PHYSICS - VOL 1 UNIT - 2

NAME :
STANDARD : 12 SECTION :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
webStrake Recognized Teacher
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I)
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. Define current electricity.
 The branch of physics deals with moving charges
is called current electricity.
2. Define electric current.
 The electric current in a conductor is defined as
the rate of flow of charges through a given cross -
sectional area.
𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝐼= (𝑜𝑟) 𝑖=
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 The S. I unit of current is ampere (A).
 It is a scalar quantity.
3. Define one ampere (1 A)
 One ampere of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb
of charge passing through a perpendicular cross
section in 1 second. [𝟏 𝑨 = 𝟏 𝑪 𝒔−𝟏 ]
4. What is called conventional current?
 By convention, this flow in the circuit should be
from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative terminal. This is called the conventional
current or simply current.
 It is in the direction in which a positive test charge
would move.
5. What are called free electrons and positive ions?
 Any material is made up of neutral atoms with
equal number of electrons and protons. If the
outermost electrons leave the atoms, they become
free electrons and are responsible for electric
current.
 The atoms after losing their outer most electrons
will have more positive charges and hence are
called positive ions. They will not move freely and
hence the positive ions will not give rise to
current.
6. Define drift velocity.
 The average velocity acquired by the free
electrons inside the conductor when it is
subjected to an electric field is called
drift velocity (𝑣⃗𝑑 ). Its unit is 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
7. Define mobility.
 The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the
free electrons per unit electric field is called
mobility (𝜇). Its unit is 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed
webStrake
8. Define current density.
 Current density (J) is defined as the current per
unit area of cross section of the conductor.
𝐼 the conductor is called resistance (R).
𝐽=
𝐴 𝑹=
 Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟐
9. Give the microscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 The current density is given by,
𝑒𝜏 𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏
⃗𝐽⃗ = 𝑛 𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗𝑑 = 𝑛 𝑒 [ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸] = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
𝑚 𝑚
(𝑜𝑟) ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 1) directly proportional to its length (l)
 Thus Currnt density is directly proportional to the
applied electric field. This is known as
microscopic form of Ohm’s law.
10. Current is a scalar quantity. Why?
 Current is defined as the scalar product of current
density (⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽) and area vector (⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴) in which charges
crosses. (i.e.) 𝐈 = ⃗𝑱⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨 = 𝑱 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
 The current can be positive or negative depending
on the choice of unit vector normal to the surface
area A.
11. Give the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 Let ‘V’ be the potential difference, ‘I’ be the
current and ‘R’ be the resistance, then the
macroscopic form of Ohm’s law is V = I R
12. What are called ohmic and non ohmic materials?
 Materials for which the current against voltage
graph is a straight line through the orgin are said
to obey Ohm’s law and they are called ohmic
materials.
 But materials for which the current against
voltage graph is non - linear and they do not have
a constant resistance are called non - ohmic. They
do not obey Ohm’s law.
PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
13. Define resistance of the conductor.
 The ratio of potential difference (V) across the
given conductor to the current (I) passing through
𝑽
𝑰
 Its unit is ohm ( )
14. What are the factors that the resistance depend
on?
 The resistance of the conductor is,
2) inversely proportional to its area of cross
section (A)
𝒍 𝝆𝒍
𝑹= =
𝝈𝑨 𝑨
where, 𝝈 → conductivity of the conductor
𝝆 → resistivity of the conductor
15. Define resistivity of the material.
 The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as
the resistance offered to current flow by a
conductor of unit length having unit area of cross
section.
𝟏 𝑹𝑨
𝝆= =
𝝈 𝒍
 Its unit is ohm - metre ( m )
 It depends only the type of material and not the
dimension of the material.
16. Define conductivity of the material.
 The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity
and it is given by,
𝟏
𝝈=
𝝆
 Its unit is mho- metre-1 (-1 m-1)
 It depends only the type of material and not the
dimension of the material.
17. Reparing the electrical connection with the wet
skin is always dangerous. Why?
 The humam body contains a large amount of
water which has low resistance of around 200 
and the dry skin has high resistance of 500 k .
 But when the skin is wet, the resistance is reduced
to 1000  .
𝑉
 By Ohm’s law [𝑅 = ] if resistance decreses,
𝐼
current increases. Hence reparing electric
connection with wet skin is dangerous.
