charging networks and curbside charging, while in rural areas, prioritize
charging stations along major travel routes and in key destinations.
 Grid Capacity Assessment: Site selection should consider the capacity and
availability of the electrical grid to handle the additional load from charging
stations. Grid upgrades may be necessary in certain areas to support the
increased demand from EV charging.
3.4.2 Charging Station Installation:

Once suitable sites are identified, the installation of charging stations takes place. This
involves several key details, including:

 Charging Station Types: Determine the appropriate charging station types based
on the charging speed requirements and target audience. This could include
Level 2 charging stations for residential and workplace charging, as well as DC
fast charging stations for public fast charging.
 Power Infrastructure: Ensure that the power infrastructure at the chosen site is
capable of supporting the required charging station power levels. Upgrades to
electrical connections and transformers may be necessary to provide sufficient
power capacity.

31
  Permitting and Regulations: Obtain the necessary permits and comply with local
regulations for the installation of charging stations. This may involve working
with local authorities, utility companies, and building owners to ensure
compliance with zoning and safety requirements.
 Equipment Selection: Select reliable and certified charging equipment from
reputable manufacturers to ensure the safety and performance of the charging
infrastructure. Consider factors such as charging capacity, connectivity features,
and compatibility with various EV models.
3.4.3 Network Connectivity and Management:

Effective charging infrastructure deployment involves establishing a robust network

connectivity and management system. Key details include:

 Communication Infrastructure: Establish reliable communication networks, such

as internet connectivity and wireless protocols, to facilitate real-time monitoring,
control, and data exchange between charging stations, EVs, and management
systems.
 Payment and Access Systems: Implement user-friendly payment and access
systems to enable EV owners to easily initiate and complete charging sessions.
This may include RFID cards, mobile applications, or credit card readers,
ensuring a seamless user experience.
 Network Management Software: Utilize software platforms for centralized
management and monitoring of the charging infrastructure. These software
systems provide functionalities such as remote monitoring, maintenance alerts,
energy management, and billing.
 Interoperability: Strive for interoperability among charging stations and
networks to ensure compatibility with various EV models and different charging
standards. Industry standards, such as Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP),
facilitate interoperability and enable seamless roaming for EV owners.
3.4.4 Scalability and Future Expansion:

Charging infrastructure deployment should consider scalability and future expansion to

accommodate the growing number of EVs. Key details include:

32
  Modular Design: opt for a modular design approach that allows for easy
scalability and flexibility. This enables the addition of more charging stations
and the integration of new technologies as the demand for EV charging
increases.
 Future-Proof Infrastructure: Anticipate technological advancements and
evolving standards in the EV industry. Design the charging infrastructure to be
adaptable to new charging speeds, connectivity requirements, and emerging
technologies.
 Grid Integration Considerations: Ensure that the charging infrastructure is
designed to support grid integration and smart charging capabilities, allowing for
load management, demand response, and optimization of renewable energy
utilization.

Successful deployment of charging infrastructure requires careful site selection,

efficient installation, robust network connectivity, and future scalability. By considering
these key details, charging infrastructure can be strategically placed, effectively
managed, and prepared for the increasing demand for EV charging. This enables
convenient access to charging, promotes the adoption of electric vehicles, and supports
the transition to a sustainable transportation system.

3.5 Grid Impact and Power Management:

Grid impact and power management are essential considerations in the deployment and
operation of electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure. They involve managing the
electricity demand from charging stations to minimize the impact on the electrical grid
and optimize the utilization of available power resources. Here are the details of grid
impact and power management:

Grid impact and power management are crucial aspects of electric vehicle (EV)
charging infrastructure to ensure the efficient and reliable integration of EV charging
with the electrical grid. Here are the details of grid impact and power management [45-
49]:

3.5.1 Grid Impact Assessment:

33
Before deploying EV charging infrastructure, a thorough grid impact assessment is
necessary to evaluate the potential impact of increased EV charging on the electrical
grid. Key details include:

