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Revolution in England:
The rise of nation states in early part of 16th century is a most significant historical
phenomenon in modern European history. A look at the political map of Europe in the year
1500 shows distinctly the emergence of national states like England, France, Portugal,
Denmark, Norway, Poland Hungary, Sweden and Spain beside the Austrian, Russian and
ottoman empire.

England:
England was going through the strains of civil war before the advent of Tudor monarchies.
When Henry- vii laid the foundation of Tudor despotism, the British subjects gave their
tacit consents. It was on account of the strong rule of Henry- vii and Henry- viii that Britain
emerged as a nation.The rise of middle class went a long way in making the nation
prosperous and therefore the Tudor monarchies kept this class happy by encouraging trade
and commerce.

Actually,Tudor despotism was based on the support of the middle class(sometime known
by the term Bourgeois) the Tudor monarch fulfilled the aspiration of middle class.
Nationalism became a byproduct of the Tudor rule and it found its expression during the
reformation period and also in the establishment of Anglican Church.

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End of despotic tradition: the despotic tradition was begun by the Tudors in 15 and 16 th
century and came to an end with the rule of Stuart.

Divine right theory of kingship:king James 1 from Scotland becomes the king of England
and Scotland and he wanted to establish Divine right theory of kingship.King James 1 was
convinced that god had divinely ordained kings to rule and any challenge to royal power
must be crushed. His idea of government was the king came from god and the law from
the king.

The unpopular works of King James 1

Firstly, he was a foreigner to English people

Secondly the revenue policy:

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Charles 1 (1625-1649) and conflict with parliament: war with Spain, two tax imposed by the king
tonnage and poundage (taxes on import and export in the case of wine or beer and merchandise
respectively for one year only instead of granting them for the whole reign.) but the king did not
declare the war with Spain and he dissolved his first parliament.
Third parliament and petition of rights:

Civil war(1640-1660): large number of middle-class puritans in cities situated in south east
England opposed the king. They consisted mostly of shopkeepers, small landholders, merchants
and manufacturers.

King Charles 1 secured his support of county militias (landholders) nobles, high church officials
and all those who opposed puritans.

Cromwell’s army:

Final stage of the revolution:

Purge parliament and execution of King Charles 1:

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Stuart restoration: king Charles 2

The puritan revolution ended with the abdication of Richard Cromwell and the Stuart monarchy
continued with the accession of king Charles 2 to the English throne in 1660. He disbanded
Cromwell’s new model army, restored land to the crown, church and private landowners. A general
amnesty was declared for all those who opposed the king during civil war. The new king was
allowed to retain a few army regiments for his protection. Those who executed KingCharles,
including major general Harrison were hanged.

Pro catholic policy of king Charles 2:

Protestant England was suddenly taken aback when king Charles 2 announced the conversion of
PrinceJames to Catholicism. King Charles 2 subsequently issued a declaration of indulgence. The
king claimed that he had the right to suspend any laws which he did not approve. At the same time
there were all sorts of rumors that the king was receiving money from king Luis of France for the
purpose of restoring Catholicism in Britain. These things frightened the protestant.

Parliament protested at the declaration of indulgence and declared it illegal. In 1673 it passed the
test act by which all non- Anglicans were excluded from occupying civil and military position. A
wave of resentment followed against the king’s sympathy for Catholics and people believed in all
wild tales.

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Rise of political parties in Britain:

The socalled popish plot evoked a ready response from the parliament which introduced the
exclusion bill. The bill aimed at excluding the king’s brother James, the duke of York, from the
throne because he was a catholic. King Charles 2 made it clear that he would not give his consent
to the bill. The bill caused exciting debate and the rise of political parties.

On the one side there were Tories (an Irish term) or conservative who upheld royal absolutism,
hereditary succession and the Anglican Church. On the other hand, there were the Whigs (a
Scottish term) popular protestant who desired a strong parliament, religious toleration for all
protestant opposed royal absolutism and so on. The Tories and Whigs differed on various issues
but they had one thing in common that both were opposed to the spread of Catholicism in England.

Before the dissolution of the 2ndparliament the Whigs registered a victory in their struggle against
the king. They were successful in limiting the powers of the king by passing the habeas corpus act
1679. No person accused of a crime could be thrown into prison at king’s pleasure for long time.
A court could issue a writ for the person in court so that he could be tried according to the process
of law. If he proved innocent, he would be set free. The Whigs lost their popularity because they
were accused of plotting to assassinate the king. The king also ruled the country without parliament
during the remaining part of his reign (1641-1645).

