CHAPTER AT SSUES Ta ss 4, Matter is made up of tiny and discrete particles. 2, These particles can exist in three types as follows: (a) Atoms (0) Molecules (©) tons Metals aa example 1 1 Iron atoms | Carbon atoms | Neon atoms i— in 1 Iron hammer a (Gee) which contain Atoms onl ‘Molecules only: Tons onl) y ) ly are known as are bs as 1 stances Molecular substances fons. shee ania oe a as | Inert gases J onic Jo os ) example example ‘Sodium ions in 1 Sodium chloride (salt) ‘Molecular elements Molecular onpounan aye - example example 1 . IV srsge Chlorine molecules | Carbon dioxide mc si ene in 1 a Liquid chlorine | Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers \ Figure 8.1 Atomic, molecular and ionic substances 109 [eyed ry ©) Scanned with CamScanner‘Atomic Substances, Molecular Substances and lonic Substances | ‘Atomic Substances 1. Atomic substances are made up of atoms which are the smallest particles (most fundamental) of elements, 2. All metals and inert gases are the atomic substances. 3. Atoms ofthe same element are identical but different from atoms of other elements. Ifthere are 118 elements, then the number of different atoms is 118. 4, Elements of different substances such as metals, non-metals and inert gases are made up of different atoms, 5, For examples metals such as iron are made up of ron atoms, non-metals such as carbon are made up of carbon ‘atoms, inert gases such as helium are made up of helium atoms. 6. Physical properties ofthe atomic substance are determined by the type of the atomic substance as well as the arrangement of particles in the atomic substance. 7, Table 8.1 shows the physical properties of the atomic substances from different types of substances. | Table 8.1 Physical properties of the atomic substances Metal Non-metal Inert gas Copper iron, tin, gold_| Carbon, phosphorus | Helium, neon, argon ‘Solid (except mercury | Solid and gas Gas which is aliquid) High ‘Moderate Low ‘Conductor Insulator (except Insulator carbon/graphite) 8 Figure 82 shows the arrangement of particles for diamond and graphite (made up of carbon atoms) which have different physical properties. ‘Transparent, hard, electrical insulator and heat insulator conductor and heat conductor Figure 8.2 Same carbon atomic substances that have different physical properties 9. The chemical properties of the atomic substances are the same as the chemical properties of the atoms of the atomic substances. 10. For example, the chemical properties ofthe atomic substances of carbon are the chemical properties of the carbon atoms in the carbon atomic substances. 110 Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTERS Elements and Substances Molecular Substances 1. Molecular substances contain molecules, which are made up of two or more atoms that combined chemically ‘whether they are identical (the same) or different. 2. All non-metals (except inert gases) are the molecular substances. 3. There are two types of the molecular substances as follows: (a) Molecules which are made up of two or more atoms from the same element that combined chemically. Examples: Nitrogen and oxygen Figure 8.3 Molecviar substances of the same element combined chemically (b) Molecules which are made up of two or more atoms from different elements that combined chemically. Examples: Ammonia and water Figure 8.4 Molecular substances of diferent elements combined chemically | | & ingeneral, physical properties of the molecular substances are as follows: | (a) Exist in three states of matter: Solid, liquid and gas 1 (b) Do not conduct electrical current | (©) Have low melting points and boiling points | The physical and chemical properties ofthe molecular substances that are made up of two or more toms I from the same element that combined chemically are the same as the physical and chemical properties of, } that element. ___& For example, the physical and chemical properties ofthe molecular substance of oxygen are the same asthe } Physical and chemical properties of oxygen. | 7. However, for the molecular substances made from different elements, the physical and chemical properties | Of the substances are not the same as the physical and chemical properties of the elements that make up the 1} substances |___& For example, the physical and chemical properties ofthe molecular substance of carbon dioxide are diferent | from (not the same as) the physical and chemical properties of carbon and oxygen. | i-THINKs iis in soli, liquid ‘and gaseous states” Figure 8.5 Physical properties of the molecular substances i Scanned with CamScanner————————eEE lonic Substances +, Toni substances ae produced from the reaction between metal elements and non-metal elements Positively charged ios are produced when atoms donate electrons, while negatively charged fons are produced whey atoms accept electrons. 