Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

2D MXene-based supercapacitors: A promising path towards

high-performance energy storage
Yedluri Anil Kumar a, 1, Chaitany Jayprakash Raorane b, 1, H.H. Hegazy c, d,
Tholkappiyan Ramachandran e, Seong Cheol Kim b, *, Md Moniruzzaman f, *
a
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
b
School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
c
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha, Saudi Arabia
d
Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, Abha 61413, P.O. Box 9004, Saudi Arabia
e
Department of Physics, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
f
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnam-daero, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do 13120, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: MXenes are rapidly emerging as a class of two-dimensional (2D) materials with a wide range of applications in
MXene energy storage. MXenes are 2D layered structures, making them the most sought-after material among the 2D
Electrochemical energy storage family. MXenes are regarded as one of the best electrode materials due to exceptional characteristics, including
Supercapacitors
flexibility, high conductivity, and tunable surface functional groups for advanced energy storage technologies.
Electrodes
The demand for high-capacity energy storage devices that are durable, versatile, and cost-effective has grown in
Separators
Electrolytes tandem with the advancement of technology. MXenes and their composites have significantly improved the
performance of energy storage devices. Researchers are continuously exploring new ways to improve MXene's
unique properties further. This review article summarizes recent developments in MXene-based electrochemical
energy storage devices powered by supercapacitors, which are robust, flexible, and highly efficient. The article
also focuses on MXene's structure, synthesis strategies, and how various factors such as electrode architecture
design and electrolyte composition affect the charge storage mechanism and electrochemical efficiency of
MXene-based supercapacitors.

1. Introduction
Since the discovery of single-layer graphene's unique physical fea­
tures a few years ago, two-dimensional (2D) materials have been widely
studied. This piqued our attention, which led to a new wave of research
on well-known 2D materials including metal dichalcogenides and boron
nitride, as well as the discovery of many novel 2D materials. Although
many of these materials are still of solely academic interest, others have
risen to prominence due to their enticing qualities, which have led to
practical applications. Among the latter are transition metal carbides
and nitrides known as MXenes (pronounced “maxenes”), a rapidly
expanding class of 2D materials. In a 2D flake of MXene, n + 1 (n = 1–3)
layers of early transition metals (M) are interleaved with n layers of
carbon or nitrogen with a typical formula of Mn+1XnTx. The Tx in the
formula denotes the surface terminations like oxygen, hydroxyl,
fluorine, or chlorine that are bound to the outer M layers and n is the
integer [1,2].
Several reviews [3–5] have provided comprehensive explanations of
the synthesis methods, characteristics, and structures of various MXene
materials. They have also discussed the use of MXene-based composites
in current supercapacitor (SC) fabrication instances.
The objective of this review covers the latest developments in the
electrochemical performance of MXene in SC devices. MXene has
rapidly developed in the area of energy storage since 2015, with
numerous articles published on SCs research. For instance, Zhang et al.
[6] compared experimental and theoretical findings in electrochemical
performance while discussing MXene for energy storage in sodium-ion
batteries. Long et al. [7] outlined MXene in several energy storage sys­
tems, highlighting some of its problems. Wu et al. [8] presented MXene
in potassium-ion batteries, describing how it stores potassium using a