 Load Modeling: Simulate and analyze the expected load from EV charging
based on factors such as charging patterns, charging speeds, and projected EV
adoption rates. This helps in understanding the grid's capacity to handle the
additional load.
 Grid Infrastructure Evaluation: Assess the existing grid infrastructure, including
transformers, distribution lines, and substations, to determine if they can handle
the increased demand from EV charging. Identify potential bottlenecks or areas
requiring upgrades to ensure grid stability.
 Peak Demand Analysis: Analyze the impact of EV charging on peak demand
periods. Determine the potential load spikes and their alignment with the grid's
peak load. This information helps in load management strategies and grid
capacity planning.
 Grid Resilience: Evaluate the resilience of the grid to handle EV charging in
scenarios such as extreme weather events, simultaneous charging of multiple
EVs, or rapid EV penetration. Identify potential vulnerabilities and develop
mitigation measures.
3.5.2 Load Management Strategies:

To mitigate the impact of EV charging on the grid, effective load management strategies
are implemented. These strategies optimize charging patterns and consider grid
conditions, renewable energy availability, and user preferences. Key details include:

 Demand Response Programs: Implement demand response programs where EV

charging can be dynamically adjusted based on grid conditions, grid stability, or
electricity price signals. This helps in balancing the load and reducing peak
demand.
 Time-of-Use (TOU) Pricing: Encourage EV owners to charge their vehicles
during off-peak hours by offering TOU pricing. By aligning charging with
periods of low electricity demand, the load on the grid can be spread out more
evenly.

34
  Smart Charging Algorithms: Utilize smart charging algorithms that optimize
charging schedules based on factors such as renewable energy generation, grid
capacity, and user preferences. These algorithms consider charging speed,
charging duration, and other constraints to ensure efficient charging while
minimizing grid stress.
 Load Balancing: Distribute the charging load across different charging stations
and time intervals to avoid excessive strain on specific parts of the grid. This
helps in preventing localized congestion and ensures grid reliability.

3.5.3 Grid-Friendly Charging Technologies:

Certain technologies and solutions can enhance grid-friendliness and power

management of EV charging. Key details include:

 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration: Enable bidirectional power flow between

EVs and the grid through V2G systems. This allows EVs to serve as energy
storage devices, providing power back to the grid during peak demand periods
or grid emergencies.
 Grid Services: Explore opportunities for EVs and charging infrastructure to
provide grid services such as frequency regulation, load balancing, or ancillary
services. This enhances the grid's flexibility and resilience while creating
additional revenue streams.
 Power Factor Correction: Implement power factor correction techniques to
improve power quality and reduce reactive power demand from charging
stations. This ensures efficient power utilization and minimizes grid losses.
 Energy Management Systems: Deploy advanced energy management systems
that integrate EV charging with renewable energy sources, energy storage
systems, and other distributed energy resources. This enables optimal utilization
of clean energy and enhances grid stability.

Grid impact and power management are essential for the successful integration of EV
charging infrastructure with the electrical grid. Through grid impact assessments, load
management strategies, and grid-friendly technologies, the potential strain on the grid
can be minimized, grid stability can be ensured, and renewable energy utilization can be

35
optimized. These measures contribute to the overall sustainability and reliability of EV
charging while supporting the transition to a cleaner and more resilient energy system.

3.6 Emerging Trends and Future Outlook:

Emerging trends in the field of electric vehicle (EV) charging point towards exciting
developments and a promising future for the widespread adoption of electric vehicles.
Here are the details of some key emerging trends and their potential impact [50-52]:

 High-Power Charging: The demand for faster charging is driving the

development of high-power charging solutions. Ultra-fast charging technologies,
such as 350 kW and higher, are being deployed, significantly reducing charging
times and improving the convenience of EV ownership. These high-power
charging stations are expected to become more widespread, enabling long-
distance travel and reducing charging anxiety.
 Wireless Charging: Wireless charging, also known as inductive charging, is
gaining momentum as an alternative to traditional plug-in charging. This
technology allows EVs to charge by simply parking over a wireless charging pad
or through wireless charging lanes embedded in roads. As wireless charging
efficiency improves and standards are established, it has the potential to
revolutionize EV charging, offering seamless and convenient charging
experiences.
 Vehicle-to-Grid Integration: Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology enables
bidirectional power flow between EVs and the electrical grid. This technology
allows EVs to not only charge from the grid but also provide power back to the
grid during peak demand periods or grid emergencies. V2G integration is
expected to play a significant role in grid stabilization, demand response, and
maximizing the utilization of renewable energy resources.
 Energy Storage Integration: The integration of EVs with energy storage systems
is gaining attention as a means of enhancing grid stability and maximizing the
value of renewable energy. By utilizing EV batteries as energy storage devices,
excess renewable energy generated during off-peak periods can be stored and
utilized during high-demand periods. This integration enables better grid
balancing and reduces the need for additional energy storage infrastructure.