 12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
18. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity. 23. What is called electric cell (battery) ?  The emf is considered positive when proceeding
 It is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity  An electric cell is a device which converts from the negative to the positive terminal of the
per degree rise in temperature to its resistivity chemical energy in to electrical energy to produce cell and negative when proceeding from the
at 𝑇𝑜 . Its unit is 𝒑𝒆𝒓 ℃ electricity. positive to the negative terminal of the cell.
19. Define Superconductivity.  It contains two electrods (anode and cathode) 30. What is called Galvanometer?
 The resistance of certain material become zero immersed in an electrolyte.  A galvanometer is an instrument used for
below certain temperature called critical or 24. Define electromotive force. detecting and measuring even very small electric
transition temperature (TC)  The amount of work a battery or cell does to move currents.
 For mercury, TC = 4.2 K a certain amout of charge around the circuit is  It is extensively useful to compare the potential
 The materials which exhibit this property are called as electromotive force (𝜉). Its unit is volt (V) difference between various parts of the circuit.
known as super conductors.  The emf of a battery or a cell is the voltage 31. State the principle of potentiometer.
 The property of conducting current with zero provided by the battery when no current flows in  Let ‘I’ be the current, ′𝑟 ′ be the resistance per unit
resistance is called super conductivity. the external circuit. length and ′𝑙 ′ be the balancing length, then emf is
 It is discovered by Kammerlingh Onnes. 25. Define the internal resistance of the cell. 𝝃 = 𝑰𝒓𝒍 (𝒐𝒓) 𝝃∝𝒍
20. Distinguish electric energy and electric power.  A real battery is made of electrodes and  The emf is directly proportional to the balancing
Electric energy Electric power electrolyte. length. This is the principle of potentiometer.
1) Work has to be done to 1) The rate at which the  There is resistance to the flow of charges within 32. What is called Joule’s heating effect of current?
move the charge from electrical potential the battery and this resistance is called internal  When current flows through a resistor, some of
one end to other end of energy is delivered is resistance (r) the electrical energy delivered to the resistor is
the conductor and this called electric power.  A freshly prepared cell has low internal resistance converted into heat energy and it is dissipated.
workdone is called 𝒅𝑼 and it increased with ageing. This heating effect of current is known as Joule’s
𝑷= = 𝑽𝑰 26. State Kirchoff’s first law (current rule or junction heating effect.
electric energy. 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑾 = 𝒅𝑼 = 𝑽 𝒅𝑸 rule) 33. State Joule’s law of heating.
2) Its S.I unit is joule ( J ) 2) Its S.I unit is watt (W)  It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any  It states that the heat develop in an electrical
3) Its practical unit is 3) Its practical unit is junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0). circuit due to the flow, current varies directly as
kilowatt hour (kWh) horse power (H P)  It is a statement of conservation of electric charge. (i) the square of the current
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 3.6 𝑋 106 𝐽 1 𝐻 𝑃 = 746 𝑊 27. State Kirchoff’s second law (voltage rule or loop (ii) the resistance of the circuit and
21. Prove that the expression for power in an rule) (iii) the time of flow
electrical circuit is 𝑷 = 𝑽 𝑰  It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 𝒕
 Electric energy is given by, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄 of the products of the current and reistance of 34. What are the properties of the substance used as
each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf heating element?
 By definition, the rate at which electric potential
energy is delivered is called power. (i.e) included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝝃).  An alloy of nickel and chromium called Nicrome is
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 (𝑉 𝑑𝑄) 𝑑𝑄  It is a statement of conservation of energy for an used as heating element. It has
𝑃= = =𝑉 isolated system. (i) a high specific resistance
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑸 28. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchoff’s (ii) high melting point
 But = 𝑰 → electric current
𝒅𝒕 current rule. (iii) heated to very high temperature without
∴ 𝑷= 𝑽𝑰 oxidation
 Current entering the junction is taken as positive
22. Write down the various equations for power.
and current leaving the junction is taken as 35. Write a note on electric fuses.
 The electric power is given by, negative.  Fuses are connected in series in a circuit to
𝑷=𝑽𝑰 protect the electric device from the heat
29. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchoff’s
 By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 and hence votage rule. developed by the passage of excessive current.
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹  The product of current and resistance is taken as  It melt and breaks the circuit if the current
 Also, 𝐼 = 𝑉/ 𝑅 and hence, positive when the direction of the current is exceeds certain value.