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: sckim07@ynu.ac.kr (S.C. Kim), mani57chem@gachon.ac.kr (M. Moniruzzaman).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108433
Received 5 May 2023; Received in revised form 29 June 2023; Accepted 17 July 2023
Available online 24 July 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 1. Methods for creating MXenes and chemicals for selectively etching MAX
phases or other precursor materials [14].
few examples. Nasrin et al. [9] elaborated on the enhancement of 2D/2D
MXene heterostructures on the functionality of SCs. This review covers
the synthesis, stacking, and physical characteristics of MXenes, as well
as the design, electrode properties, current issues, and potential appli­
cations of MXene. It also guides MXene design for energy storage by
presenting composites for energy storage and forecasting their potential.
2. Synthesis methods of MXenes
The top-down and bottom-up approaches are the two primary ap­
proaches used for 2D MXenes synthesis as shown in Fig. 1. Large crystal
amounts are exfoliated into single-layered MXene sheets using a top-
down method, whereas MXenes are grown from atoms or molecules
using a bottom-up strategy [10,11]. Even though certain MXenes have
been created using bottom-up techniques, the majority of MXenes are
made using top-down techniques, and as a result, derive their structure
and composition from the corresponding bulk-layered predecessors of
carbide and nitride [12]. Because of their stability with M and X va­
cancies or mixed occupancies, bulk transition metal carbides and ni­
trides have a wide range of chemical compositions and morphologies,
resulting in applications ranging from catalysis to use in severe envi­
ronments [12,13].
Fig. 2. The synthesis process of MXenes. (a), A 3D precursor is utilized to etch certain elements; (b) MXene following etching (c) single nanolayer stratification [15].
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Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
2.1. Top-down technique
Due to the varying activity of chemical bonds, it is possible to pro­
duce 2D MXenes from layered precursors (MAX phases) by selectively
etching certain elements [15]. The term “MAX phases” refers to the most
common stacked ternary carbides and nitrides that act as MXene pre­
cursors [16]. To selectively remove layers, the precursor material is first
immersed in an etching solution for a period. After being processed, the
material is sonicated, resulting in ultra-thin two-dimensional MXenes
with discrete nanolayers. Amplitude, power, and frequency are the three
most important sonication process variables [17]. The intensity of
ultrasonication is strongly influenced by the irradiation amplitude. Due
to the severe cavitation bubble collapse, and collisions between
delaminated MXenes and the MAX phase particles, due to the high vi­
bration amplitudes during the treatment, MXene is less stable [14].
Various intercalants, such as organic molecules like dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO) and tetrapropylammonium hydroxide, or inorganic elements,
can be used to speed up and improve the efficiency of the MXene syn­
thesis process [18]. The potential uses of the resultant MXenes are
significantly influenced by the etching procedure.
Ti3C2 was the first MXene synthesized in 2011 [19]. It was prepared
by soaking 10 g of MAX-phase Ti3AlC2 powder. The resultant suspension
was rinsed several times with deionized water before being centrifuged
to separate the MXene. According to the study, several basic reactions
take place when Ti3AlC2 is submerged in an aqueous solution of hy­
drofluoric acid [14]. Following its successful application in the manu­
facture of MXene, hydrofluoric acid rapidly became the most widely
used reagent for selective etching [20].
Fig. 2 shows a few of the etching agents that can be used in the
process of the top-down approach of MXene synthesis. It is necessary to
completely convert the MAX phase to MXene during the etching process,
which depends on careful etching condition control. The concentration
of fluorine ions in the etching solution as well as the etching time should
be increased since the M-A bond energies increase as the atomic number
of M increases. Longer etching times and greater fluorine ion concen­
trations are required for larger n values. Additionally, if the acidity of
the etchant decreases, a higher temperature is needed. As a result, salts
containing fluorine ions as well as acid solutions can be employed as
etchants to produce MXenes, however, the latter requires a much higher
etching temperature.
2.2. Bottom-up technique
A bottom-up technique for the synthesis of 2D carbides has been
established in addition to the popular top-down processes for synthe­
sizing MXenes, which are dependent on the separating of the precursor
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 3. Diagram illustrating the functions of MXenes and their properties, including hydrophilicity, mechanical flexibility, conductivity, and thermal stability
(sensors, energy storage, biodetection, electromagnetic shielding) [27].
using an etchant [21]. Chemical vapor deposition is one of the most
often employed processes in the bottom-up approach. The bottom-up
approach is built on the controlled deposition of multilayer epitaxial
films to create MXenes [22]. Halim and colleagues [23] created the first
epitaxial Ti3C2 thin film. The MAX phase was formerly used as a film that
was deposited by a DC magnetron sputtering process under an extremely
high vacuum. Nevertheless, Ammonium hydro fluoride was used to
selectively etch the A layer to create transparent Ti3C2Tx MXene films
[14].
Materials from the bottom up are precise and of excellent crystal
quality. Large-area atomically thin film synthesis is difficult, though.
With the development of these methods, novel two-dimensional tran­
sition metal carbides and nitrides with intriguing properties will be
available for use in a variety of applications, such as catalysis and energy
storage systems [22]. There are currently two ways for delaminating
multi-layered MXenes [24], mechanical delamination and intercalation
delamination. Because multi-layered MXenes have significant interlayer
interactions, the yield of monolayer MXenes is quite poor using the first
technique [11]. Generally, the best method to produce MXenes or
Supercapacitor applications is by lewis acid molten salt etching [25].
Similarly, for energy storage and catalytic conversion, the best method is
HF etching [26].
3. Properties of MXenes
Fig. 3 shows MXene's unique and useful features including conduc­
tivity, flexibility, thermal stability so on.
3.1. Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of MXenes are critical for their efficient
usage in practically all applications, but they have yet to be thoroughly
investigated and understood. A prior simulation study revealed that
two-dimensional components like CdS2 and elastic parameters should be
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Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
two times larger than MAX systems [28]. The bond stiffness, which is
derived from the bond energy and the M-X bond length, can quantify the
strength between M-X bonds. Bond stiffness can be used to calculate
theoretical mechanical parameters such as Young's modulus [29].
MXene's mechanical properties are also influenced by the number of
atomic layers, denoted by n in its chemical formula Mn+1Xn. Yorulmaz
et al. used classical molecular dynamics to investigate the elastic con­
stant and Young's moduli of bare MXenes. They discovered that the
thinnest Ti2C has the highest Young's modulus among all Tin+1Cn (n = 1,
2, 3), and its elastic constant is about double that of MoS2 [30]. M-N
bonds have a slightly more complicated bond stiffness than M-C bonds
[31]. Experiments show that creating composites with polymers or
carbon nanotubes improves the mechanical properties of MXenes [11].
3.2. Optical properties
Ti3C2Tx MXenes have significant optical features such as high
transparency and photothermal impact. The optical response of mate­
rials is intrinsically linked to their structural and electrical features. In
theory, the dielectric constant of a material with frequency can be
separated into a real part and an imaginary part. The termination (Tx) of
the typical MXene Ti3C2Tx could greatly impact the structure and elec­
trical characteristics, therefore playing an important role in the optical
properties. Inter- and intraband electronic transitions, in particular, may
affect the imaginary part of the dielectric constant [32]. The oxygen
termination requires the stabilization of two electrons [33]. Due to the
significant contribution of oxygen atoms to the total density of states of
MXenes close to the fermi level, there are disparities in optical perfor­
mance between terminations with an oxygen atom and those with a
hydroxylated or fluorinated atom. The surface of Ti3C2Tx may partially
oxidize in a moist environment in many long-term applications [34,35].
Y.A. Kumar et al.
3.3. Electronic properties
According to density functional theory, MXenes' elemental compo­
sition and surface termination are connected to their electrical proper­
ties (DFT) [36]. While many MXenes ended by O are predicted to be
semiconductive, monolayer MXenes with no termination are predicted
to be metallic [37]. In particular, Ti3C2(OH) and Ti3C2F2 were predicted
to have modest bandgaps of 0.05 eV and 0.1 eV that distinguished them
from metallic Ti3C2 when Yury Gogotsi and his team initially found
MXenes. Although new MXene synthesis methods are constantly being