Social life of England:

Social life of England stood in stark contrast to Cromwell’s time of puritan way of life. In the
autumn of 1664, the bubonic plague broke out which took a heavy toll 31,159 within a year.
Unhealthy condition in England(London) allowed the disease to spread. The 2nd event was the
devastating fire which began on September 2 and ended on 9 September 1664. During these seven
days 13,200 houses burnt. 200,000 people were rendered homeless.

After the death of king Charles 2, James ascended the throne as kingJames2in 1685. During his
short reign, he was 52year age. The king shocked the people by violating the test act. He appointed
Catholics in the civil service, army and university. He claimed his right to suspend any law which
was passed by parliament.Whigs desired to invite Mary, elder of KingJames daughter, wife of
William of orange an Anglican to occupy English throne along with her husband. The Tories also
joined in this project.

The glorious revolution:

A convention parliamentoffered the crown to William and Mary after declaring that king James 2
had tried to destroy the English constitution and after failing fled the country. Parliament was
shrewd enough to offer the crown to William and Mary on condition that they respect the laws of
land (magna carat, petition of rights, habeas corpus act and supremacy of the parliament.) now
they added one more document known as the Bill of Rights (1689) to rule of despotic monarchs in
England. It contains 13 provisions which clearly expressed the rights and liberties of all
Englishman and also the supremacy of the parliament.
the Bill of Rights explained three principles:

1. The rule of law and the supremacy of the parliament

2. The rights of members of parliament
3. The rights of subjects which included petitioning the king and trial by jury.

William and Mary gave their signatures thereby indicating their willingness to rule according to
the constitution. This political settlement was achieved without any bloodshed and therefore called
the bloodless revolution or glorious revolution. The revolution put an end to the divine right theory
of kingship. It ushered in constitutional monarchy in England. It heralded a new era – an era of
supremacy of English parliament and the rule of law. The Bill of Rights significantly changed the
political system of England in the sense it enshrined the Rights of English parliament and subjects.
Popular sovereignty was thus established.

1. What was glorious revolution? What were the results of this glorious revolution?

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The enlighten despotism:

18 centuries was not only known for industrialization it was also known for enlightenment.
Protestantism and Catholicism had been a main feature of the intellectual life of Western Europe
in 16 and early 17 centuries. Howeverintellectual interest gradually shifted from super natural
religion to natural science what is commonly called the enlightenment. This dominated the 18
century and prepared the way for a revolutionary era in politics and society.

Interest in natural science was both reflected and promoted by the rise of new institution the
scientific academy at Rome in 1603. A group of scientist and persons interested in science establish
this same academy in Italy and Germany. 1n 1622 English royal society was chartered by king
Charles 2 to examine all system, theories and experiments of things natural, mathematical and
mechanical invented, recorded or practiced by any considerable author ancient or modern.

In 1666 an earlier French academy of sciences was recognized in Massachusetts in 1683 and
Another in Dublin in 1684. 1n 1665 both the English and French academies published scientific
periodicals and scientificjournalswere from Italy, Germany, Denmark and other countries.Rulers
and statesman gave patronage in scientific invention.

IsaacNewton:

IsaacNewton was born in the year in which Galileo died 1642 and attended Cambridge University.
He was known as SirIsaacNewton.In his famous book PRINCIPIA;hedescribedTHE LAW OF
GRAVITATION. Isaac Newton was the father of modern physics.
Adam Smith:

The name of his book is WEALTH OF NATIONS. He was the father of economics.

Hobbes, John Lock, David Hume, Emanuel Kant – they all were philosopher contributed in
philosophical thought.

So, the enlightenmentbased on 4 concepts:

1. Naturalism: the substitution of natural for super natural

2. Rationalism: human reason according to the rational moral sense
3. Optimistic progress: a hopeful belief in the steady betterment and ultimate perfection
of mankind
4. Humanitarianism

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MERCANTILISM:

In the new age of social speculation when international trade was expanding, financial profits were
accruing and capitalism was growing by leaps and bounds that a number of enlightened people
should seek rational explanation of economic phenomena and economics should take its place with
politics, law and history among the social sciences.

The dominant economic practice of the 17th century was mercantilism (political economy). It was
exemplified by the Spanish and Portuguese government of the time,by the economic policies
pursued in France by Richelieu and especially by Colbert and by the navigation laws and other
trade regulations enacted in England under Cromwell and king Charles 2. it may also be remarked
that mercantilism was expounded and defended in more or less scientific manner by a group of
17th century writers.

