9-1

9. COMPRESSIBILITY AND SETTLEMENT

9.1 COMPRESSIBILITY OF AN ELASTIC SOLID

Structures such as buildings, bridges, etc. are frequently erected on soil as the founding
material. Since soil is a compressible material these structures experience downward movement
or settlement. Depending on the soil and the size of the structure these settlements may vary from
negligible amounts to several metres in extreme cases. To facilitate adequate design of the
structure it is essential to be able to predict the settlement that the structure will experience.

The settlement produced by the application of a stress to the surface of a compressible

material depends upon the rigidity of the material and the boundary conditions prevailing. These
effects may be examined quantitatively by consideration of the settlement of solid which behaves
according to the theory of elasticity. (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951). In some areas of
foundation engineering it is often assumed that soils and rocks behave as elastic solids,
particularly when the applied stresses are considerably less than failure values. This assumption
is less appropriate with some soils such as soft clays and loose sandy soils.

In the brief discussion that follows the behaviour of an elastic solid can be described by
two parameters - the Young's modulus (E) and the Poisson’s ratio (ν). Fig. 9.1(a) represents a
laterally unconfined elastic solid of rectangular cross section resting on the surface of a rigid
frictionless base. A vertical stress σv is applied to the top of the solid, which experiences
settlement as a result.

The applied stress conditions for this case are:

σv = σ1 and σ2 = σ3 = 0
where σ1 = major principal stress
σ2 = intermediate principal stress
σ3 = minor principal stress
compressives stresses and strains being positive

For these conditions the settlement (ρ) may be calculated from the vertical strain
εv (= ε1)

ρ = εv L = (σ1/E) L (9.1)

Fig. 9.1(b) represents a laterally confined elastic solid, which is subjected to a vertical stress σv.
As a result of the lateral confinement all horizontal movement is prevented. The confined
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boundaries of the solid will be considered frictionless so that vertical movement of the solid is not
restricted. This is a case of one dimensional compression in which movement occurs in one
direction only.

The stress conditions for this case are

σv = σ1 and σ2 = σ3 ≠ 0

and because the horizontal strain is zero

1
ε 2 = ε3 = 0 = (σ - υσ1 - υσ2)
Ε 2
∴ σ2 (1-υ) = υσ1
σ υ
or 2 = ( = Ko) (9.2)
σ1 1-υ

also

1
ε1 = E (σ1 - 2υσ2)
1 υσ1
= (σ1 - 2υ. )
E 1-υ
σ1 1 -υ - 2υ2
=
E ( 1-υ )
σ1 (1-2υ) (1 + υ)
= E
(1 - υ)
σ E (1-υ)
∴ 1 = (9.3)
ε1 (1-2υ) (1+υ)

Equation (9.3) shows that the ratio of vertical stress to vertical strain for the laterally
confined case is not equal to the Young’s modulus. The appropriate modulus for this case
(equation 9.3) is sometimes referred to as the constrained or dilatational modulus. The settlement
or vertical deflection (ρ) may be calculated from the vertical strain (ε1)

(1-2υ) (1+υ)
ρ = ε1 L = σ1 L (9.4)
E(1-υ)

A wide variety of boundary conditions may be imposed on a solid in addition to the two
cases that have just been examined. For example the solid may be partially confined with
horizontal strain prevented in one direction but no confinement whatever in the other horizontal
direction. The stress and strain situation for this case may be expressed as follows:
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Fig. 9.1 Compression of an Elastic Solid

Fig. 9.2 Influence of Boundary Conditions on Settlement of an Elastic Solid

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σv = σ1, σ2 ≠ 0, σ3 = 0
and
ε2 = 0 , ε3 ≠ 0

For this case it may be shown that

σ1 E
= (9.5)
ε1 (1-υ2)

and the settlement ρ becomes

(1 − υ 2 )
ρ = ε1 L = σ1 L (9.6)
E
The settlements calculated from equations (9.4), (9.6) and (9.1) for the laterally confined, partly
confined and unconfined boundary conditions respectively are compared in Fig. 9.2. This plot
illustrates the importance of boundary conditions in affecting settlement particularly for large
values of Poisson’s ratio. The figure shows that greater settlement occurs for the smaller amount
of lateral constraint provided. The lateral constraint provided by the lateral stresses is illustrated
in Fig. 9.3 which shows that the lateral stress, σ2 increases as the degree of confinement increases.

Examination of equations (9.1), (9.4) and (9.6) indicates that the general expression for
calculation of settlement ρ is:

ρ = strain x stressed length

stress change x stressed length

= modulus
where the modulus depends upon the boundary conditions as follows

unconfined modulus = E (Young’s modulus)

partly confined modulus = E/(1-υ2)
E(1-υ)
confined modulus =
(1+υ) (1-2υ)

Alternatively the inverse of the modulus (compressibility) may be used as follows:

ρ = stress change x stressed length x compressibility
where
1
unconfined compressibility = E

partly confined compressibility = (1-υ2)/E

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(1+υ) (1-2υ)
confined compressibility =
(1-υ) E

The confined (one dimensional) compressibility is also referred to as the coefficient of

volume compressibility or the coefficient of volume decrease and the symbol mv is widely used to
indicate the value of this compressibility.

9.2 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS

In cases where a loaded area such as a footing for a building, is located on a soil deposit,
which may be idealized as an elastic solid, the settlement caused by the load may be calculated by
means of the elastic displacement equation.

q B (1-υ2) Iρ
ρ= E (9.7)

where ρ = settlement of the footing

q = average pressure applied
B = width or diameter of footing
υ = Poisson’s ratio of the soil
E = Young’s Modulus of the soil
Iρ = approximate influence coefficient for settlement

The influence coefficient (Iρ) depends on a number of parameters including footing

shape, footing flexibility, distance to a rigid base and footing embedment depth. For example in
Fig. 9.4, Das (1984) provides Iρ values for a variety of situations. The Young’s modulus (E) of
the soil should be determined by appropriate laboratory or field tests. In the absence of such test
data Table 9.1 may be used as a rough guide.

TABLE 9.1
TYPICAL YOUNG’S MODULI FOR SOILS

Material Young’s Modulus (E) - MPa

Rock 2,000 - 20,000
Weathered rock 200 - 5,000
Dense sand and gravel 50 - 1,000
Firm clay 5 - 50
Soft clay 0.5 - 5