developed, bare MXenes have not yet been attained. As opposed to this,
mixed terminations such as –F, –O, and -OH occupy the surface of
MXenes at random and localized electronic states, altering their elec­
trical and other characteristics. Theoretically, by purposely altering the
element composition and/or surface termination of MXenes, it is,
therefore, conceivable to obtain targeted control of electrical properties
[19]. MXenes cover a wide range of electrical characteristics, from
metallicity and semiconductivity to topological insulative [38,39]. The
electric conductivities of MXenes pressed discs were comparable to
multi-layered graphene (resistances ranging from 22 Ω to 339 Ω,
depending on the “n” index and chemical formula) and higher than
carbon nanotubes and reduced graphene oxide materials [40].
Furthermore, the metallicity confers strong electronic conductivity on
many MXenes, making them interesting in a variety of applications,
particularly as electrode materials in batteries and supercapacitors. The
conductivity of MXenes varies greatly depending on their synthesis and
delamination processes, ranging from less than 1 S cm− 1 to hundreds of
S cm− 1. For example, HF-etched Ti3C2Tx has a low conductivity of 2 S
cm− 1 [41], whereas LiF + HCl− etched Ti3C2Tx has a conductivity of up
to 1500 S cm− 1 [11,42] The former may have more faults and higher F-
terminations, explaining the significant discrepancy. The conductivity of
the LiF + HCl− etched Ti3C2Tx will be increased further if it is delami­
nated [43].
3.4. Magnetic property
Even though several 2D materials have been discovered, the majority
of them are nonmagnetic, limiting their usefulness in spintronics. As a
result, the development of controllable magnetism in 2D materials has
long been a priority [11]. Surface stretches are significant in predicting
the magnetic characteristics of MXene materials [44]. A rise in the
density of electrons near the Fermi region, which is explained by the
d group orbitals assigned to transition elements, or else due to exterior
in-plane stretch, which is sufficient to attribute potential covalent
linkages such as M-A and M-M bonds, are other reasons why MXene
materials are magnetic. It has also been claimed that two-dimensional
titanium nitride/carbide exhibits antiferromagnetism. The creation of
surface stretches as a result of surface functionalization was the cause of
the declining electron density at the Fermi area, which would eventually
result in the loss of magnetic properties [10].
3.5. Chemical properties
MXenes have a hydrophilic surface in general [45]. However,
Michael Ghidiu and colleagues discovered that Ti3C2Tx synthesized with
10 % HF and LiCl has just an ion exchange and H2O intercalation when
compared to MXene formed with 10 % HF alone [46]. Titanium-based
MXenes have high volumetric capacitance due to the redox-active Ti
atom. Titanium-based MXenes have a high volumetric capacitance due
to the redox-active Ti atom. Its conductive carbide coating can increase
electron delivery to redox-active spots. Surfaces of transition metal ox­
ides will act as redox-active centers. This can also speed up ion transport.
Since pseudocapacitors use rapid redox processes to boost energy den­
sity, they became a popular choice [47].
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Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
3.6. Conductivity
One of MXene's most notable properties is its electrical conductivity,
which is the highest among all synthetic 2D materials and is about ten
times larger than that of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) [48,49]. More
specifically, the conductivity of MXenes can be adjusted from 1 to
1.5104 S cm− 1 by modifying extrinsic variables such as the synthesis
process, post-etching condition, ultrasonication, storage environment,
and surface chemistry [50]. In order to manufacture MXene materials
with high conductivity, it is necessary to comprehend the connections
between these factors and electronic characteristics.
3.7. Thermal properties
Ti3AlC2 exhibits excellent thermal conductivity and thermal oxida­
tion. Thermal conductivity for Ti3C2Fx monolayer is roughly 108 W/m K
and 11 W/m K for Ti3C2Ox monolayer. However, experimentally, it has
been determined to be around 2.84 W/m K for Ti3C2Tx films [51].
MXenes' surface chemistry and phase stabilities are highly influenced by
temperature and surroundings. While there has not yet been much
research on MXene's thermal stability, the primary research techniques
used today are thermogravimetric analysis and X-ray diffractogram
analysis. It is advised to create more sophisticated and efficient tech­
niques for investigating this significant index of MXene materials [49].
When creating MXene materials, especially hybrid ones, thermal sta­
bility should come first. Additionally, the MXenes' heat-treatment con­
ditions must be closely regulated in order to maintain their 2D layered
structure and conductivity.
4. Factors of MXene influencing the electrochemical
performance
MXenes and their hybrids, including small molecules, polymers, or
oxides, have made advances in terms of their electrochemical perfor­
mance and mechanism when used as critical components in energy
storage devices like ion batteries, supercapacitors, and ion capacitors as
well as hydrogen storage. To identify the effects of logical arrangements
of chemical/physical properties, microstructure, steric configuration,
and material compositions on the electrochemical performance of cor­
responding electrodes, the relationship between electrochemical per­
formance and structure has been thoroughly investigated. The
prospective directions for MXene's development were also highlighted
for additional studies and future applications [52,53]. A recent hot topic
in the study is the alteration of surface terminal groups for MXene. Using
the molten salt approach, Kamysbayev et al. inserted the –Cl, –Br,
–Te, and –S terminal groups on MXene during the etching stage. Ma
et al. used the extra NaCl and KCl to prevent the reactants from oxidizing
during high-temperature calcination to create MXenes using the Lewis
acid molten salt technique. As a result, one-pot synthesis was used to
create Cl-terminated Ti3C2Tx and Ti2CTx MXenes [54].
Ion and electron transport can be aided by MXene's low Li+ diffusion
barrier and good conductivity. The synergistic effect is now seen as a
successful tactic for overcoming MXene's self-stacking flaws. As a result,
the composites produced using this method showed improved capacity,
high cycle stability, and outstanding rate performance [55]. Another
method to improve ion diffusion and electrical conductivity that will
result in noticeably improved electrochemical performance is the
rational building of 3D porous MXene-based networks [56]. MXene-
based materials have made great strides, but there are still many ob­
stacles to be overcome. In this article, we thoroughly examine how
MXene-based electrodes are currently progressing in the field of super­
capacitors (SCs). We also discuss current research challenges and future
goals for MXene-based materials.
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 4. Ti3C2Tx MXene supercapacitors' self-discharge effect. (a) Illustrating the various tight-bonding models schematically. (b) The mixed self-discharge mechanism
is caused by the various bonding models. (c, d) A surface chemistry control approach for managing the self-discharge process [72].
5. MXene-based electrode material for supercapacitors
When high power output, quick charge/discharge, and extremely
long cycle life are required, supercapacitors are considered viable en­
ergy storage technologies. There are primarily two types of super­
capacitors based on their energy-storing mechanism. One example is
electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), which work by
allowing ions to build up at the electrode-electrolyte interface in a
reversible manner. Pseudocapacitors, on the other hand, rely on quick
and reversible Faradaic reactions [57]. Using in situ Raman spectros­
copy and three different aqueous electrolytes that contain sulphate ions
(H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4, and MgSO4), Hu et al. investigated the capacitance
mechanism of Ti3C2Tx MXene. Pseudocapacitance in acidic electrolytes
is caused by the hydronium in the H2SO4 electrolyte's interaction with
the terminated O atoms on Ti3C2Tx during discharging and charging
[58].
The MXenes' strong electrical conductivity combined with rapid
faradaic reactions results in an amazing charge storage feature known as
pseudocapacitance [59]. In addition, MXene has metallic conductivity,
which gives it remarkable rate capability and cycle stability, signifi­
cantly superior to standard pseudocapacitive materials like metal oxides
and conductive polymers. This is in addition to the high pseudocapaci­
tance based on the ion intercalation mechanism [60]. As supercapacitor
electrodes, two-dimensional (2D) MXenes such as Ti2C, Ti3C2, Mo1.33C
and Mo2C, have demonstrated good electrochemical performances.
MXenes members, Ti3C2Tx is the most concentrated arrangement,
particularly for energy storage applications. Due to its high pseudoca­
pacitance, inherent metallic conductivity, high packing density, and
exceptional mechanical flexibility, Ti3C2Tx MXene is regarded as an
electrode material for supercapacitors that has a very promising future
[60,61].
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Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
In research conducted by Wang et al., through selectively etching Al