Adam Smithwas the outstanding personality in 18thcentury political economy. The name of his
book is WEALTH OF NATIONS in 1776. It was a classic book. He argued that neither commerce
nor agriculture but only labor is the source of wealth and he urged a division of labor. Let the
government abolish all monopolies, all restrictions on trade, all; burdens on industry. Lassez- fair:
let them do what they will. It’s a theory.

One conspicuous aspect of social sciences and in fact of the whole enlightenment of the 18 th
century was Humanitarianism. It took many forms. It was evidenced in the widespread demand
for reform. Reform of society as preached by Rousseau, reform of economics as advocated by
Adam Smith,reform of laws as demanded by Beccaria and Bentham,reform of ethics as sponsored
by Kant, reform of religion as urged by Voltaire. All such reform, it was contended would make
for human liberty, for human wealth and for human perfection.
Indeed, it was optimistically assumed that the study of man, his individual and social
characteristics would prove how perfect he is if freed from past, reliant only on his own reason, he
would create a social, political, economic, ethical and religious paradise on earth and would create
it very soon.

The Enlightened despotism and the despotic rulers:

By the 2nd half of 18thcentury,the English tenant with its varied interest in
naturalscience,socialscience, natural philosophy and classicism was affecting not only the middle-
class intellectuals and a considerable number of nobles and clergy man but also most of the royal
despots on the continent of Europe. It satisfies contemporary demands for reform in government
and society, in church and education.

The grand monarch Louis 14 of France was one of the enlighteneddespots. The despots were
working hard for the enlightenmentand material wellbeing of their people. They would however
remain despots and dictatorial means; they would realize their good intensions. Their government
would be for the people, not by the people.

FREDERICK THE GREAT(Russia): he was the most preserving and famous of the
enlighteneddespots. In his youth he was imbibed a test for the new intellectual developments- the
new physicalscience, philosophy, latest French literature, art and criticism.

He succeeded to the Prussian throne in 1740-1786;hewould make the Prussia the best governed
state in Europe. His political ideals he expressed in a book which he wrote in French on the theory
of government. The prince- he said the monarch is not the absolute master, but only the first servant
of the state.

During his long reign from 1740-1786, he was the first servant of Prussia. He did much for its
economic development, especially its agriculture. He encouraged the nobles and other landlords
to introduce scientific farming, to enlarge the area of cultivation and improve the breeding of
domestic animals. He fostered immigration and built canals. In accordance with his ideas of
discipline, He insisted that the peasants should remain in conditionsof serfdom but he was anxious
to lighten their financial burdens.

FREDERICK by religion was a protestant. He restored and invigorated the Berlin academy of
science. He read the contemporary evidence of scientific advance rationalist speculation.
Heestablished many elementary schools to spread knowledge of reading and writing among the
lower classes of his subjects.

Enlightened despotism was brilliantly exemplified by Frederick the great of Prussia and it was at
least an ideal for most of his monarchial contemporaries. In the Austrian dominions, Maria Theresa
was Frederick’s foe in war and rival in his work of peace.She was catholic. She was a patroness
of musicians and painters and showed her interest in education by recognizing the Austrian
universities and a system of elementary and secondary schools.

Joseph 2 was the son of Maria becomes sole ruler after his mother’s death in 1780. Another more
successful despot was Charles 3 (1738-1759) of Naples and Spain (1759-1788), who with the
assistance of minister’sasenlightenedashim instituted numerous reforms in his reign. He reduces
the public debts. He patronized science and arts. He encouraged scientific farming, constructed
roads and canals, fostered manufacturers.

Charles neighbor Joseph 1 (1750-1777) of Portugal was another enlightened despot. Sweden had
similarly enlightened despots Gustavo’s (1771-1792).

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Failure of the despots:

Despite its undoubted benefits enlightened despotism as practiced by FREDERICK THE GREAT
and fellow monarchs in 18thcentury, possessed certain inherent weakness:

1. Despotic rulersConquered new land for their own prestige and pride.
2. Forceful reform: as the subjects were notenlightened, they cannot take the reform easily.

Yet, however much the European despots of the 18thcentury failed to put the enlightenment into
practice, they at least held up as ideals many of the noble reforms in government and society which
philosophers of the age advocated and which were realized by popular revolutions against
despotism.

1. What was the enlightened despotism? Analyze the activities of the enlightened despots in
Europe.
2. What is mercantilism? Discuss the role of mercantilism inEuropean economy.