𝑽𝟐 followed and is taken as negative when the  It is a short length of a wire made of a low melting
𝑷=
𝑹 direction of current is opposite to the loop point material.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
36. Write a note on circuit breakers (trippers) 41. Define Thomson’s effect. 2. Derive the relation between the drift velocity and
 Now a days in housed, circuit breakers are used  If two points in a conductor are at different the current.
instead of fuses. temperatures, the density of electrons at these Drift velocity and current - Relation :
 Whenever there is an ecessive current produced points will differ and as a result the potential
due to faulty wire connection, the circuit breaker difference is created between these points.
switch opens.  Thomson effect is reversiable.
 After repairing the faulty connection, we can close
the circuit breaker switch. PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS  Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴
37. Write a note on electric bulb or lamp. 1.ANSWERS
Obtain an expression for drift velocity. How it is Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛
 It consists of a tungsten filament kept inside a related with the mobility? Applied electric field = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
glass bulb and heated to incandescence by Drift velocity (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒗𝒅 ) : Drift velocity of electrons = 𝒗𝒅
current.  If there is no electric field, all the free electrons in Charge of an electrons =𝑒
 Melting point of tungsten is 3380 ℃ a conductor are moves in random directions. As a  Let ‘𝑑𝑥’ be the distance travelled by the electron
 In incandescent electric lamps, only 5% of electric result no net flow of electrons in any direction and in time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then
energy is converted into light and the rest is hence there will not be any current. 𝑑𝑥
wasted as heat.  If the conductor is subjected toan electric field (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸) 𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
38. Define Seebeck effect. free electrons experinces a force given by,  The number of electrons available in the volume
 In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = −𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 − − − − − (1) of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛
metals, when the junctions are maintained at  So all the free electrons are accelerated in a  Then the total charge in this volume element is,
different temperature an emf is developed. This direction opposite to the field. By Newton’s 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
phenomenom is called Seebeck effect or second law  By definition, the current is given by
thermoelectric effect. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 −𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎= = − − − − − −(2) 𝐼= =
𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
called thermoelectric current. 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
 But the positive ions scatter the electrons and
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two change its direction of motion. So they move in 3. Write a note on carbon resistors.
junctions is known as thermocouple. zig-zag path. Carbon resistors :
39. What are the applications of Seebeck effect?  Carbon resistors consists of a ceramic core on
 In addition to the zig-zag motion due to collisions,
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric the electrons move slowly along the conductor in which a thin layer of crystalline carbon is
generators (Seebeck generators) which are used ⃗⃗⃗⃗ deposited.
a direction opposite to that of 𝐸
in power plants to convert waste heat into  They ar inexpensive, stable and compact in size.
electricity.  This average velocity acquired by the free electrons
inside the conductors, when it is subjected to the  Colour rings drawn over it are used to indicate the
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as value of the resistance according to the rules in
electric field is called drift velocity (⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗𝑑 )
automotive thermoelectric generators for the table.
increasing fuel efficiency  The average time between successive collision is
called the mean free time or relaxation time (𝜏). Colour Number Multiplier
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and Black 0 1
thermopiles to measure the temperature  Hence the drift velocity is given by, 1
Brown 1 10
difference between the two objects. −𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝝉= 𝝉 = −𝝁 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Red 2 102
40. Define Peltier effect. 𝒎 Orange 3 103
𝑒𝜏
 When an electric current is passed through a where , = 𝜇 → mobility of electrons
𝑚 Yellow 4 104
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one  The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the Green 5 105
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This free electron per unit electric field is called mobility. Blue 6 106
is known as Peltier effect. |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 |
𝝁= Violet 7 107
 Peltier effect is reversiable. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 Grey 8 108
𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏
 It unit is 𝒎 𝑽 𝒔 White 9 109

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Coluur Tolerance  For conductors 𝜶 is positive (i.e) if the  Let ‘n’ cells each of emf 𝜉 and internal resistance
Gold 5% temperature of the conductor increases, its ‘r’ are connected in parallel with an external
Silver 10 % resistivity also increases. resistance ‘R’.