from V4AlC3, 2D multi-layered V4C3 MXene has been created, and it
exhibits good rate performance, a high capacitance of 209 F g− 1 at 2 mV
s− 1, and stable long cyclic performance with a capacitance retention rate
of 97.23 % after 10,000 cycles at 10 A g− 1 in 1 M H2SO4. The high
electronic conductivity (1137 S m− 1 at 300 K) of V4C3 MXene electrodes
is primarily responsible for their high-rate performance and remarkable
cycling stability [62].
Ghidiu et al. began by using clay-like Ti3C2Tx MXene as super­
capacitor electrodes in H2SO4. At 2 mV s− 1, a capacitance of up to 900 F
cm− 3 (245 F g− 1) can be produced. After 10,000 cycles at 10 A g− 1, the
electrode showed no capacitance loss [63].
Engineering the electrode structure, altering the surface chemistry,
and streamlining the fabrication procedure via an optimized integration
technique are all possible for Ti3C2Tx MXene-based supercapacitor
electrodes. The resulting P-MXene/Copolymer-A electrodes have
significantly higher Csp than pure MXene electrodes [64].
MXene layer modifications are another approach to increase the ef­
ficiency of MXenes supercapacitors application. The re-stacking of
Ti3C2Tx-MXene layers was prevented by combining two distinct
methods: a simple hard templating method and a pore-forming method.
The corresponding electrode material from both materials delivered a
good value of capacitance and maintained 99 % of its initial capacitance
at 5 A g− 1 over five thousand charge-discharge cycles [65]. In another
research, at a current density of 2 A g− 1, the Co-MXene electrode obtains
a specific capacitance of up to 1061 F g− 1, which is more than the pure
Co3O4 electrode and the Nb2C MXene electrode. Co-MXene/AC asym­
metric supercapacitors (ASCs) with specific energy densities (Es) of
60.3, 42.5, 31.0, and 19.7 Wh kg− 1 and specific power densities of 0.67,
2.0, 3.4, and 6.8 kW kg− 1, respectively. After 1000 cycles at 5 A g− 1, the
capacitance retention rate was 93 % [66]. According to [67],
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 5. Self-discharge of Ti3C2Tx MXene-based supercapacitors. (a) A schematic showing how the MXene-based supercapacitors are put together. (b) The way leakage
current changes over time. (c, d) The cell potential of Ti3C2Tx MXene-based supercapacitors [72].
additionally, MnOx-Ti3C2 electrode-based symmetric supercapacitors
have an extraordinary energy storage capacity of 13.64 mWh cm− 3 and
extremely excellent long-term cycle stability with 89.8 % capacitance
retention after 10,000 cycles. As a result, these MnOx-Ti3C2 films, which
are very flexible and free-standing, may work well as electrodes for
flexible supercapacitors [67]. The CQDs@Ti3C2Tx electrode has high
reversible capacitances of 441.3 F g− 1 at 1 A g− 1 and 310.1 F g− 1 at 20 A
g− 1, as well as a highly robust cyclability with about 100 % capacitance
retention after 10,000 cycles at 10 A g− 1 [68]. Thereby, this strategy
may offer to be a promising technique for fabricating MXene composite
electrodes for energy storage/supercapacitor applications.
Ling et al. studied the performance of Ti3C2Tx/polymer, which
demonstrated high volumetric capacitance in KOH electrolytes [69].
Zhu et al. created PPy/Ti3C2Tx free-standing films with good electro­
chemical performance as hybrid electrodes [70,71].
6. The charge storage mechanism of MXene and their
composites-based supercapacitors
MXene's pseudocapacitive charge storage mechanism with EDLC
behavior has improved the performance of supercapacitors. Further,
MXene's appropriate interlayer spacing and distinct chemistry have
enabled batteries to attain high capacity while providing quick charge-
discharge. MXenes have increased electrochemical activity due to their
rich chemistry and surface functionalization, But, with supercapacitors,
their self-discharge behavior is greatly aggravated. However, the
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Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
mechanism underlying this self-discharge behavior is still a mystery. The
self-discharge behavior of Ti3C2Tx MXene-based supercapacitors has
been successfully uncovered, and we propose a chemically interface-
tailoring regulatory technique to effectively reduce it. In contrast to
MXenes with more F elements (8.09 a.t.%), Ti3C2Tx MXenes with fewer F
elements (0.65 a.t.%) exhibit a positive self-discharge rate drop of
almost 20 %. The transition potential will inevitably increase dramati­
cally by 50 % as a result of this drop in the F elements This can signif­
icantly improve the ions with tight bonds associated with individual self-
discharge processes (VT).
Consequently, both tight bonding and mixed self-discharge rates are
high. Ions with tight bonds and loose-bonding ions are consequently
reduced. The interaction of ion counterparts was considerably impacted
by the significantly modified average oxidation state and local coordi­
nation information of MXene through chemically interface-tailoring
engineering, which was clearly shown by X-ray absorption fine struc­
tures (XAFS). Theoretically, increased adsorption energy between the
electrodes is what caused the much better self-discharge performance.
Using density functional theory, the interface between the electrode
and the electrolyte. The development of high-performance, low-self-
discharge supercapacitors based on MXene can therefore be guided by
this chemically interface-tailoring regulation technique, which will also
support the wider commercial applications of these devices.
Fig. 4(a) depicts a schematic representation of the relationship be­
tween the self-discharge behavior of Ti3C2Tx MXene-based super­
capacitors, the process of pseudocapacitance formation, and the surface
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 6. Electrochemical performance of the full-cell RuO2/Ti3C2Tx device [79].
chemistry of MXenes. When electrolyte ions are charged, they are drawn
to the electrode/electrolyte interface that is oppositely charged and
create various linkages in the intercalated capacitance. More specif­
ically, there will be varying degrees of chemical bonding between the
electrolyte ions that are partially absorbed into the Faradaic reaction.
Fig. 4(a) shows the larger distance will lead to the attractive force be­
tween the ions and the electrode surface, which will form (as depicted in
the lower portion of Fig. 4(a)).
As a result, as seen in Fig. 4(b), these two distinct models produce a
mixed self-discharge behavior. The first discovery, that both tight- and
loose-bonding ions diffused from the electrode surface, may be
explained using the mixed potential driving model [73,74].
To investigate how surface chemistry affects electrochemical be­
haviors, supercapacitors were built using a- and t-MXene with 6 M KOH
as the electrolyte (Fig. 5a). It should be noted that Ti3C2Tx t-MXene has a
greater areal capacitance than a-MXene. At the same current density of
0.5 mA cm2, the specific capacitance of a-MXene is calculated to be 120
mF cm2 while that of t-MXene is 138 mF cm2. Leakage currents for
supercapacitors made of MXene and charged to 0.6 V at 0.5 mA cm2 are
shown in Fig. 5(b).
Fig. 5(c–d) shows how open circuit potential degrades after charging
at different current densities. As anticipated, the current density has an
impact on both the initial voltage and self-discharge. The starting
voltage increases linearly as the current density decreases (the inset of
Fig. 5(c–d)). More time for ion distribution is made possible by a reduced
current density [75–78].
Sweep analysis was carried out utilizing CVs at various scan rates in
order to comprehend the kinetic impact of the anodic scan. There are
7
Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
two primary parts to the overall charge stored: i) a pseudocapacitive
component brought on by a rapid Faradaic charge-transfer process
involving surface atoms and a non-Faradaic contribution from the
adsorption of ions in two layers. (ii) Faradaic intercalation processes
controlled by diffusion.
Fig. 6 shows the creation of all-pseudocapacitive asymmetric
supercapacitors using hydrous RuO2 electrodes with Ti3C2Tx MXene on
carbon fabric. For electrochemical capacitors using an MXene electrode
in an aqueous electrolyte, this is the largest known voltage window. The
complementary potential windows of these two electrodes combined to
form the asymmetric device (RuO2/Ti3C2Tx) with a voltage window of
1.5 V and observed energy densities of 45 and 37 W h cm− 2 at power
densities of 6 and 40 mW cm− 2, respectively. Our research demonstrates
the potential of all-pseudocapacitive MXene-RuO2 devices for use with
aqueous electrolytes, enabling an increased voltage window and energy
density.
Additionally, numerous MXene-based composites and their use in
the current SC fabrication instances are given. The most recent de­
velopments in the electrochemical performance of MXene in SC devices
are covered in this review. Also taken into account are the difficulties
associated with environmental factors [80]. Pure MXenes and MXene-
based composites both have extremely high volumetric capacitance,
pseudocapacitive behavior, favorable cycle stability, and high-rate
capability. The bar graph in Fig. 7 shows the considerable recent ad­
vancements in the gravimetric capacitance of MXene, which is used as
the electrode material for SC applications [82].
Furthermore, MXene's proper interlayer spacing and distinct chem­
istry have enabled batteries to attain high capacity while enabling quick
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 7. From 2014 to 2021, a bar chart depicting the gravimetric capacitance improvement of several MXene-based electrodes [81].