The French revolution of 1789:

It is considered by many historians as an important landmark in the history of mankind. A total

rejection of the old system of governmentfollowed by an attempt to rebuild a new society marked
the character of the revolution. The new society which the French wanted to build was to be based
on the principles of

1. Liberty
2. Equality
3. Fraternity
In its process of promising a new life for the common people the revolution resulted in violence
and massacre. Even the king and queen were not spared from execution.

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Feudalism:

Although Feudalism had disappointed, its vestiges continued to dominate the French life. For
example, the maxim that nobles fight, clergy pray and people pay – no longer held valid. The noble
no longer fought for the king, they surrender their power to the king. They enjoyed a new status
as courtiers and enjoy all the old privileges. Similarly, the church owned one-fifth of the land in
France and enjoyed their revenue.

There were about a few hundred higher clergy man who had an easy access to the king. Like the
nobles the churchhardly paid taxes to the state. Whenever a proposal was put forward to the king
for taxing the church, the church threatened, do not make us choose between God and the king for
you know what our answer will be.

The conduct of the church was not reprehensible and its corruption was most disgusting. A
majority of the bishops and arch bishop’slived-in luxury but a large number of lower clergies lived
in simplicity and poverty. At the time of revolution many of them threw in the third statewhile
their superior stood solidly behind the despotic king. The church formed the first state and nobles
the 2ndstate.

The bulk of the population of France constituted the third state. The cream of the third state was
the upper middle class which comprised lawyers, physicians, teachers, writers and merchants. It
was this class which agitated the abolition ofprivileges and having failed to achieve this through
constitutional means, they had recourse to revolution.

Condition of peasants:

Again the bulk of the French population was composed of ordinary peasants who bore the crushing
burden of many taxes. They pay taxes in cash to the state, their landlord and the church. For
example the peasants were humiliated when they were asked to work on construction of roads for
a certain number of days for their landlords.

The peasants had to pay 86% of their income in form of taxes to the state, nobles and the church.
Whenever they could not meet the demand of these institutions, they were punished. They were
sent to prison without having a fair trial. It is clear that the French society was ridden by marked
discriminations and social inequalities. Two and half million artisans working mostly in cities were
generally organized into guilds.

The role of philosophers:

The chaotic condition in France attracted the attention of the Frenchphilosophersnamely Voltaire,
Montesquieu and Rousseau. The most celebrated among them wasVoltaire (1694-1778). He held
the attention of the educated French as no one else had by his prolific writings. As critics, poet,
scholar, historian, dramatist, he highlighted in his themes the prevailing injustice of his time.

With his imitable style of writing for which he become famous all over Europe he poured ridicule
on many institutions never sparing even the monarchy. His attack was specially directed against
the church for its corruption and pretensions. He was neither an atheist nor an anarchist but what
he desired most was that society should be purged of the evils of corruption and pretensions and
based on just principles. Since he was a rebel, he was driven out of the country. Even the most
powerful rulers of Europe trembled at the whisper of his name. They hated him for his courage
and persecuted him for his crime. The only important person who admired his writings and
fearlessness was King Frederick the great of Prussia who honored him in his court.

Montesquieu (1649-1753:

He was an eminent lawyer and a political scientist. The name of his book is the Spirit of Law. in
his book he examined the merits and defects of various constitutions of the world, felt that the
British model was probably the best. He thought highly of its supposed separation of powers which
resulted in the protection of fundamental rights of the people. The separation of power provided
for in the constitution would eliminate autocratic rule. He envisaged a government having its own
checks and balance.

Montesquieu was not a radical. Hedid not even think of a possible overthrow of French monarchy
as solution to the prevailing political condition in France.Hiswriting, along with those of the
English writers, Locke and Hobbes, went a long way in influencing the founding fathers of the
American constitution.

Jan Jacque Rousseau (1712-1778):

Unlike the above, whose impact had been anything but marginal on society, Rousseau’s
contribution to the outbreak of French revolution was direct and positive. Although he did not live
to see the great upheaval Francehad ever witnessed, he had been its founding father. He was born
in Geneva and had a strong career. He was driven out of his native place and therefore settled in
France. He led an unconventional life and the spirit of revolt was very much with him. He was
highly emotional by temperament and injustice, cruelty deeply stirred him. He became a
philosopher and visionary. His book Social Contract struck France with a force of new gospel.

He began the book with stirring sentiment; Man is free but everywhere in chains. He found a
sovereign remedy to the ills of humanity in the establishment of an ideal state (with various
citizens)obeying the general will of the people. He visualized the establishment of direct
democracy where all the people would express their opinion freely and frankly and decide many
issues. His writing evoked necessary passion and zeal and prepared them for a revolution.
Rousseau believes in popular sovereignty. If the king does not obey the general will of the people,
he was breaking the contract, and the people have every right to choose a new government.