2. onic substances are made up of ionic particles in their simplest form. These ions are positively and negatively charged. 3. For example, sodium chloride is an example ofthe ionic substance which is made up of a combination of positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions. 4 Insolid state, positive ions and negative ions in the ionic substances are bonded together by strong ionic bonds (Figure 86). Therefor, the ionic substances have high melting and boiling points. 5. in molten state or aqueous solution, postive ions and negative ions in the ionic substances move freely, ‘Therefore, the ionic substances in molten state or aqueous solution can conduct electricity. For example, the flow of electrical current through the ionic substance such as sodium chloride in aqueous solution produces chlorine gas and hydrogen gas. Scum ions, Nat and chlorides lone, Cr, in aqueous solution ‘mote stato ‘Sodium clei, Na, ot ‘common sat in sd sito (@) Solid (b) Solution and molten states Figure 8.6 Arrangement of sodium chloride particles in solid state and aqueous solution or motten state Comparison of the Physical Properties of the Atomic, Molecular and lonic Substances | Table 82 shows the comparison between the physical properties ofthe atomic, molecular and ionic substances. ‘Table 8.2 Physical properties of the atomic, molecular and ionic substances Sodium, copper, calcium, | Carbon dioxide, oxygen, | Sodium chloride, copper iron, aluminium, chlorine, nitrogen oxide, zinc oxic Solid (except mercury) | Gas liquid and solid | Solid (crystal) Very close Solid: Very close Very close Liquid: Less close Gas: Far apart Very strong Weak Ve ery strong (metallic bond) (Van der Waals force) | (electrostatic force) High Low for simple High molecules, high for macromolecules Insoluble in water or Insoluble in water Soluble in water but organic solvents but soluble in organic | insoluble in organic solvents solvents Conductor in solid or | insulator ‘Conductor in molten liquid state state or aqueous solution only Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTERS Elements and Substances 11 Whats the meaning of substance? 2 (@) Name three types of substances. (&) State the type of substances forthe following: (Dry ice Gi), Rust '3 Figure I shows two types of the atomic substances. Figure 1 State one similarity and one difference between the atomic substance (a) and the atomic substance (b). {4 State one similarity and one difference between oxygen and carbon dioxi § ‘State one difference in the chemical property of the ionic substances in solid state and molten state. {6 Name two types of substances in the human body and give one example of each type of substance. 5 = (G2) Modern Periodic Table of Elements ) 5 5 4, There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the Modem Periodic Table of Elements as shown in Figure 87. pS 2. The vertical columns in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements are called groups while the horizontal rows Bild are called periods. (8) ew a z a ‘vaine cath metas BD sovimia Fp noone Figure 8.7 Modem Periodic Table of Elements 3. Moving horizontally across from group 1 to 18 (lft to right) across a period, the gradual changes in physical and chemical properties ofthe element are: + a decrease in metallic properties and an increase in non-metallic properties of the element + a change of properties of oxides of the element from basic to acidic + a decrease in electrical conductivity of the element 113 Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTERS Elements and Substances ‘The Principle for the Arrangement of the Elements in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements 1. Each element in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements has its own proton number, element symbol, element name and nucleon number as shown in Figure 88. Element symbo} 2, In the Modern Periodic Table of Elements, the elements are arranged in ascending order of their proton number. Proton Bement name Proton numer acto nu number is defned as the number of protons in the nucleus of Pate sori ay eee Figure 8.8 Carbon element inthe 4. All elements in the same group have the same number of fibre, A. Corbon lorare tt the electrons in the outermost shell 4. Allelements in the same period have the same number of electron shell. S. There are 18 groups in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements as follows: Elements in Group 1 are made up of alkaline metals. Elements in Group 2 are made up of alkaline earth metals Elements in Groups 3 to 12 ate made up of transition elements Elements in Group 17 are made up of halogens Elements in Group 18 ate made up of noble gases ‘The elements in the same group have the same chemical properties. For examples, + the elements in Group 1 react with water to form an alkaline solution and hydrogen gas. | + the elements in Group 17 soluble in water to form an acidic solution. 7. There ate 7 periods in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements where each element in the same period has a proton number that isa unit more than the element before it. 8. Going across a period from left to right in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements, n alkaline to acidic i) ‘| lic property in i] | \| Electron Arrangements of the Elements | 1. Based on Niels Bohr’s atomic model, electrons move around the nucleus in circular shaped orbits or shells as | | shown in Figure 89. Figure 8.9 Maximum numberof electrons inthe frst three shells ofan atom 2, Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom, So, the atomic number and proton number are the same. 3. Two stable electron arrangements ate duplet and octet. (@)_Duplet electron arrangement has two electrons inthe first shell (outermost shel) ofthe atom of "| ‘element such as helium atom as shown in Figure 8.10(a). | (©) Octet electron arrangement has eight electrons in the outermost shell of the atom of an element wd || ‘as neon atom as shown in Figure 8.10(b). 4 i = 1a Scanned with CamScanner7 CHAPTERS Elements and Substances Hetum tom Neonat (0) Dupleteocten rangement (2) Octet elocton arangemont Figure 8.10 Duplet and octet electron arrangements 4, The electron arrangement of the elements in Groups 1, 2,13, 4,15, 16, 17 and 18 in the Modern Periodic Table of lements are shown in Figure 8.11, FORM 4 So 5. When the number of protons in an atom is the same a its number of electrons as shown in Figure 8.12, then the atom is neutral. Neutron Becton Figure 8.12 Structure of an atom 6. When a neutral atom donates or accepts one or more electrons, the atom becomes a charged particle called anion. Formation of Positive and Negative lons Formation of Positive Ions 1. Atoms from Group 1, Group 2 and Group 13 have 1, 2 and 3 electrons respectively in the outermost shell of the atoms, 2. Therefore, these atoms tend to donate electrons from their outermost shell during chemical reactions to Achieve a stable electron arrangement. Positive ions are formed when the atoms of metal elements donate electrons, 15 Scanned with CamScanner‘CHAPTER Elements and Substances 3. Figure 8.13 and Table 83 show the formation of positive ion from sodium atom, Na, Figure 8.13 Formation of sodium ion, Na* from sodlum element, Na Table 8.9 Formation of sodium ion, Na* Sortium atom Na Sodium on, Nat [ssbsonic paride [ amber [Gare | Neutron, n 2 fo Neutron, n a | om {| eats | Proton. p | a >| Proton, p n [a | Electron ah pret |e St [ eectone 0 | -10 Charge of sium atom, Na Charge of sodium ion, Na* 4, Positiveions normally have stable electron arangement suchas duplet and octet electron arrangements Ft | ‘examples, lithium ion, Li* is more stable than lithium atom, Li because lithium ion, Li* has a duplet electron arrangement and sodium ion, Na’ is more stable than sodium atom, Na because sodium ion, Nat has an octet electron arrangement. | Union Sodumion Figure 8.14 Lithium ion and sodium jon 116 Scanned with CamScannerFormation of Negative lons +, Atoms from Group 16 and Group 17 have 6 and 7 electrons respectively in the outermost shell of the atoms. 