Fig. 8. A graphical representation of nanoparticles based on MXene that can be used as electrode materials in energy storage systems [81].

charge-discharge. Such successes are a result of MXene's inherent
qualities, including its strong electrical conductivity, well-defined
layered structure, and capacity for modification, which allows it to
customize electrodes to a particular purpose.
As a result, MXene-based nanocomposites outperformed both active
materials and pure MXene in terms of electrochemical performance.
Fig. 8 shows various kinds of MXene-based composites and examples of
how they are used in energy storage technologies.
Because of their excellent properties, pure MXenes & their compos­
ites are increasingly being used in the development of SCs [83]. The

8
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Table 1 the fibers.

Electrochemical parameters of MXene and their composites in energy storage Fig. 10(a) displays Nyquist plots for fibers undergoing various heat
system. treatments. Fig. 10(b) displays the CV of the fiber composite electrodes.
MXene composite Electrolyte Specific Scan rate Reference Rectangular curves can be seen on electrodes that have been carbonized
electrodes capacitance (F (mV s− 1)/ at temperatures of 600 ◦ C for 6 h or higher Fig. 10(c) It is significant to
g− 1) current note that these composite electrodes' voltage window, which ranges
density
from 0.3 to 0.6 V, differs from that of pure Ti3C2Tx MXene electrodes. In
NiCo/Ti3C2Tx PVA–KOH 983.6 − /2 [84] a three-electrode setup with Ag/AgCl serving as the reference electrode,
V4C3Tx/PVDF/ 1M 209 2/− [62]
Ti3C2Tx MXene electrodes typically operate between 0.7 and 0.3 V. At
acetylene black Na2SO4
Ti3C2Tx/PANI 3 M H2SO4 503 2/− [85] 10 mV s− 1, exhibited a capacitance of 75 mF cm− 2 (Fig. 10d). Diffusion-
V2CTx 3 M H2SO4 420 5/− [86] controlled intercalation activities are what cause the diffusion-
Activated carbon/ Et4NBF4/ 126 − /0.1 [87] controlled component.
Ti3C2Tx ANa Here, silk cloth is directly carbonized to create a conductive free-
NiFe-LDH/T3 1 M KOH 720.2 − /1 [88]
2iCTx
standing textile substrate in order to investigate a way for creating
MnO2/Ti3C2Tx PVA/ 130.5 − /0.2 [89] low-cost, flexible, robust, and up-scalable supercapacitor electrodes as
H2SO4 shown in Fig. 11. By moderately baking the surfactant-free Ti3C2Tx
Ti3C2Tx 3 M H2SO4 435 10,000/− [90] flakes suspension deposited on the carbonized silk cloth, a uniform and
Ti3C2Tx/RGO 1 M H2SO4 140 20/− [91]
1 sticky coating of nm size Ti3C2Tx flakes is well formed on the conductive
MnO2-MXene Na2SO4 – 500 W kg− [92]
(Fe3O4)/MXene/ 1 M KOH 125/− [93] fabric support, establishing an MXene-coated flexible textile electrode.
reduced The finished electrode has excellent cyclability and flexibility and a high
graphene oxide areal capacitance of 362 mF cm− 2.
(RGO) The CV curves of the CSC and CSC@Ti3C2Tx electrodes are shown in
Ti3C2Tx/graphene 3 M H2SO4 302 2/38.6 Wh [94]
Fig. 12(a) and (b). The electrode has a much greater current density than
L− 1
Ti3C2/CNTs film 6 M KOH 134 2/− [95] the CSC electrode following Ti3C2Tx deposition, demonstrating a
Ti3C2Tx/carbon 1 M H2SO4 312 10/− [96] significantly increased electrochemical capacitance due to the addition
cloth of Ti3C2Tx.
Ti3C2Tx hydrogel H2SO4 370 5/− [97]
We may disregard the carbon cloth's impact on the performance of
the electrodes in this work because it only contributes a very little
restacking of the MXene layers, which results from the interaction of the amount to the current density. Fig. 12(c) shows the calculated specific
functional groups, is addressed by the method of intercalating the areal capacitances using their CV curves. Fig. 12(d), shows the energy
nanoparticles between the MXene layers. Combining MXene-based density of 13 Wh/cm2, which translates to a power density of 181 W/
compounds with electro-active materials with high pseudocapacitance cm2 at the scan rate of 2 mV s− 1. Fig. 12(f) displays the Nyquist plots for
and operational potential for maximizing the energy densities of the SC the CSC and CSC@Ti3C2Tx electrodes.
device. The specific capacitance of various MXene composites is shown
in below Table 1. 8. MXene conducting polymer composite for supercapacitor
application
7. MXene carbon composite for supercapacitor application
Hot research areas for supercapacitor electrode materials include
Electrospun Ti3C2Tx MXene flakes with polyacrylonitrile and conducting polymers and MXene (SCs). The flaws that arise when using
carbonizing the fiber networks yield Ti3C2Tx MXene/carbon nanofiber these two distinct types of materials as electrode materials separately
electrodes as shown in Fig. 9. A syringe was filled with the liquid. can be fixed by combining them. Due to their outstanding mechanical
MXene/carbon nanofibers were created by stabilizing and carbonizing qualities, flexibility, mass load, theoretical capability, and specific

Fig. 9. Schematic of the electrospinning process for creating Ti3C2Tx MXene/carbon nanofibers [98].

9
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 10. (a) A Nyquist plot of pure carbon electrodes and Ti3C2Tx MXene composite fiber electrodes. (b) Representative CV curves of composite material (c) CV
curves of fibers (d) Rate handling curve (e) B-Value difference for fibers with different heat treatments; and (f) The MX10CNF77006 is depicted in the inset at
different cycles [98].

Fig. 11. A flexible electrode made of silk-derived carbon fabric covered with MXene is intended for use in supercapacitors [99].

surface area, MXene/conducting polymer composites have the potential covered.

to transform into cutting-edge electrode materials [100].
The most recent MXene/conducting polymer papers for SCs are
summarized in order to provide readers with a quicker and more
convenient overview of the field. This article focuses on the use of 2D
materials, such as MXene and MXene/conjugated polymer composites,
in SCs, as well as the synthesis, preparation, and study of cutting-edge
electrode materials. After that, using specific examples, the use of
these materials in symmetrical and asymmetrical supercapacitors is
The MXene/polyaniline composite films' electrochemical capabil­
ities demonstrate that the addition of nanofibers of PANI boost the Csp
of the MXene film as shown in Fig. 13. In addition to acting as a charge
carrier channel, the conductive PANI nanofibers can improve MXene
layer spacing as shown in Fig. 15 which is beneficial for electrolyte ion
infiltration. This is true because too many PANI nanofibers cause the
composite layer to thicken, which widens the ion and electron transport
pathways. The developed device based on the ideal composite film

10
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 12. (a) CV curves of CSC electrodes electrochemically characterized in a 1 mol/L H2SO4 solution. (b) CV study of CSC@Ti3C2Tx electrode (c) specific areal
capacitance (d) Nyquist plots after 1 cycle and (e) Capacitance dependence on cycle number at a scan rate of 10 mV s− 1. Data from a CV are shown in the inset [99].

Fig. 13. Ti3C2Tx MXene/polyaniline composite films fabrication for symmetric supercapacitors with different thicknesses [101].

11
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 14. Flexible energy storage device made of textiles covered with polypyrrole-MXene [102].