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Financial crisis of French revolution:

A far more serious and direct threat to the French government was that of the impending Financial
crisis. Its origin can be traced to the reckless expenditure by the king Luis and his successor. The
situation becomes worse when France with meager resource decided to lend assistance to
American liberation war. The expenses of royal household increased with the arrival of Queen
Marie. The French government restored to borrowing money from the public to meet the mounting
expenditure.

The prices rose steadily during the 18th century due to population growth50%. The government
income was around 472 million livers’ and half of it went meeting the debt. The government
sometimes defaulted on its debt payment. As a result of the rise in the prices, the real income
declined and made the lives of the peasants and the workers miserable. At the same time, the
privileged sections, despite the sufferings of the common people, held on their privileges. The bad
harvest of 1788and 1789 pushed up the price of a loaf of bread from 8- 15.

Results of the French revolution:

The French revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of mankind. Although it failed
to establish permanent republic in France, Nevertheless, it marked the end of the ancient regime.
The Bourbon monarchy came to an ignominious end with the execution of King Luis. The French
revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservation and feudal vestiges associated with in out
rightly.

The new constitution, after the fall of Bourbon monarchy, proclaimed the doctrine of popular
sovereignty as enshrined in Rousseau’sSocial Contract. The revolution stood for the establishment
of the new society based on liberty, equality and fraternity. They were to be the guiding spirit of
the nation.

Since the revolution desired to establish an egalitarian society, it rejected the privileges enjoyed
by the nobles and the church. The new republican constitution brought about the total separation
of the state and church in 1794. The church was made subordinate to the state and the church lands
were distributed to poor peasants.

The influence of religion on education was considerably reduced. The educational system was
built on secular foundation.the triumph of French revolution ushered in an era of nationalism and
liberalism and thus paved the way for revolution occurring in many parts of Europe during the 19th
century. The cries for constitution and parliament rent the air and the Kings were forced to grant
them.
Finally, the French revolution caused the great political turbulence which could not be controlled
except by one great man, he was Napoleon Bonaparte. The French revolution after a violent turn,
paved the way for the emergence of a great dictator Napoleon Bonaparte.

1. Discuss the role of the philosophers in French Revolution.

2. What is French Revolution? Analyze the causes and results of French Revolution.

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Industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism:

A new era in the history of mankind began when the newly invented machines began to produce
consumer goods in abundance in England since the 2nd half of the 18th century. This transformation
in the method of production from manmade tomachine-made is called the Industrial revolution. In
the last two centuries the Industrial revolution had undergone some phases. The earliest phase
began in England around the middle of the 18th century.

Reasons for theIndustrial revolution:

Many factors were responsible for the birth of Industrial revolution in England. It may be
remembered that England was principally an agricultural country before the advent of this
revolution. However, England had the entire necessary infrastructure to set the country on the road
to industrialization.

Some of them were the availability of raw materials, scarcity of labor, a fully developed banking
system, the birth of entrepreneurial class and great inventors. Fortunately, the British goods
enjoyed good reputation in international market. Over a period of hundred years the Industrial
revolution changed the countryside so much as to cause much anguish to nature poets of England.
Britain had large deposit of coal and iron. Also, it had a large force of semi-skilled workers who
were always eager to take up extra work. Raw material wasavailable cheaply. The royal society of
London encourage scientific discoveries and inventions. With its potential market at its disposal
England ahead with new method of production. The early phase of Industrial revolution was
marked by a gradual change. It was confined to the textile industry to start with.

TheIndustrial revolutionwas silent one. In 1733 john key invented the flying shuttle which when
operated by hand, increased the speed of the waving of cloth. It was followed by another invention
in 1767 called the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves. This machine spun the 8 thread
simultaneously.

Two years later Richard Arkwrightinvented a spinning frame called water frame which used water
power in place of manpower. As water frame was too big to run at home and since it required too
much water a factory had to be built. In 1779 Samuel Crompton invented Spinning Mule which
included good combination of both the Spinning jenny and the water frame. It spun hundreds of
threads at one and at the same time. In 1785 Revered Edmund Cart Wright invented the power
loom which wave cloth very quickly. This invention was run by a water wheel.

Subsequently Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin a machine which was used to separate the seeds
from the handpicked cotton from the field. Over a span of 50 years the textile manufacturing
industry in Britain witnessed a transformation in the method of production from manmade to
machine made and newly invented machines enabled the factory owners to produce textile goods
in large quantity. amachineaccomplished it within a few hoursWhat hundreds of workers did in
the course of day in a textile mill.