No ring (colourless) 20 %  Thus resistance at 𝑇 ℃  Total emf of the battery =𝑛𝜉
𝑟
 There is three coloured bands on its left and one 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝒐 [𝟏 + 𝜶 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 )] Total resistance of the circuit = +𝑅
𝑛
metallic coloured band on its right side.  For semiconductor, 𝜶 is negative. (i.e.) if  By Ohm’s law,
 The first and second rings are the significant temperature increases, resistance decreases. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜉 𝑛𝜉
figures of the resistance and the third ring indicate  A semiconductor with a negative temperature 𝐼= = 𝑟 = − −(1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 +𝑅 𝑛𝑟+𝑅
the decimal multiplier after them. The fourth coefficient of resistance is called a thermistor. 𝑛
metallic ring shows the tolerance of the resistor. 5. Write a note on electric cells in series.  If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
Example : Cells in series : 𝑛𝜉 𝜉
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 [∵ = 𝐼1 ]
𝑅 𝑅
(i.e.) if ‘r’ is negligible compared to ‘R’ the current
supplied by the battery is ‘n’ times the that
supplied by the single cell
 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛𝜉 𝜉

Let ‘n’ cells each of emf 𝜉 and internal resistance 𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1
𝑛𝑟 𝑟
‘r’ are connected in series with an external (i.e.) if ‘r’ is very very greater than ‘R’, current due
resistance ‘R’. to the whole battery is same as due to single cell.
 For the given carbon resistor,  Total emf of the battery =𝑛𝜉 7. Explain the principle of potentiometer.
First ring (Green) = 5 Total resistance of the circuit = 𝑛𝑟+𝑅 Principle of potentiometer:
Second ring (Blue) = 6  By Ohm’s law,
Third ring (Orange) = 103 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑛𝜉
Fourth metallic ring (Gold) = 5% 𝐼= = − − − (1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑟+𝑅
𝟑
 Value of the resistor = 𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 = 𝟓𝟔 𝐤 𝛀  If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
Tolerance =5% 𝑛𝜉 𝜉
4. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity. 𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 [∵ = 𝐼1 ]
𝑅 𝑅
Obtain an expression for it. (i.e.) if ‘r’ is negligible compared to ‘R’ the current  A battery (Bt), key (K) and potentiometer wire
Temperature coefficient of resistivity : supplied by the battery is ‘n’ times the that (CD) are connected in series forms the primary
 Resistivity of the substance depends on the supplied by the single cell circuit.
temperature. Let  𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,  The positive terminal of primary cell of emf ′𝜉 ′ is
 Resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 ℃ = 𝜌𝑜 𝑛𝜉 𝜉 connected to the point C and negative terminal is
𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1 connected to the point D through galvanometer
Resistivity at 𝑇℃ = 𝜌𝑇 𝑛𝑟 𝑟
∴ 𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 [1 + 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )] − − − −(1) (i.e.) if ‘r’ is very very greater than ‘R’, current due (G) and high resistance (HR). This forms the
Where, 𝛼 → Temperature coefficient of resistivity to the whole battery is same as due to single cell. secondary circuit.
 From equation (1) 6. Write a note on electric cells in parallel.  Let contact be made at ‘J’ on the wire by jockey.
𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 + 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 ) Cells in parallel :  If the potential difference across CJ is equal to the
𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 ) emf (𝜉) of the cell, then the galvanometer shows
𝝆𝑻 − 𝝆𝒐 ∆𝝆 zero deflection. Here ‘CJ’ is the balancing length 𝒍
∴ 𝜶= =
𝝆𝒐 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 ) 𝝆𝒐 ∆𝑻  If ‘r’ is the resistance per unit length of the wire,
Where, ∆𝝆 = 𝝆𝑻 − 𝝆𝒐 → change in resistivity then by Ohm’s law,
∆𝑻 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 → Change in temperature Potential difference across CJ = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙
 It is defined as the ratio of increase in Hence, 𝝃 = 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍
resistivity per degree rise in temperature to  Since I and r are constants, , 𝝃 ∝ 𝒍
its resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 . Its unit is 𝒑𝒆𝒓 ℃
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
8. Explain Seebeck effect. Give its applications.  Let a current flow through the thermocouple.
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Seebeck effect :  At junction ‘A’, where the current flows from Cu to
Fe, heat is absorbed and it becomes cold. 1.ANSWERS
Describe the microscopic model of current and
 At juction ‘B’, where the current flows from Fe to obtain general form of Ohm’s law.
Cu, heat is liberated and it becomes hot. Microscopic model of current and Ohm’ law :
 When the direction current is reversed, junction
‘A’ becomes hot and junction ‘B’ becomes cold.