36
 Smart Grid Integration and Demand Response: The integration of EV charging
with smart grid technologies enables dynamic load management and demand
response capabilities. Through real-time communication and data exchange
between EVs, charging infrastructure, and the grid, charging can be coordinated
to optimize grid conditions, renewable energy utilization, and user preferences.
This integration ensures grid reliability, minimizes peak demand, and maximizes
the use of clean energy sources.
 Data Analytics and AI: The use of data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI)
is becoming increasingly important in optimizing EV charging infrastructure. By
analyzing charging patterns, user behavior, grid conditions, and other factors, AI
algorithms can predict and optimize charging schedules, load balancing, and
energy management. This data-driven approach enhances the efficiency,
reliability, and cost-effectiveness of EV charging.
 Expansion of Public Charging Networks: Public charging networks are rapidly
expanding to cater to the growing number of EVs. Governments, private
companies, and utility providers are investing in the development of
comprehensive public charging networks, including DC fast charging stations
along highways, in urban areas, and at key destinations. This expansion aims to
enhance EV adoption by ensuring convenient access to charging infrastructure.
 Integration with Renewable Energy Sources: The integration of EV charging
infrastructure with renewable energy sources is a key trend. Charging stations
are increasingly being equipped with solar panels, wind turbines, or connected to
nearby renewable energy generation facilities. This integration promotes
sustainable charging practices and reduces the carbon footprint of EVs, making
them even more environmentally friendly.
 Standardization and Interoperability: Efforts are being made to establish
standardization and interoperability in EV charging infrastructure. Common
charging standards, such as CCS (Combined Charging System) and CHAdeMO,
ensure compatibility between EVs and charging stations. Additionally,
interoperability protocols like Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) enable
seamless roaming between different charging networks, enhancing the
convenience for EV owners.

37
  Electrification of Commercial Fleets: The electrification of commercial fleets,
including delivery vehicles, taxis, and ridesharing services, is a growing trend.
This sector has significant potential for EV adoption and charging infrastructure
development. Many companies are investing in fleet electrification, creating
dedicated charging infrastructure to support the charging needs of their electric
fleets.

The future of EV charging is promising, with continuous advancements and

innovations. The ongoing development of faster charging technologies, wireless
charging infrastructure, and smart grid integration will further enhance the usability and
convenience of EVs. Vehicle-to-Grid and Vehicle-to-Home integration will continue to
evolve, providing benefits for grid stability and energy management. Additionally, the
integration of AI, ML, and data analytics will optimize charging infrastructure
management and improve the overall charging experience.

As EV adoption continues to grow, the expansion of charging infrastructure, coupled

with advancements in emerging trends, will address range anxiety concerns, enable
long-distance travel, and accelerate the transition to sustainable transportation. The
future of EV charging is characterized by increased efficiency, seamless integration
with renewable energy sources, and the realization of a greener and more sustainable
mobility ecosystem.