During the first half of 19th century cloth with different colors was made since the new method of
bleaching, dying and printing were discovered. An American named Elias Howe invented the
sewing machine in 1846in stitch clothes. For making sturdy machines iron and steel were required.
So, the iron and steel Industry had to make progress. In the olden days people were in the habit of
smelting the iron ore in brick furnaces and used charcoal as fuel. The dross of iron was separated
and iron was produced. But the iron produced through this process was brittle. So, it had to be
smelted again. The blacksmith hammered it into required shapesfor their convenience. But this
process was both laborious and costly. Finally, Henry Bessemer discovered a faster and cheaper
method of producing steel in 1856. In the course of timeiron and steel came to be used in marketing
all machines.

Textileand metal industries were started in British towns like Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester,
Liverpool and London. Thus, the factory system came to stay. Earlier wood was used as a fuel in
the place of coal. When coal was required in abundant quantity to be used as fuel, coal mining
industry became necessary. Fortunately, Britain had large number of coal deposits. When coal was
mined and made available in plenty, people used it for domestic purpose. Large industries use
them as fuels. So, coal replaced wood as fuel material.

The story of the invention of steam engine is interesting. In the 18th century British mine owners
were faced with the problem of water seeping into the mines. This water had to be removed if work
undertaken had to make progress. So, they employed labors at a great cost to pump the water out.
It was at this time a British engineer named Thomas NewComeninvented the first steam engine
which was used to pump the water out of the mines. However, this engine consumed too much
fuel. A few years later a young Scottish inventor names James Watt redesigned the steam engine
which produce more power with less fuel. His invention was a great success and it was patented
in 1769. This steam engine was used in the steel and textile Industries. Thus, steam power replaced
water power.
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The new factory system:

In Britain the household industry in towns and villages was replaced by the new factory system.
Wealthy capitalist bought machines and large buildings and turned them into mills. Many workers
were needed to operate the machine and they were recruited. They were paid meager wages. People
without job in the villages began to drift towards cities in search of factory jobs. They started living
at huts or one tenement apartment near the factories where they worked. The factory system totally
replaced the guild system in the course of time. Towns where big factories were located became
cities and their population increased.

The factories produced far more goods than was necessary for mass consumption so they had to
be transported to other cities and towns for distribution. So came the age of steam engine rail
transport. English engineer George Stephenson, designed the railway line and invented a
locomotive called rocket. In 1830 it completed 40 miles of journey from Manchester to Liverpool
with an hour and half. During the next 40 years Britain built a network of railway lines measuring
15000 miles.

In the united states of America Robert Fulton invented a steamboat called Clermont in 1807. It
covered a distance of nearly 100 and 50 miles from New York to Albany on the Hudson River in
about 32 hours. After a few years’ steamboat carrying cargo appeared shuttling on the rivers and
coastline. A trance oceanic steamboat Sirius crossed the Atlantic in 18 days in 1838. In the
construction of roads and canals France led the other countries. In United Statesof America canal
was dug to link important rivers and lakes. There river transport assumed great importance in the
course of time.

A British engineer named Mc Adam showed how smooth and hard surfaced road could be built
on which vehicle moved without jerks and jolts. Such roads built according to his method were
called macadamized road.

Improvement in the menace of transport and communication:

The means of communication also improved much along with the quicker means of transport. An
American named Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and sent a message in 1844. Alexander
graham bell invented the telephone in 1876. This new instrument carried human vice on wire from
one end to other. Cyrus W Field lay the trans-Atlantic undersea cable connecting the American
continent with Europe in 1866.It was in 1899 that Marconi invented the wireless which made it
possible to send signals to many parts of the world. It was on the basis of this invention that radio-
broadcasting and subsequently television came into being.

The Industrial revolution spread from England to other European countries during the 19th century.
France also witnessed this revolution till Napoleonic war interrupted in the battle of Waterloo; it
was resumed with renewed vigor. Other countries which were affected by it were Germany, the
Netherlands and Austria.

General effects/ results of revolution:

In general,the industrial revolution produced both good and bad effects. Consumer goods were
available in plenty and at reasonable rates. Factories provided employment to many. The general
standard of living of the people improved. However, these good effects faded when some ugly
aspects become manifest.