Fig. 15. A symmetrical supercapacitor made of an MXene-PPy textile electrochemically. (a) CV curves of a supercapacitor covered with PPy-MXene at various scan
rates. (b) GCD curves for a textile supercapacitor covered with PPy-MXene at different current densities (c) The EIS plot. (d) The energy vs. power density plot of a
PPy-MXene-coated supercapacitor (e) The CV curves of one SC and two SCs coupled in parallel and series. (f) bending states of supercapacitor's CV curves [103].

performs admirably, with a high specific capacitance of 272.5 F g− 1 at 1
A g− 1 and a capacitance retention rate of roughly 71.4 % after 4000
cycles at 2 A g− 1. The devices' impressive energy storage performance
was demonstrated by their high energy density of 31.18 Wh kg− 1 at a
power density of 1079.3 W kg− 1.
A novel class of 2D transition metal carbides, nitrides, or
carbonitride-based flexible supercapacitors (MXenes). The specific
capacitance of the conductive textile electrodes made using this very
straightforward “dipping and drying” method was 182.70 F g− 1, which
is greater than the values previously reported for carbon nanotubes
(CNTs). To increase the specific capacitance of an MXene-based elec­
trode and stop MXene from oxidizing poorly in oxygen, polypyrrole

12
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 16. Intercalation and pseudocapacitance in polar and nonpolar polyfluorene interactions with 2D titanium carbide layers (MXene) [104].

Fig. 17. PFO-MXene hybrid electrodes are electrochemically characterized in 1 M H2SO4 a) P3@Ti3C2Tx electrode CVs at scan rates ranging from 2 to 100 mV s− 1. b)
P3@Ti3C2Tx electrodes' GCD curves at varied current densities. (c) Evaluation of the electrodes P1, P2, and P3@Ti3C2Tx. (d) Compare the capacitances of improved
composition electrodes to those of previously published Ti3C2Tx-based electrodes. With the exception of the PPy@Ti3C2Tx electrodes (13 m) (e) The impedance
spectra of electrodes made of pure Ti3C2Tx and P3@Ti3C2Tx. (f) Cycle life performance exhibits outstanding capacitance retention [104].

(PPy) has been electrochemically coated on the surface of MXene tex­
tiles. A novel MXene-based textile SC is presented in this work, deliv­
ering a viable alternative to wearable and flexible energy storage devices
as shown in Fig. 14.
Fig. 15(b) shows the linear graphs of the Charge-discharge curves at
different current densities ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 mA cm− 2 and Fig. 15
(a) shows the symmetrical rectangle and internal barrier in the CV
curves. Furthermore, the SC Nyquist curve in Fig. 15(c) had a definite
semicircle form and was highly conductible.
Fig. 15(d) depicts the energy density vs. power density values with a

13
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 18. (a) The plot of cyclic voltammetry of MXene/Co-ferrite, (b–e) GCD, Csp study of MXene/Co-ferrite [106].
scan rate of 10 mV s− 1, and Fig. 15(e) displays the CV curves of the SCs
based on PPy-MXene coated textile in series and parallel. The CV curves
of SCs produced from PPy-MXene coated cloth in the normal and
bending states were measured at a scan rate of 10 mV s− 1, as seen in
Fig. 15(f). The two CV curves are found to practically coincide,
demonstrating the system's good flexibility.
When polar polymers interact with the Ti3C2Tx layers most strongly,
interlayer separation increases, and spectroscopic peak positions are
noticeably shifted. The effect of the polymer backbone's positioning on
the pseudocapacitance of the Ti3C2Tx layers is also carefully explored as
shown in Fig. 16.
P3@Ti3C2Tx films were tested in 1 M H2SO4 and their cyclic vol­
tammetry (CV) curves (Fig. 17a) showed pseudo rectangular CVs. Due to
a change in the Ti oxidation state, the hybrid film exhibits pseudoca­
pacitive behavior, which deviates from the rectangular shape typical for
double-layer charge storage. At various current densities, the galvano­
static charge/discharge (GCD) displayed roughly triangular plots
(Fig. 17b), exhibiting good reversibility and outstanding Coulombic
efficiency.
The CV curves of the P3@Ti3C2Tx were compared with those of the
pure Ti3C2Tx, P1@Ti3C2Tx, and P2@Ti3C2Tx hybrid films at 20 mV s− 1 to
14
Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
further investigate the interaction-dependent charge storage perfor­
mance (Fig. 17c). Fig. 17(d) displays and compares the performance of
the P3@Ti3C2Tx electrodes at scan rates between 2 and 100 mV s− 1
[105].
9. MXene-metal composite for supercapacitor application
MXene/Co-ferrite showed superior electrochemical super capacitive
performance in comparison to bare Co-ferrite and MXene. The Co-
ferrite/MXene nanocomposites underwent extensive electrochemical
investigations. The measured cyclic voltammetry curves are displayed in
Fig. 18(a). The CV curves were recorded at a scan rate of 10 to 100 mV
s− 1 .
Fig. 18(b) depicts the observed charge/discharge curves that were
measured at current densities ranging from 1 to 8 A/g. Fig. 18(c) illus­
trates the calculated Cs values for the particular capacitance that
correlate to its current densities based on the Galvanostatic charge-
discharge (GCD) curves. At a current density of 1 A/g, the greatest Cs
value of 1268 F g− 1 was measured, while raw Co-ferrite and MXene
displayed specific capacitance values of 594 and 1046 F g− 1, respec­
tively, at the same current density. With a current density of 7 A/g, the
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 19. Increasing the Ti3C2Tx electrode materials' capacitance as supercapacitor electrode materials. (a) Ti3C2Tx Crystal Structure. (b) Ti3C2Tx that is N-doped
[107]. (c) Ti3C2Tx layered metal double hydroxides. (d) Ti3C2Tx Conductive polymers. (e) Paper with Ti3C2Tx intercalated with carbon. (f) Paper made of WO3/
Ti3C2Tx composite. (g) Aerogels in 3D Ti3C2Tx [108].

lengthy cyclic stability was demonstrated up to 5000 cycles. Fig. 18(d)
depicts the stability curve. Fig. 18(e) displays the computed specific
capacity related to its current density. At a current density of 1 A/g, the
maximum specific capacity value of 440C/g was attained using the
lower charging transferring resistance values of 0.25.
Ti3C2Tx displays various capacitance properties that vary depending
on the condition of the interlayer water, the morphological structure,
and other factors. The electrostatic pull between opposing charges is
created when electrolyte cations travel within Ti3C2Tx layers as shown
in Fig. 19.
This might offer a fresh perspective on how to improve the Ti3C2Tx
capacitance in future studies [87]. Electric double-layer capacitance CV
curves typically have rectangular peaks without a redox peak [109] and
there isn't a particularly noticeable voltage drop at the start of the charge
and discharge as shown in Fig. 20. Ionic concentration primarily regu­
lates the Csp that contributes to electric double-layer capacitance. Xia
et al. demonstrated Ti3C2Tx, which has a Csp of only 67.7 F g− 1 (1 A g− 1)
[110].
The MXenes' restacking problem makes it difficult for ions to be
accessed, which lowers volume performance, mass load, and speed ca­
pabilities. To solve these problems, a simple hydrothermal synthesis
method is suggested to create a composite made of Co3O4 nanoparticles
and MXene (Co-MXene). Ion/electron transport routes are efficiently
shortened and self-restacking is effectively prevented by the addition of
Co3O4 nanoparticles to the MXene matrix.
The Co-MXene-2 nanocomposite was used to produce an ASC device