38
 Chapter-4
DESIGN ASPECTS OF OPTIMIZATION OF GRID-
CONNECTED EV CHARGING

4.1 Benefit Maximization for Parking Lot Owner

The conventional electric power system is replaced by the smart grid, which integrates
distributed storage (DS), distributed generation (DG), and existing conventional
facilities, sensors, and monitoring technology. Electric power utilities are demonstrating
a strong interest in the smart grid technology, which integrates DG and DS units with
excellent communication and control, in order to give benefits to the green energy
economy. The smart grid's architecture enables the bidirectional movement of power,
data, and other resources from generation to end users. All of the smart grid's
components may communicate with one another thanks to these two bi-directional
flows, which encourages end users to take part in management decision-making.
For instance, by installing distributed storage (DS) and distributed generation (DG)
devices, such as photovoltaic (PV) panels and tiny wind turbines, and interacting with
real-time pricing signals, end users could have an impact on the operation of marketing.
To meet the expanding needs of PEVs, new Smart PEV-parking lots will be introduced.
Owners of these parking spaces would have more chances to earn money from
producing, storing, buying, and selling electricity to their clients. It is difficult to
comply with the strict regulations from regulators for network upgrades and a rise in the
number of charging slots. including more generation units or storage spaces as needed
to manage the parking lot's net demand.
The issue of scaling energy storage has been raised in a number of research studies as a
way to ease grid congestion. A probabilistic method to sizing and placing energy
storage in distribution networks has been proposed by certain writers to increase the
dependability of the system and demand-side management. Furthermore, finding the
ideal DG and DS capacities in smart homes has been done; however, only a small
number of the earlier works included models of PEV demand. In order to maximize the
profit of smart PEV-parking lots, the primary goal of this article is to identify the best
resource allocation.

39
With the help of numerous new smart grid technologies, it is now possible to estimate
how much power DGs will produce based on local load demand and weather data.
Distributed generation is a form of small-scale electricity production that is strategically
added to the grid as a backup source to increase grid reliability. Photovoltaic systems,
fuel cells, micro-turbines, and small wind power systems are examples of common
DGs. The installation of a DG close enough to a city is made possible by DG
technologies' lower pollution rates. In comparison to the operation of the conventional
power systems, the quantity of energy lost during power transmission might be greatly
reduced in this method. In addition to tiny gas- and diesel-fired generators, rooftop solar
and wind generators are becoming increasingly common in India. This may also help to
reduce the costly infrastructure investments in power transmission and distribution
networks.
The smart grid's distributed storage plays a significant part in the power system as well.
The main benefit of having DSs is that they may store electrical energy when the supply
of electricity outpaces the demand for it and then release it to end users when the supply
falls short of the latter. Additionally, uncertainty, which impacts demand when it is
necessary, is one of the biggest disadvantages of renewable energy sources. The purpose
of using DSs is to quickly feed back any excess energy from intermittent DGs, such as
solar and wind energy, as needed. The following benefits result from integrating
distributed generation and distributed storage:
• The electricity generated by DGs can be stored and used as needed.
• Base load power generation on a big scale using coal and natural gas might be done
more effectively and with simpler output control.
• The combined potential of DSs can minimize infrastructure expenditure in terms of
power generation and transmission capacity for peak load demand.
• Quick response is possible, and DSs could offer electric power backup for the rising
reliability requirement.
The goal of this study project is to identify the investment choices made by smart PEV-
parking lots, whose owners may think about reaping benefits from allowing for high
PEV penetration levels. The main goal is to meet the technical requirements while
maximising the profits that parking-lot owners make from providing power to PEVs.
This section gives a description of the suggested methodology. Further highlighted are
the various costs/benefits and modelling techniques for PEV use. Different load models,

40
coordinated and uncoordinated PEV charging schemes, and energy resources that can be
integrated to make it easier to install charging units, such as solar-based DG units, are
the inputs to the technique suggested. Additionally, the input data includes the pricing
information for the various pieces of equipment, including storage units. This
methodology produces the ideal PEV charging decisions, ideal solar-based DG and
storage unit sizes, and ideal PEV charging costs.

The objective is to maximize the expected profit,

Maximize = (Total revenue − Total costs) … (4.1)

the price of using the grid to purchase power to meet PEV demand and recharge any
installed DS devices. Average spot market prices, distribution service charges,
distribution and transmission network charges (in per monthly demand peak), and the
fixed capital and maintenance costs of installing any DS and solar-based DG units are
the different types of electricity costs for small business clients. the advantage of using
the in-tariff (FIT) programme to sell electricity from solar-powered DG units and PEVs
to the grid.

Revenue of selling electricity to PEVs:

… (4.2)

Cost of purchasing electricity from the grid:

.(4.3)

Capital costs of DS unit:

… (4.4)

DS Operational Constraints:

… (4.5)

…(4.6)

41
 …(4.7)

… (4.8)

In order to achieve a trade-off between accuracy and analysis simplicity, the

fluctuations of solar irradiance are represented using the historical data that is currently
accessible. Based on the properties of the photovoltaic panel as stated in [60], the
simulated values of solar irradiance are transformed into output power.