Hence peltier effect is reversiable.
 Seebeck discoved that in a closed circuit 10. Distinguish between Peltier effect and Joule’s
consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the  Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴
effect.
juctions are maintained at different temperatures Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛
Peltier effect Joule’s effect
an emf (potential difference) is developed. This is Applied electric field along leftwads = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
1) Both heat liberated 1) Heat liberated only
called Seebeck effect. Drift velocity of the electrons = 𝒗𝒅
and absorbed occur occur
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is Charge of the electron = 𝒆
2) Occurs at junctions 2) Occurs all along the
called thermoelectric current.  If ‘𝑑𝑥 ′ be the distance travelled by the electron in
conductor
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then
3) Reversiable effect 3) Irreversiable effect 𝑑𝑥
junctions is known as thermocouple. 11. Explain Thomson effect. 𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
 If hot and cold juntions are interchanged, the 𝑑𝑡
Thomson effect :
direction of current also reversed. Hence Seebeck  The number of electrons available in the volume
effect is reversiable. of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛
 The magnitude of emf developed in thermocouple  Then the total charge in this volume element is,
depends on, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
(i) Nature of the metals forming thermocouple  By definition, the current is given by
(ii) Temperature difference between the junctions 𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
𝐼= =
Applications : 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric  𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
 Thomson showed that, if two points in a Current density (𝑱⃗) :
generators (Seebeck generators).
conductor are at different temperatures, the  Current density (J) is defined as the current per
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as density of electrons at these points will differ and
automotive thermoelectric generators. unit area of cross section of the conductor.
as a result the potential difference is created 𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and between these points. This is known as Thomson 𝐽= =
thermopiles. 𝐴 𝐴
effect. 𝑱 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝒗𝒅
9. Explain Peltier effect.  Thomson effect is reversiable.
Peltier effect :  Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟐
 If current passed through copper bar AB which is  In vector notation,
 When an electric current is passed through a heated at its mid point C, the point C will be at
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 𝒗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒅
higer potential. This indicates that the heat is
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This 𝒆𝝉 𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉
absorbed along AC and evolved along CB. Thus ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 [− ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬] = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
is known as Peltier effect. heat is transferred in the direction of the current. 𝒎 𝒎
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉
It is called positive Thomson effect.  where, = 𝝈 → conductivity
𝒎
(e.g) Ag, Zn. Cd
∴ ⃗𝑱⃗ = − 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬
 When the copper bar is replaced by an iron bar,
 But conventionally, we take the dirction of current
heat is evolved along CA and absorbed along BC.
density as the direction of electric field. So the
Thus heat is transferred in the direction opposite
above equation becomes,
to the current. It is called negative Thomson
 In Cu - Fe thermocouple, the junctions A and B are ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
effect.
maintained at the same temperature.  This is called microscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 (e.g.) Pt, Ni, Co, Hg
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its  Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to Resistors in parallel :
microscopic form and discuss its limitation. be non - ohmic. These materials have more
Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law : complex (non- linear) relationships between
voltage and current.
3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and
parallel resistor network.
Resistor in series :
 Consider a segment of wire of length ‘𝑙’ and area of
cross section ‘𝐴’.  When two or more resistors are connected across
 When a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across the same potential difference, they are said to be
the wire, a net electric field is created in the wire in parallel.
which constitutes the current.  Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors
 If we assume the electric field is uniform in the connected in parallel.
entire length, the potential difference is given by,  When two or more resistors are connected end to  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
𝑉 end, they are said to be in series. this combination.
𝑉=𝐸𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐸=
𝑙  Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors  In parallel connection,
 From the microscopic form of Ohm’s law, connected in series. (i) Potential difference across each resistance
𝑽 will be the same (V)
𝑱= 𝝈𝑬= 𝝈  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
𝒍 this combination. (ii) But current flows through different resistors
 By definition, the current density is  In Series connection, will be different.