Bad impacts:

The capitalist and the entrepreneurs invested their capital, purchased raw material and machines
and ran the factories. They paid meager wages to the workers and earned huge profits. They
enjoyed all the luxuries of life and neglected the condition of their employees. Men, women and
children worked in factories in for long hours. Work in mine was difficult. They could not
complain for their difficulties for the fear of losing the job. They lived in squalor. Charles dickens
has given a picturesque description of the pitiable conditions of the people affected by the
industrial revolution. In villages cottage industries suffered due to go to competition from machine
made goods. Many of them become unemployed and they had to go to cities in search of job in
mills.

The middle class (often described as bourgeoise class) became wealthy due to capital investment
in trade and industries. All legislation safeguards their vested interest. The labors were not
permitted to form trade unions. It was in this situation socialism took its birth in Europe. Socialism
advocated the bridging of the gulf between the rich and the poor by means of nationalization of
factors of production.However, it was not until Karl Marx, the German philosopher came on the
scene that doctrines of scientific socialism enunciated and a program of militant action by workers
was undertaken to cover thorough the bourgeoise government.

Social consequence of Industrial revolution:

TheIndustrial revolutionin Britain and subsequently elsewhere inEurope during the early 19th
century had great impact on society over a spun of nearly 70 years (1830-1900). The traditionally
agricultural countries like Britain were transformed into a predominantly Industrial nationduring
this period. England becomes the workshop of the world. In the wake of Industrial revolution this
nation witnessed a great increase in population, new invention, swift transport and communication,
factories with labor saving machines, decline of agriculture. There was flow of population from
villages to Industrial towns.
10/03/21

Growth of population:

One of the conspicuous results ofthe Industrial revolution was the Growth of population in
England. In 1760 it was 6 and 3 quarter million, in 1800 - 9million, in 1830 – 14million, in 1870
– 22 million, 1900 - 36 million.

Similarly,thepopulationof Europe increased from around 187 million in 1800 to 305 million in
1870 and increased further to 440 million in 1910. Obviously, there was decline of mortality rate
with the discovery of life saving drugs and practice of modern medicine and surgery. As the
population grew enormously even the rapid expansion of agriculture was receiving 48 to 12
thousand immigrants annually. Some new towns like Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester,
Liverpool, Londonand Leeds become thickly populated since many industries were located in
these areas. Similarly,European cities such as Paris, Brussels and Milan, Berlin became
industrialist country in Europe.

Social structure:

Industrial revolution in England distributed structure of English society. In urban town and cities
two new classes emerged.

1. The industrialist capitalist

2. The industrial working classes

In over crowded towns for lacking of water and fresh air cholera epidemic broke out in 1831-33,
1847-1848, 1865- 1866. It was unfortunate that the English parliament did not pay attention to the
miserable condition of the working class during the early stage of the Industrial revolution. This
was due to its aristocratic composition.

At last factory acts were passed in 1833, 1847 and 1850 which mostly regulated the working hours
of female and child labor. In 1842 the mines act prohibited woman and children from working in
mine. Free elementary education was provided under Frosterseducation act. In the early 20th
century state responsibilitytowards social welfare measure was recognized. Old age pension act
and national health insurance acts were passedin 1908 and 1911 respectively.

Rise of socialism:

Despite the above ameliorative measures the lot of workers in many countries in Europe remained
far from satisfactory. The pitiable condition of the working class attracted the attention of not only
the novelists (Charles Dickens) and social reformer Lord Shaftesburry but also philosophers like
Karl Marx and Engel’s. it stimulated their thought which led to the birth of revolutionary socialism.
They said that to put an end to social and economic inequalities in the existing society the working
class should bring a revolution. The writing of Karl Marx had a greater impact on the minds of the
worker and intellectuals than the suggestions of other famous socialist like Robert Owen, Charles
Fourier. Lenin a great admirer of Karl Marx was able to build a socialist state after the Russian
Revolution in 1917.

Rise of modern capitalism:

The greatest outcome of theIndustrial revolution was the rise of modern capitalism. it exist even
before theIndustrial revolution but it did not bring about far reaching changes. By modern
capitalism we mean Industrial capitalism, an offshoot of Industrial revolution. It is an economic
system in which all or most of the means of production and distribution as lands, factories and
railroads are privately owned and operated for profit. The profit derived out of early capitalism
was spent on building of churches, donations charities. But profit derived out of
Industrialcapitalism was reinvested to bring about manifold profits. Wealth was concentrated in
the hands of a few captains of industries. It gives them unlimited power, prestige and status in
society.

1. ANALYZE THE BACKGROUND OF INDUSTRIAL REOLUTION. WHAT WERE THE

RESULTS OF INDUSTRIAL REOLUTION?