Capital costs of solar-based DG unit:

… (4.9)

Revenue of selling the energy of the solar-based DG unit to the grid:

… (4.10)

Solar-Based Dg Size Constraints:

… (4.11)
Uncoordinated PEV demand and coordinated PEV demand differ fundamentally in that
the former implies a lack of coordination between the charging decisions made for each
car at each hour. In this study, a unique method for simulating both coordinated and
uncoordinated PEV demand's energy consumption is provided. The suggested method is
based on the generated parking times and vehicle arrival rates. Additionally, the amount
of energy needed by PEVs, which is determined by the driver of the vehicle when it is
parked, is presumptively dependent on the average charging cost calculated throughout
the entire parking period. The dependence is reduced to a linear connection [61], as
stated in, which suggests that drivers typically set their required energy to zero or the
maximum value if the average charging prices are at the least or maximum market
prices, respectively. Real-world estimates of this connection can be made by analysing
how drivers of moving vehicles react to various charging rates.

As previously established, there is a linear relationship between the energy used by

PEVs and the cost of charging them, as shown in [62]. Additionally, utilising the
decision factors for PEV charging, the required energy by PEV is used to

42
 … (4.12)

… (4.13)

… (4.14)

… (4.15)

In this constraint, the net demand at the transformer terminals is evaluated in, and the
absolute value of this demand should be less than the transformer rating as in. It is
worth mentioning that the net demand could take either positive or negative values that
correspond to power drawn from or reversely supplied to the grid, respectively.

.(4.16)

… (4.17)

In this work, the different costs incurred by the owner of the smart PEV-parking lot are
as follows:

 The cost of purchasing electricity from the grid to supply the PEV demand and
charge any installed DS units. Electricity costs for small business customers are
categorized into average spot market prices (in Rs per energy consumption),
distribution service charge (in Rs per month), and distribution and transmission
network charges (in per monthly demand peak).
 The fixed capital and maintenance costs of installing any DS and solar-based
DG units.
On the other hand, there are several benefits that could be achieved by the owner of the
smart PEV-parking lot, as follows:

 The benefit of selling the energy from solar-based DG units to the grid via feed-
in-tariff (FIT) program.
 The benefit of selling electricity to PEVs.
The goal of this work is to improve the performance of energy management in the
context of the smart grid. The overall objective is to maximize the parking-lot owners
benefits from selling electricity to PEVs/utility and satisfy the constraints. the input data

43
comprises the cost parameters of the different equipment including the storage units.
The input to the methodology proposed is

 PEV coordinated/uncoordinated charging schemes.

 Different models of load,
 Different energy resources that can be integrated to facilitate installing the
charging units. The output of this proposed formulation for is Benefit
Maximization in Smart PEV-Parking Lots
 The optimal PEV charging decisions.
 The optimal size of solar-based DG and storage units,
 Optimal charging prices of PEVs.

4.2 Parking Lot Owner Parking Lot Management System (PLMS)

A variable that represents the price the smart parking lot is willing to pay for a unit of
electricity during a specific time period is used to define it. The automobiles' charge will
be scheduled by the parking lot management system (PLMS). Here, it is assumed that
the solar energy being produced is only used to charge cars parked in lots. The proposed
algorithm's implementation for PLMS is shown schematically in Fig. 4.1. The algorithm
suggested in this study operates in PLMS and will plan the cars' in-lot charging. The
related work that was done in this area is explained in the section that follows.

Fig. 4.1 Schematic diagram of the implementation of the proposed algorithm PLMS

4.2.1 Proposed Charging Schedule Algorithm for PLMS

An algorithm is suggested in this section for an electric vehicle charging schedule in a

parking lot. The parking lot management system (PLMS) uses this algorithm to
schedule automobiles. The procedures are as follows:

44
1. This method takes into account inputs such as vehicle data, solar generation, and time
of use (TOU) price data. Data on this vehicle includes

Fig. 4.2 Flowchart for implementation of algorithm PLMS

 Type of vehicle: This is defined based on the mileage and the battery capacity of
the vehicle.
 Arrival time of the car.
 Departure time of the car.
 Distance needs to travel after the departure of the car.
 State of Charge (SOC) at the time of arrival.