15
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 20. Ti3C2Tx pseudocapacitance in various electrolytes. (a) Ti3C2Tx surface group changed in H2SO4. (b) Ti3C2Tx CV curves at a scan rate of 20 mV per second. (c)
Ti3C2Tx gravimetric capacitances at various scan speeds. (d) Ti3C2Tx CV curves at various scan speeds in a KOH electrolyte. (e) Supercapacitor schematic with
solvated or desolvated states utilizing Ti3C2Tx (pink, Ti; cyan, C; red, O) as the negative electrode. Legend for the electrolyte: yellow solvent molecule, orange anion,
green cation. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
that functions as a full energy storage device, Fig. 21(b), which enables
the as-assembled ASC device to realize a wide voltage window of 1.4 V
and achieve high energy and power densities. The ideal potential win­
dow was chosen using CV measurements at a succession of enlarged
operating windows at 50 mV s − 1 Fig. 21(c). Because of a clear polari­
zation at 1.6 V, the maximum stable potential window was determined
to be 1.4 V. Fig. 21(d) shows the GCD curves of the ASC device at various
current densities, and the specific capacitance should be 95.71F g− 1 at 1
A g− 1 .
10. Modification of MXene for supercapacitor
Yachao Zhu et al. [65] modified the MXene layers for super­
capacitors. Two methods have been used to inhibit the re-stacking of
Ti3C2Tx-MXene layers: a simple hard templating method and a pore-
forming method. The extended MXene that was created utilizing MgO
nanoparticles as hard templates had a layered, open topology. Over
5000 charge-discharge cycles, the matching electrode material main­
tained 99 % of its initial capacitance at 5 A g− 1 while delivering 180 F
g− 1 of capacitance at 1 A g− 1. A frothy porous structure with a binder-
free electrode and a substantial capacitance of 203 F g− 1 were pro­
duced by the MXene foam that resulted from this experiment. In
contrast, the pure MXene-based electrode produced just 82 Fg− 1 under
identical operating conditions. Overall, the improved performances of
these 2D nanoengineered materials show how effective the selected
synthetic techniques were at solving the re-stacking problem of MXene
layers.
Miao Zhang et al. [112] reported a group of transition metal two-
dimensional (2D) carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides known as
MXenes are thought to hold promise as high-performance pseudocapa­
citive energy storage materials. Tx stands for –F, O, –Cl, and -OH.
Direct oxidation modification, however, would cause Ti3C2Tx to seri­
ously oxidize into titanium dioxide. With a large capacitance, the
partially oxidized Ti3C2Tx was able to maintain 96.6 % of its capacity
16
Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
even after 9000 cycles. Therefore, a promising method for changing the
surface of MXenes is the controllable oxidation modification of Ti3C2Tx.
Zhimin Fn et al. [94], for improved supercapacitor electrodes with
superior energy storage, used customized MXene/Holey graphene
sheets. The constructed symmetric supercapacitor also exhibits a sig­
nificant volumetric energy density of 38.6 Wh L− 1, the greatest value yet
observed for MXene-based electrodes in aqueous solutions. This break­
through creates a new field of inquiry for the study of MXene materials
in energy storage systems.
Yapeng Tian et al. [113] demonstrated high energy density 2D tita­
nium carbide (MXene) modified on the surface for use in aqueous
supercapacitors. Due to its exceptional chemical and physical charac­
teristics, Ti3C2Tx (MXene), a two-dimensional highly conductive mate­
rial, is a suitable electrode for supercapacitors. However, the surface
termination of –F and -OH may obstruct electrolyte ion movement,
lowering the performance of energy storage.
Ruby Garg et al. [114] explained MXene's synthesis and optimization
for use in supercapacitors It has been discovered that the process pa­
rameters must be adjusted such that the aluminum can be thoroughly
etched without raising the fluorine content of the MXene in order to
obtain the optimum MXene layers in terms of structural and electrical
properties. Here, we explain for the first time how an MXene film was
made on a flexible polypropylene (PP) substrate that was perfectly
tailored for supercapacitor applications. The results are compared to
those obtained using PET and glass substrates. The PP-supported MXene
device has an aerial capacitance of 82.6 mF/cm2 and lower contact
resistance of 141 Ω.
Jun Tang et al. [115] reported that enhancing titanium carbide
MXene ion pathway for useful high-rate supercapacitor. The volumetric
capacitance of Ti3C2Tx electrodes is anticipated to decrease as a result of
conventional techniques including the addition of nanomaterials and
3D-structure design, lessening Ti3C2Tx's pronounced. Here, a new, sim­
ple, and controllable H2SO4 oxidation process is created to address the
problem of Ti3C2Tx film restacking with only a few TiO2-like side
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 21. (a) Synthesis of the TC@NF/PANIC@CFP ASC device shown schematically. (b) CV curves of the ASC at 50 mV s− 1− 1 for various voltages (c) The ASC's GCD
profiles at varying current densities. (d) Ragone graphs comparing the ASC device to other ASCs (e) ASC's cycling abilities at 2 Ag− 1 over 8000 cycles. (f) The GCD
profiles for various cycles are displayed in the insert [111].
products that are electrochemically inactive. As a result, high volumetric
capacitance yields ultra-high-rate performance. Capacitance retention
of 64 % (208 F g/756 F cm3) is achieved for a Ti3C2Tx film that is
approximately 1.1 m thick when the scan rate is increased from 5 to
10,000 mV s− 1. As a result, thick Ti3C2Tx film with pathway optimiza­
tion achieves a high areal capacitance of 3.2 F cm2, which is crucial for
real-world applications.
11. The flexibility of MXene-based supercapacitor
Due to their numerous uses, wearable and flexible gadgets have
received much attention in recent years. We emphasize the most recent
developments in the manufacturing of flexible electrodes in accordance
with the various construction methods of MXene-based flexible elec­
trodes and their composite electrodes, with or without substrate
support.
In addition to having excellent electrochemical performance,
MXenes make excellent electrode materials because of their excellent
hydrophilicity, malleability, and two-dimensional structure (atomic
layer thickness and micrometer-scale lateral dimensions), which enable
the creation of thin electrode films. As a result, the design of the MXene
electrode material structure, including the electrode architecture, sur­
face terminations, interlayer spacing, and composites, greatly influences
the electrochemical performance of SCs [116]. Recent research has
focused heavily on the use of MXenes and related composites for SC
construction on a range of substrates, including self-supporting, PET-
supported, carbon cloth fiber-supported, and others. We report on recent
17
Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
advancements in flexible electrodes based on MXene in this section as
shown in Fig. 22.
By exerting high pressure on delaminated Ti3C2 (d-Ti3C2) sheets, a
new architecture of symmetrical energy storage materials with a
compact face-to-face architecture is demonstrated. In order to effec­
tively boost ion transport and enable more cations to facilitate the
interaction during the charging-discharging process, good electron
electrical properties, good wettability, and abundant interconnected
mesopore channels. Thus, as the applied pressure is increased, the
pressurized d-Ti3C2 film in 1 M Li2SO4 at 40 MPa exhibits an extremely
high capacitance, exceptional energy density, and cyclic stability. The
outstanding volumetric electrochemical performance and thermal sta­
bility of the SCs constructed on the d-Ti3C2 film demonstrate their po­
tential as potent power sources for small storage devices.
The MX-rHGO3 film electrode symmetric supercapacitor produces a
nearly rectangular CV curve that maintains its shape even at a high scan
rate of 100 mV s− 1 in the working potential range of 0–1 V (Fig. 23a),
exhibiting its perfect capacitance behavior and superior rate
performance.
When comparing supercapacitors in real-world applications, the
cycling life is a crucial factor to consider. As a result, the MX-rHGO3 film
symmetric supercapacitor's cycling performance was tested for 10,000
cycles at 5 Ag− 1 (Fig. 23(b)). The Ragone plots of the assembled sym­
metric supercapacitors are shown in Fig. 23(c), which is a better illus­
tration of the device's actual operational potential [118,119].
For this reason, Fig. 24 contrasts the electrochemical performance of
a single flexible asymmetric micro supercapacitor (AMSC) with that of
Y.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 22. The diameter of the d-Ti3C2 circular lamination, indicated by the symbol for diameter of 5.5 mm, is shown in the schematic depiction of the high-pressure d-
Ti3C2 film synthesis and electrode preparation [117].
two AMSCs connected in parallel and series. Fig. 24(a) and Fig. 24(b) for
the integrated AMSCs respectively exhibit the CV curves at 20 mV s− 1
and the GCD profiles at 0.69 mA cm2.
The capacitance of the two integrated AMSCs by parallel connection
is double that of the single AMSC, as shown in Fig. 24(d), according to
the CV curves at 20 mV s− 1 in Fig. 24(c). Additionally, the AMSC ex­
hibits great flexibility when mechanically bent (bending angle between
0◦ and 180◦ ).
12. Recent developments in MXene-based supercapacitors
MXenes have a variety of intriguing features because of their
distinctive structures and changeable chemical functional groups on
their surfaces. The use of MXenes in electrochemical energy storage has
received a lot of attention, with supercapacitor applications, in partic­
ular, showing a lot of promise. MXenes are uniquely suited as electrode
materials for supercapacitors due to their high mechanical flexibility,
high energy density, and outstanding electrochemical performance
when compared to other materials. In this review, we focus on the most
current electrochemical performance of MXene-based electrodes and
devices.
MXene compounds for supercapacitors have become increasingly
common over the past ten years (Fig. 25a). Notably, 2021 saw the
publication of 237 articles, 196 of which were about composites based
on MXene. Conductive polymers, metal oxides, and carbon nano­
structures are the key components of these composite materials
18
Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433
containing MXene. Papers on metal oxides, conducting polymers, and
carbon nanomaterials in particular makeup roughly 34 to 38 % of
MXene-based composites, respectively (Fig. 25b). While significantly
reducing the MXene stacking phenomena and improving oxidation
resistance, the enhanced MXene-based composites outperform conven­
tional materials in terms of cycle lifespan and energy density.
13. Current challenges and future prospects
MXenes are a relatively new class of two-dimensional (2D) materials
that have shown great potential for a wide range of applications. Despite
the significant progress in the research on MXene materials over the past
few decades, there are still several challenges that impede their practical
applications, and these challenges will be elaborated upon in this
section.
• One of the major challenges is the difficulty in synthesizing high-
quality MXenes with desired properties. Currently, the most com­
mon method for synthesizing MXenes involves the selective etching
of MAX phases, which can lead to a non-uniform distribution of
functional groups on the surface of the MXene flakes.
• MXenes are likely to play a significant role in the development of
high-performance energy storage devices in the future.
• There is enormous potential for MXene-based materials to be used in
various applications, such as electromagnetic interference shielding,
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 23. (a) CV curve of the symmetric MX-rHGO3 supercapacitor at various scan rates. (b) Constant current charge-discharge curves for the first and last 10 cycles of
a symmetric MX-rHGO3 supercapacitor's retention of capacitance over 10,000 cycles at a current density of 5 A g− 1. (c, d) Comparison of the volumetric and
gravimetric energy and power densities for MX-rHGO3-based symmetric supercapacitors [94].