2. So, these atoms tend to accept electrons into their outermost shell during chemical reactions to achieve a stable electron arrangement. Negative ions are formed when the atoms of non-metallic elements accept one ‘or more electrons. ‘CHAPTERS Elements and Substances | 4. Figure 8.15 and Table 8.4 show the formation of negative ions by chlorine atom, Cl. Figure 8.15 Formation of chloride ion, Cr from chlorine atom, Cl Table 8.4 Formation of chloride fon, Cr” Chlorine atom, Cl Neutron, n 18 0 [——| Proton, p v Electron, € 8 Charge of chloride ion, CF Charge of chlorine atom, Cl 4; Inthe process of rusting, iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide (rust) ‘The iron atom donates three electrons while the oxygen atom accepts ‘two electrons to achieve an octet electron arrangement. BF virtual scan ‘ Photograph 8.1 Rusting of iron nails 17 Scanned with CamScannerthe Modem Periadie Table of Elements? 2 (2) What is the number of groups in the Modem Periodic Table of Elements? (©) What isthe numberof periods in the Modem Periodic Table of Elements? ‘3. Why is carbon dioxide not classified inthe Modem Periodic Table of Elements? ‘4. Which group in the Modem Periodic Table of Elements is made up of the most stable elements? Give your reason, ‘5 Name four information that ean be obtained from each element in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements 6 State one characteristic ofthe elements in the Modern Periodic Table of elements which belong in: {a) the same grovp. (©) the same period. 7 Name the ions and slate the type of ion produced by changes in the number of electrons in an atom of the following elements: (a) Magnesium atom loses two electrons. () Oxygen atom gains two electrons RD 1, Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different number neutrons. 2. For example, hydrogen is an example of an element which has three isotopes as shown in Table 85. Table 8.5 Isotopes of hydrogen Hydrogen-1 1 1 0 Hydrogen-2 1 1 1 Hydrogen-3 1 1 2 3. Isotopes are written by their nucleon number. The nucleon number of an isotope is the total numberd protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the isotope. For example, the isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton ard 1 neutron (or a nucleon number of 2) is written as hydrogen-2. Properties of Isotopes 1. Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties. For example, all isotopes of hydrogen. name hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 have the same chemical properties such as burning in oxygen or 2. Isotopes ofan elerent have different physical properties, For example, different isotopes of hydrogen = hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 have different masses as shown in Table 86. ] Table 8.6 Ditferent physical properties of isotopes Hydrogen-1 or protium 16726 1077 kg Hydrogen-2 or deuterium 33443 x 1077 kg : Hydrogen-3 or tritium, SE || 5.0081 x 1077 kg 18 a Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER Elements and Substances ‘The Number of Protons, Neutrons and Nucleon Number of Isotopes 4, The nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. 2, isotopes of an element have different nucleon numbers. 3, The different nucleon numbers for isotopes of the same element are due to the different number of neutrons in the isotopes of the element. Nucleon number umber of protons + number of neutrons DM gcd DM atic Nt The Use of Isotopes in Various Fields 1. Isotopes of certain elements are widely used in various fields as shown in Figure 8.16. INKy © §)FoRm 4 Figure 8.16 Uses of isotopes in various fields 4 i Scanned with CamScanner2. Examples of the isotopes and their uses 1n Tis °° a Sodium-24 i used as an electrolyte tracer to follow the path sodium takes in a human body to see if its uptake level is within the normal range. «+ Cobalt-60is used as a source of intense gamma radiation forthe treatment of various types of cancer + lodine-131 isotope is used to produce gamma rays that used in the treatment of thyroid cancer. oe 235 isotope is used as nuclear fuel to generate electrical ‘energy in the nuclear power ‘generating stations managed by the International Atomic Energy ‘Agency (IAEA). —— —a facet 241 isotope Food technology Cobalt-60 isotope is used to produce gamma rays to | isused to determine the to estimate the age of fossils kill microorganisms inthe thickness of paper made. in the process of dating processing of food. carbon-14. i] 1 (a) Give two examples of isotopes of metal elements. (b) Give two examples of isotopes of non-metal elements, 2. State the difference between the physical and chemical property ofthe isotope of an element. 