1. Based on the type of vehicle and the distance intended to travel charging
required is calculated using the equation (4.18).
2. Once the energy is calculated to the total time required for charging of the
vehicle is calculated using equation (4.19). Here the total time depends on the
charger rate.

45
 Fig. 4.3 Flowchart for implementation of algorithm PLMS
4. If the price is low then the strategy is to charge all the vehicles that are available
during that time period. Else there are two cases one is the uncoordinated case
and the coordinated case. For uncoordinated case go to step 5. For coordinated
charging case go to step 6.
5. In uncoordinated case charge the vehicles based on first cum first serve (FCFS)
basis and utilize the solar also go-to step 10.
6. In coordinated case abundant solar periods are checked and the vehicles during
the high price periods are shifted to abundant solar periods by considering their
departure time and the total time required for charging.
7. Rescheduled cars are taken and the new load curve is formed for the calculation
of the grid price and the car ids are noted for reference such that the parking lot
owner will charge accordingly go to step 10.
8. Calculate the power drawn from the grid using equation (4.21).
9. Calculate the total cost using equation (4.20).
10. Repeat the process till the end of time.

4.2.2 Mathematical Formulation for Charging Schedule of Electric Vehicles

This section explains mathematical modelling. Time block is indicated by a subscript t.

The amount of battery power needed for the automobile to depart is taken into account
while modelling car data mathematically. The amount of energy needed is computed by

46
taking into account the car owner's input regarding the route he plans to take after
leaving. Equation (4.18) is used to compute the necessary amount of energy.
Ecar,n = Emin + dn ∗ mn … (4.18)
where n is car ID, Ecar,n is the energy required during the vehicle departure, d is the
distance intend to travel after the car departure which is a user input and m is the
mileage of the car which depends on type of vehicle.
Total time required for the car to complete its charging depends on the charger rate and
the energy required. Mathematically it is shown by the following equation (4.19)

… (4.19)

Load curve corresponding to the charging of electric vehicles is formed by aggregating

the charge requirements during that hour and considering the charger rate. Mathematical
equation corresponding to the formation of load curve is given in equation (4.20)

… (4.20)

where Pload,t is the total charging required in kWh. Ecar,n,tar is the energy required for
car n during its departure in kWh. Here the summation is done by considering the first
come first serve (FCFS) basis. This is the reason for considering the summation
considering the arrival time of the car.
The objective is to minimize the cost of purchasing of power from the grid:

… (4.21)

where Cpg,t cost of power that is purchased from the grid in INR(Rs.)
This cost Cpg,t is calculated using equation(4.22).
…(4.22)
where Pgrid,t is the power drawn from the grid in kWh and ρt is the time of use pricing
in INR(Rs.). Power drawn from the grid is the subtraction of load and solar generation.
Here load is the total charging load during that particular hour. P grid,t is calculated
using equation(4.23)

… (4.23)

where Pload,t is the total load or total charging required by cars in kWh during which
varies with respect to number of cars and time. Psolat,t is the total solar power generated in
kWh.

47
Constraints: Constraints that are considered in this optimal charging schedule model
are as follows: (i) Charging of car battery should not exceed its maximum capacity as
well as it should not go below the soc limit. (ii) Charger rate should not exceed its
maximum limit. (iii) Solar power should not exceed its maximum capacity. (iv) An
electric vehicle that is coming should charge before its departure time. The following
equations show the mathematical stating of constraints.

… (4.24)

where Ecar is the energy in the vehicle battery in kWh.

… (4.25)

where Chrate is the charger rate in the parking lot in kW.

… (4.26)

… (4.27)

where Tch,n is the total charging time required for car number or ID n . So, this total
charging time should be between the arrival time t ar and the departure time tdep. The
car should be allocated for charging considering this constraint.

48
 Chapter-5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Simulation of the proposed system is performed on MATLAB-SIMULINK. Analysis of
the result is carried out in order to fulfil the final objectives.