𝐈  Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 be the currents flow through
𝑱= (i) Current through each resistor will be same (I)
𝑨 (ii) But potential difference across different 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law
 Hence, resistor will be different. 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I 𝑉 𝐼1 = ; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 =
= 𝜎  Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐴 𝑙 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law  Hence the total current will be,
𝑙
∴ 𝑉=I [ ] 𝑉1 = 𝐼 𝑅1 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝜎𝐴 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + +
𝑽 = 𝐈𝑹 𝑉2 = 𝐼 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝒍 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅3 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Where, = 𝑅 → Resistance of the conductor 𝑰= 𝑽 [ + + ] − − − − (𝟏)
𝝈𝑨  Total potential difference, 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
 This is called macroscopic form of Ohm’s law. 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝐼 𝑅3  Let 𝑹𝑷 be the equivalent resistance in parallel
𝑽 = 𝑰 [𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ] − − − − (𝟏) connection, then,
 Let 𝑹𝑺 be the equivalent resistance in series 𝑽
connection, then 𝑰= − − − − (2)
𝑹𝑷
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝑹𝑺 − − − − (2)  From equation (1) and (2),
 From equation(1) and (2), we have, 𝑉 1 1 1
𝐼 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ] =𝑉 [ + + ]
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
∴ 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Limittations:  When resistances are connected in series, the ∴ = + +
 From Ohm’s law, the graph between current versus 𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
voltage is straight line with a slope equal to the resistances.  When resistances are connected in parallel, the
inverse of resistance (R) of the conductor. reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the
 The equivalent resistance in series connection will
 Materials for which the current against voltage be greater than each individual resistance. sum of the reciprocal of the values of resistance of
graph is a straight line through the origin are said the individual resistor.
to obey Ohm’s law and their behavior is said to be  The equivalent resistance in parallel connection
Ohmic. will be lesser than each individual resistance.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
4. Explain the determination of the internal 5. Explain Kirchoff’s law. 6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in
resistance of a cell using voltmeter. Kirchoff first law (current law) : Wheatstone’s bridge.
Internal resistance of a cell :  It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any Wheatstone’s bridge :
junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0).  An important application
Explanation : of Kirchoff’s laws is the
 It is a statement of Wheatstone’s bridge.
conservation of  It is used to compare
electric charge. resistances and also helps
 Thus all charges in determining the
that enter a given unknown resistance in the
junction in a circuit electrical network
 A real battery is made of electrodes and must leave that  The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R, S
electrolyte. junction. connected as shown.
 There is resistance to the flow of charges within  Current entering the junction is taken as positive  A galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between B and D
the battery and this resistance is called internal and current leaving the junction is taken as  A battery ‘𝜉 ′ is connected between A and C
resistance (r) negative.  Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , 𝐼4 currents through various branches
 The emf of the cell is measured by connecting  Applying this law at junction ‘A’ and 𝐼𝐺 be the current through the galvanometer.
high resistance voltmeter across it without 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0  Applying Kirchoff’s current law at B and D,
connecting the external resistance R (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − − (1)
 This circuit may be considered as open, the Kirchoff second law (voltage law) : 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − − (2)
voltmeter reading gives the emf (𝜉) of the cell.  It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum  Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA,
 Then external resistance is included in the circuit of the products of the current and reistance of 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 − − − − (3)
and current ‘I’ is established in the circuit. each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼4 𝑆 = 0 − − − − (4)
 This circuit is then considered as close, the included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝝃)  At balanced condition, the potential at B and D are
voltmeter reading gives the potential difference Explanation : same, and hence the galvanometer shows zero
(V) across ‘R’ deflection. So 𝑰𝑮 = 𝟎
𝑉
 By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 (or) 𝐼 =  Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3)
𝑅
 Due to internal resistance of the cell, the 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − − − − (5)
voltmeter reads the value “V” which is less than 𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼2 = 𝐼 4 − − − − (6)
the emf 𝜉 𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 − − − − (7)
 It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir) has  Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)
dropped across the internal resistance ‘r’. Hence 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0
𝑉 = 𝜉−𝐼𝑟 − − − − (2) 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) − 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) = 0
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐼𝑟= 𝜉−𝑉 ∴ 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) − − − − (8)
 It is a statement of conservation of energy for an
𝝃−𝑽 𝝃−𝑽 isolated system.  Divide equation (8) by (7)
∴ 𝒓= = [ ]𝑹 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝑰 𝑽  The product ‘IR’ is taken as positive when we =
 Since 𝜉 , V and R are known, internal resistance proceed along the direction of current and taken 𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅
‘r’ and total current ‘I’ can be determined. as negative when we proceed opposite to the 𝑃 + 𝑄 𝑅 + 𝑆
=
 The power delivered to the circuit is, direction of current. 𝑃 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝜉 = 𝐼 ( 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑟) = 𝐼 (𝐼 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑟) 𝑄 𝑆
 Simillarly, the emf is considered as positive, when 1+ =1+
𝟐 𝟐 𝑃 𝑅
𝑷= 𝑰 𝑹+ 𝑰 𝒓 we proceed from negative to positive terminal of
where , 𝐼 2 𝑅 → power deliverd to R 𝑄 𝑆
the cell and as negative, when we proceed from =
𝐼 2 𝑟 → power deliverd to 𝑟 positive to negative terminal of the cell. 𝑃 𝑅
𝑷 𝑹
(𝑜𝑟) = − − − − (𝟗)
𝑸 𝑺
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) webStrake 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
7. Explain the determination of unknown resistance 8. How the emf of two cells are compared using
using meterbridge. potentiometer?