water purification, gas and biosensors, and transparent electrical
conductors.
• Research in MXene synthesis and processing techniques is expected
to increase, leading to the development of novel MXene-based ma­
terials with advanced properties.
• The development of MXene composites with other materials is ex­
pected to provide better performance and functionality in energy
storage devices.
• The use of MXenes in energy storage is still in the early stages, and
researchers are working to overcome some of the limitations and
challenges faced by the material.
• MXenes' unique properties, including high conductivity, excellent
mechanical properties, and superior electrochemical performance,
make them ideal for use in energy storage devices such as
supercapacitors.
• MXenes could also have applications in the development of new
types of batteries, such as sodium-ion batteries and magnesium-ion
batteries, which are considered promising alternatives to tradi­
tional lithium-ion batteries.
• MXenes could potentially have significant implications in the field of
catalysis due to their unique surface chemistry and tunable surface
functional groups.
• Continued research and development of MXenes are expected to lead
to new applications and breakthroughs in energy storage and other
fields in the future.
• Finally, there is a lack of standardization in the characterization of
MXenes, which makes it difficult to compare results across different
studies.
14. Conclusions
This review article presents an overview of the fundamental char­
acteristics of MXene materials and the numerous synthetic techniques,
hierarchical processing, and properties associated with them. The main
focus of this review is on the current advancements in MXenes and
MXene-based materials engineering for supercapacitor electrodes. We
discuss the potential for MXenes to serve as active materials by capi­
talizing on their advantages, such as excellent hydrophilicity, metallic
conductivity, rich surface chemistry, etc. Additionally, this review
highlights the role of process design, hosts or substrates, conductive
additives, doping, and other multifunctional substrates in enhancing the
performance of MXene-based supercapacitors. In recent years, graphene
and its derivatives have been extensively studied for energy storage
applications, and the emergence of 2D MXenes has further advanced this
field. Therefore, this review also provides insights into the current

19
Y.A. Kumar et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108433

Fig. 24. (a) The integrated Ti3C2Tx/PPy/MnO2-based AMSCs' electrochemical performance and application when used in series or parallel. (b) The GCD profiles
under 0.69 mA cm2 and the CV curves at 20 mV s− 1 of the series-connected AMSCs. (c) The CV curves at 20 mV s− 1, and (d) the parallel-connected AMSCs' GCD
profiles at 0.69 mA cm2. Applications using three AMSCs (e, f) [120].

Fig. 25. MXene supercapacitors are in higher demand with time. The evolution of publications over the last ten years that were indexed with the keywords “MXene
supercapacitor.” and a pie chart illustrating how many different components are present in MXene-base complexes [27].

development, challenges, and potential of MXene composites for energy Data availability
storage to guide the design of MXenes for future applications.
No data was used for the research described in the article.

Declaration of competing interest Acknowledgments

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through a large
the work reported in this paper.

20
Y.A. Kumar et al.
group Research Project under grant number (R.G.P.2/425/44).
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