5.1 Case Study and Simulation Results PLMS

This part uses MATLAB programming to simulate and validate the aforementioned
approach. It is regarded as a smart parking lot for simulation purposes because it has 20
charging spots. The arrival and departure times of the car serve as the input to the
parking lot management system (PLMS). Additionally, the customer's desired trip
distance at the time of departure is taken into account as input. Two different sorts of
vehicles are taken into account in this simulation. Based on the vehicle's mileage and
battery capacity, this classification is made. Battery capacity and mileage for type-1
vehicles are calculated as 24kWh and 0.3kWh/km, respectively. The battery capacity
and mileage for type-2 vehicles are both 30kWh and 0.4kWh/km, respectively [63].
Additionally, 10% of the entire capacity is taken into account for the minimum battery
soc.

Fig 5.1 Arrival Rate of Cars

The battery cannot discharge below this level, therefore. The amount of battery charging
needed is determined based on these factors and the desired route at the time of
departure. The number of cars arriving every hour is depicted in Fig. 5.1. Car IDs are
present in these vehicles. This information was produced using a random function that
ranges from 1 to 24.

49
 Fig 5.2 Departure Rate of Cars

The number of cars leaving throughout each hour is shown in Figure 5.2. The same
random function that is used to generate arrival time data, which ranges from 1 to 24, is
used to generate this data as well. However, effort is made to ensure that the car's
leaving time does not precede its arrival time.
As previously stated, the mileage and battery capacity needed charging for each
automobile at the time of departure is computed and shown in fig. 5.3 depending on the
distance intended to travel during departure.

Fig 5.3 Cars and their required charge at the time of departure

The needed price for the specific time period is aggregated to create the demand curve
for the parking lot. The energy management strategy is constructed using this demand
curve while taking time-of-use pricing into account. Figure 5.4 [64] depicts the time of
use pricing taken into account.

50
 Fig 5.4 Time of use (TOU) price

A number of panels considered for this simulation are 85. This number is selected to
actually test the algorithm in different cases. Based on the number of panels and the
solar generation data from NREL website [65], solar generation is calculated. Fig 5.5
shows the solar availability and the required demand during each hour. It is observed
from the figure that sometimes solar is more and the demand is less. Since selling of
power to grid i.e., V2G is not considered, the objective is to utilize more solar.

Fig 5.5 Solar Generation and Demand curve for charging of cars

In the simulation, it is assumed that all of the cars use solar power to recharge if the cost
is cheap. The shifting of the autos occurs if the price is high. The lowest price in this
scenario is one that is less than Rs 4. This programme prefers to use solar energy over
grid-based charging when the price is Rs 4 and solar energy is available.

Figure 5.6 compares the charging strategies used in the absence of solar power, in the
situation of uncoordinated solar power, and in the case of coordinated solar power. First
come, first served (FCFS) is used to describe an uncoordinated case in this context. For

51
coordinated cases, the number of available cars and the amount of time needed for
charging are determined. Then, based on the departure time, the shiftable cars are
chosen and shifted for charging.

Fig 5.6 Comparison of without solar, with solar uncoordinated and with solar coordinated
Table 5.1 Cost comparison of three cases
With solar With solar
Case Without solar
uncoordinated coordinated
Cost Rs. 5359.15 Rs. 2629.56 Rs. 2467.96
Table 5.1 compares the three instances that were taken into consideration for the
simulation. Here, selling electricity to the grid is not taken into account. It has been
noted that the parking lot owner is minimizing costs thanks to the coordinated case. The
amount saved by installing solar is Rs. 2729.59 in the uncoordinated instance. In a
similar vein, the savings achieved with the coordinated example over no solar are Rs.
2891.19. As a result, it is indicated that employing the coordinated case method will
increase profit.

Table 5.2 Uncoordinated case

52
Table 5.3 Coordinated case

53
The car IDs that are charging during the hours are listed in Table 5.2. To represent the
uncoordinated example, use this table. Table 5.3 displays the coordinated situation for
car charging in a similar manner. The two tables show that the car ID 13 is moving from
the 12th to the 13th hour, and the car IDs 91, 110, and 130 are moving from the 14th to
the 15th hour as well. This occurred because there was a greater supply of solar power
accessible at the time and these vehicles could be moved. The time needed for charging
and the departure time are used to calculate the availability of shifting. As the car needs
to start charging, a new variable is present in this situation. The autos that are accessible
for shifting are actually what these variable searches for. As a result, the cars are moved.
The parking lot management system (PLMS) is a proposed algorithm for
scheduling electric automobiles. The suggested algorithm takes into account the electric
grid's hourly changing time of use pricing. The coordinated case algorithm minimises
the amount of power drawn from the grid during times of high peak prices, according to
the results. The parking lot owner's profit is also improved because solar power helps to
offset the high peak hours' energy use. This can be expanded further by including
electricity sales to the grid. Additionally, transactions involving the vehicles, such as
charging a vehicle that isn't charged with a lot of charged vehicles, can be added.