3 What is nucleon number? 4 Complete Table 1. Carbon-12 Carbon-13 ‘Carbon-14 Bromine-79 Bromine Bromine-81 35 5 State the use of isotopes in the following fields: (@) Agriculture (Phosphorus-32) (b) Archaeology (Carbon-14) (©) Medicine (Cobalt-60) 120 Scanned with CamScannerPAPER 1 CHAPTER Elements and Substances SPM) FOCUS PRAGTICE 8 Instructions: Each question is followed by four choices of answers, A, B, C and D. For each question, choose one answer onl. 1 All matters incloding water can be classified as substances, What type of substance of water? ‘A Atomic substance B Molecular substance € onic substance D Molecular substance and joni substance 2 Which ofthe following gases in sir is an atomic substance? A Oxygen B Nivogen ¢ Heium D Carbon dioxide 3) Which substances is involve the process of electrolysis? ‘A. Atomic substance B Molecular substance € onic substance D Isotope 4 Figure 1 shows the structure of an atom. ‘Which of the following A, B, C ‘oc Dis & negative ion? same Figure 1 5 Figure 2 shows an incomplete Modem Periodic Table of Elements. Figure 2 ‘Which ofthe elements A, B, C oF D has 5 protons? 6 Figure 3 shows an clement in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements Figure 3 ‘What is the number of neutrons in the atom of Fe element? A%6 7 How are elements arranged in the Modern Periodic Table of Elements? A In ascending order of number of protons B In descending order of numberof protons Inascending order of nucleon number D In descending order of nucleon number 8 Figure 4 shows an incomplete Modern Periodic Table of Elements. Figure 4 ‘What isthe property of X? ‘A High melting point B Can conduct current € Low boiling point D Good heat conductor electrical 12 9 Figure 5 shows the structure of atoms K, L, M and N. Figure ‘Which atoms are isotopes? AKandN BMandN CLandM DLandN 10 Which isotopes is used in the field of archaeology? ‘A. Carbon-14 B Phosphorus-32 © Cobalt-60 D Todine-131 Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 8 Elements and Substances PAPER 2 Instructions: Answer all questions. 1 Figure 1 shows an experiment to study electrical ‘current readings using the flow of different electrical currents through an ionic substance. | — peste ston caton Carona) tor) sme ‘jiu eatery Figure 1 (@) State the variables in this experiment @) Manipulated variable Gi) Responding variable (2 marks) () Acidfied water is an ionic substance. Based on this experiment, state the operational definition of the ionic substance. (2 marks} (©) Tick (¢) in the boxes below to show a substance that can replace the acidified solution in this experiment. ‘Common salt Dilute hydrochloric acid Cooking oil (1 mark) 2. Figure 2.1 shows a fossil bone of a prehistoric animal the age of which is determined by archaeologists by the carbon dating method using an isotope of carbon X. Figure 2.1 (a) Name the isotope of carbon X. U1 mark) (6) Write the electron arrangement of the isotope of carbon X. {1 mark} (©) State the number of protons and nucleon number in the isotope of carbon X. Number of protons ‘Nucleon number [2 marks) m Sca (@) Figure 22 shows the use of isotopes in the fey Ra, Figure 22 (Name one example of an isotope that is used to determine the rate of absorption of phosphate fertiliser in plants. (1 mark (ii) How is the rate of absorption of phosphate fertiliser in plants determined? [2 marks} 3 Figure 3.1 shows an incomplete Modern Periodic Table of Elements. aAaeS jetta op vest [Ep soneetar Non ett | Foure 21 | (a) State four properties of the Modem Periodic Table of Elements. [4 mart} (b) Figure 3.2 shows the formation of ions. ‘Nom olmetatie deent ‘nem otrenartate S Aocests 1 acon ae ©© Figure 3.2 Study the information in Fi ‘8 concept on the formation of positive negative ions. (©) What is an isotope? pure 3.2. and ball ig 22 al nned with CamScanner