Military modernization 1789-1918:

1. What is military modernization? Analyze the results of military modernization.

Industrialization and war:

Destructiveness of modern military technology especially tanks, heavy artillery, machine guns,
flame throwers, gas, ground attack aircraft, long range bombers- all had reached a level of high
performance remarkably robust reliability within a few years. The dramatic and rapid nature of the
change in characteristics of warfare in Europe can clearly be linked in first place national economic
development and the technological development. Between n1815- 1914 to take the most dramatic
example: Germany production of coal increased 200-fold and iron 18 times. From these raw
material Germany produced steel and then the guns and rifles whose quantity and quality affected
a revolution in fire power.

Economic and war:

During the Napoleonic war the trend setter in military affairs on the continent was France. But
Britain led the way in the process of economic growth. The next major European conflict was the
First World War.Europe had been divided in this war. In the First World War the machinery stood
at an apex of technological development, it required the mobilization of all a nations’ resource.

Russia the most backward of the great powers in 1914 maintained the war on one of its major land
fronts for 3 years. Bulgaria did not enter the war until September 1915 but like Russia foughtfor 3
years. In 1914Russia and Italy were appropriating 35% and 30% of total government expenditure
for military needs. They spend proportionately more on defense than more advanced nations.

Technology and arms race:

Impact of the railway:

During the period 1914-1918 the railway contributed to the indecisiveness of war. It enabled large
armies to be moved rapidly across great distances. The railway probably conveyed greater
advantage to the defense than to the attack. In EU war in 19th century the railway played a dominant
operational role. In 1866 Prussia defeated Austria by using 5 available railway lines. in
1870Prussia defeated France.

The great civil war (European politics 1914-1945):

The First World War: once the war was declared; German war aims developed
ambitiously.Whereas before the war socialist pressure for domestic social spending had been
deflected by means of militaristic propaganda. In war there emerged a plan for the permanent
resolution of the problem. Socialist demands for a redistribution of national wealth would be
rendered obsolete by the plunder of other nations wealth. The plan was essentially directed at the
annexation of the industrialized parts of northern France, Belgium and Luxembourg, the creation
of a central European customs union, colonization of the food producing areas of Eastern Europe
after the removal of unwanted local population and all this is the basis for seizures British colonies
everywhere. It was to gamble the very survival of the German establishment on victory in war.

It quickly became apparent that such triumph would be elusive. There would be none of the swift
victories anticipated by general Alfred. In the first 5 months of the war nearly 2 million man were
either killed or wounded. After initial disaster the Germans feared better in the western front where
the Russians defeated. But on the western front railway allowed huge armies to be transported to
long defensive fronts.

It was a war that would be won in the last resort by industrial might, population resources, access
to raw material and geographical position. British command of the sea permitted the blockade of
Germany and enabled Britain and France to go on importing food and raw material from their
colonies and the USA. In the one year of war France lost 15 million dead wounded, the British
3million and Germany 8,75000.

The scale of the German blunder was compounded by the fact that it brought the USA into the war
just as Russia was effectively dropping out and Britain and France were seriously weakened.
Eventually and fatefully the Germans were to pin their hopes on merchant shipping on a sink on
sight basis. The sinking of the British liner the SS Lusitania in May 1915 with more than 1000
fatalities including 128 Americans undermined president Wilsons isolationism and brought the
USA nearer to war.

In January 1917, the German high command decided to launch unrestricted submarine warfare
against all shipping in waters around Britain. This coincided with the interception of the so-called
telegram in which Germanyoffered Mexico the chance to recover Texas and other territories in the
south west of the USA. On april1917, the USA declared war on Germany. In Russia the Tsarist
system fell to be replaced by socialist revolutionaries. Lenins Bolsheviks appealing slogan of
bread, peace and land. It was a slogan which had little to do with the Bolshevik long-term
revolutionary goals but it was captured the mood and needs of the peasantry. In august, general
Kornilov tried to use his troop to restore order and put back the clock. He was defeated by working
class resistance and his action fatally wounded. In November the Bolsheviks launched their own
successful insurrectionary attempt and their revolution was to be the most spectacular example of
how the war had fatally weakened.

With Russian troops deserting on a massive scale the Germans were now advancing virtually
unopposed. Lenin had hoped that Russian revolutionary example would be emulated in Germany
and elsewhere. In the war Germany achieved its eastern war aims Russia loosing 25% of her
European territory including the Ukraine and Finland, 30% population, 50% coal and iron resource
and 30% industry. Victorious in the east, Germany was now in a strong position, as U Boat has
seriously depleted