5.2 Charging Management System (CMS)

EV owners can reduce the cost of the charging necessary for their vehicles by using a
charging management system (CMS) to schedule the charging depending on prices
supplied by parking facilities. Three parking lots that offer various TOU tariffs for EV
charging have been taken into consideration in this case. Any parking lot charging
station can be used to recharge an electric vehicle. The proposed CMS algorithm's
implementation design is shown in Figure 5.7.

Fig 5.7 Schematic diagram of the implementation of the proposed algorithm CMS
The driving histories of 536 taxis in San Francisco, California are included in this
collection. Data collection begins on May 17 and lasts through June 10, 2008. Every

54
data record for a taxi includes a time stamp, a latitude, a longitude, and a flag
designating whether or not the taxi is carrying passengers [65]. Every time the vehicle is
turned off, the GPS tracking system is shut off as well. Once the car is running, the
recording starts up again. We went over the data for each of the 536 automobiles'
movements and parking for the entire three weeks of data traces. Figure 5.8 displays the
outcomes for a sample.

Fig 5.8 Data Flow

automobiles throughout the course of a three-week period. Parking lot values 1, 2, and 3
shown on the y-axis denote that the car is parked at one of the three charging stations,
whereas value 0 denotes that it is not. Numbers 1 through 3 represent the charging
station index number for each parking event. We want to count the number of times a
car is parked in each of the parking lots as the first stage in this research. The parking
events are significant because, depending on their timing and location, they may be later
construed as PHEV plug-in events. The parking incidents for the car ID 385 are shown
in Fig. 5.9. This allows us to monitor EV mobility between parking lots and determine
the length of time and cost of parking at a specific parking lot station.

Fig 5.9 Parking Event With Parking Time

55
Additionally, Fig. 5.9 demonstrates how different cabs have unique parking and moving
patterns. Another intriguing finding is that the second charging station, or the Taxi
Headquarters, is where the longest length parking incidents are recorded. The number of
vehicles parked at each station at any one moment can then be determined by adding up
the precise driving and parking traces of every vehicle. The outcomes are displayed in
Fig. 5.10. The resolution in this case is one minute. That is, we have determined how
many cars are parked at each charging station during each one-minute period throughout
the day. According to the dynamics of car movements, we can see that parking patterns
vary significantly between charging stations.

Fig 5.10 TOU of Parking 1 , 2 & 3

Figure 5.10 TOU tariff offered by each Parking lot to charge the EV is generated using
random function considering constrains and conditions for tariff.
5.2.1 Simulation Result of Charging Management System (CMS)
Figure 5.11 shows the comparison of cost of charging for the customer with and without
CMS. It is observed from the plot that almost every car obtained the savings.

Fig 5.11 Charging Cost per month Vs Car ID

56
 Fig 5.12 Savings

Fig 5.12 shows the savings of each customer per month for charging his electric vehicle.

Chapter-6

CONCLUSION
An algorithm known as the Charging management system (CMS) was designed to lower
the cost of EV charging for customers. When three charging stations are available
locally and are supplied by various utilities, this algorithm is used in an app or in a
vehicle to direct the user to travel in order to charge. The results show that employing
57
this algorithm achieves the goal of decreasing the cost of charging an EV. In this
dissertation an algorithm has developed for scheduling electric vehicles dubbed the
Parking Lot Management System (PLMS) and Charging Management System (CMS).
The proposed approach takes into account the electric grid's hourly changing time of use
pricing. The coordinated case algorithm minimises the amount of power drawn from the
grid during times of high peak prices, according to the results. The parking lot owner's
profit is also improved because the solar electricity offsets the high peak periods' power
drawl. This can be expanded further by including electricity sales to the grid.
Additionally, transactions involving the vehicles, such as charging a vehicle that isn't
charged with a lot of charged vehicles, can be added.

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