Meterbridge: Comparision of emf of two cells :

 Metrebridge is another form of Wheatstone’s  With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found out
 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery and balancing length CJ = 𝑙1 is measured.
bridge (Bt) and a key (K) in series. This is the primary
 It consists of uniform manganin wire AB of 1m  By the principle,
circuit. 𝜉 ∝ 𝑙1 − − − −(1)
length.  The end C is connected to central terminal M of
 This wire is stretched along a metre scale between  A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is
DPDT switch and another central terminal N is closed.
two copper strips C and D connected to jockey through a galvanometer G
 E is another copper strip mounted with two gaps  The current flows through R and cell is,
and high reistance HR. This is the secondary 𝜉
G1 and G2 circuit. 𝐼=
 An unknown resistance P is connected in G1 and 𝑅+𝑟
 The cell whose emf 𝜉1 and 𝜉2 to be compared are  Hence potential difference across R
standard resistance connected in G2 connected to 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 of DPDT switch. 𝜉
 A jockey J is connected from E through a  Initially the cell of emf 𝜉1 is included in the 𝑉 =𝐼𝑅= 𝑅
galvanometer G and high resistance HR. 𝑅+𝑟
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙1 is  For this potential difference, again the balancing
 A Lechlanche cell 𝜉 and key K is connected across found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection. point J is found out and the balancing length
the bridge wire.  Simillarly the cell of emf 𝜉2 is included in the CJ = 𝑙2 is measured.
 The position of jockey is adjusted so that the secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙2 is  By the principle,
galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point found. 𝜉
be ‘J’  Let ‘r’ be the resistance per unit length and ‘I’ be 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙2 − − − −(2)
 The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance 𝑅+𝑟
the primary current, then by the principle  Divide equation (1) by (2)
R and S of the Wheatstone’s bridge. Then 𝜉1 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 − − − − (1) 𝜉 𝑙1
𝑃 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴𝐽 𝜉2 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 − − − − (2) =
= =  𝜉 𝑙2
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝐽𝐵  Divide equantion (1) by (2), ( 𝑅)
𝑅+𝑟
Where 𝑅 → resistance per unit length 𝜉1 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1
𝑷 𝑨𝑱 𝒍𝟏 = =
𝜉2 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 𝑅 𝑙2
= = − − − −(𝟏)
𝑸 𝑱𝑩 𝒍𝟐 𝝃𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝑟 𝑙1
𝒍𝟏 = − − − −(𝟑) 1+ =
(𝒐𝒓) 𝑷= 𝑸 − − − −(𝟐) 𝝃 𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝑅 𝑙2
𝒍𝟐 9. Explain the method of measurement of internal 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙2
 Due to imperfect contace of wire at its ends, some resistance of a cell using potentio meter. = −1=
𝑅 𝑙2 𝑙2
resistance might be introduced at the contact. Internal resistance by potentiometer : 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
These are called end resistances.  Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery 𝒓=𝑹 [ ] − − − (𝟑)
𝒍𝟐
 By interchange P and Q,tThis error can be (Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This is the primary  By substituting 𝑅, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 in equation (3) the
eliminated, and the average value of P is found. circuit. internal resistance of the cell can be measured.
 Let 𝑙 be the length and r be the radius of wire, its  The cell 𝜉 whose internal resistance ‘r’ to be  Here the internal reistance is not constant, and it
specific resistance (resistivity) is given be. measured is connected to the secondary circuit. increased with increase of external resistance R.
𝑷𝑨 𝑷 𝝅 𝒓𝟐  A resistance box R and a key K2 is connected
𝝆= = − − − −(𝟑)
𝒍 𝒍 across the cell 𝜉

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502