A5 Biological Science

GENED – BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Anatomy and Physiology
ANATOMY – deals with the structure (morphology) of the body

and its parts. It includes the cells, tissues, and organs that make up
the body and how they are organized in the body.
PHYSIOLOGY – science of life. It is the branch of biology that aims

to understand the mechanisms of living things, from the basis of
cell function at the ionic and molecular level to the integrated
behavior of the whole body and the influence of the external
environment.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
- ANATOMY refers to the internal and external structures of

the body and their physical relationships.
- PHYSIOLOGY refers to the study of the functions of those
structures.
The two disciplines are closely interrelated because the

functional role of a part depends on how it is constructed.
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS:
1. Integumentary System – body covering

2. Skeletal, Muscular System – support and movement
3. Nervous, Endocrine System – integration and coordination
4. Cardiovascular, Lymphatic System – transport
5. Respiratory, Digestive, and Urinary System – absorption
and excretion
6. Reproductive System – reproduction
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- Body’s outer layer.

- It consists of your skin, nails, and glands.
- These organs and structures are your first line defense
against bacteria and help protect you from injury and
sunlight.
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SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Body’s central framework.

- It consists of bones and connective tissue including
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
- Five types of bones in the human skeletal system: long,
short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.
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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- Composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers.

- Muscles are attached to the bones.
- Types of muscular system: Skeletal muscles, Smooth
muscles, and cardiac muscles.
- Allows movement in the body.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Body’s command center.

- Originating from your brain, it controls movements,
thoughts, and automatic responses to the world around
you.
- Four main functions of the nervous system:
1. Control of body’s internal environment to
maintain ‘homeostasis’. An example of this is the
regulation of body temperature.
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2. Programming of spinal cord reflexes.
3. Memory and learning.
4. Voluntary control of movement
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Complex network of glands and organs;

- It uses hormones to control and coordinate your body’s
metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth, and
development.
- Major parts of endocrine system: Hypothalamus, Pituitary,
and Thyroid Gland.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- Made up of the heart and blood vessels, distributes oxygen

and nutrients throughout the body while removing wastes
from the cells.
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LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Consisting of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, and

spleen.
- Drains excess tissue fluid and includes cells of immunity.
- Subsystem of circulatory system in the vertebrate body that
consists of complex network of vessels, tissues, and organs.
- It helps maintain fluid balance in the body by collecting
excess fluid and particulate matter from tissue and
depositing them in the bloodstream.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- The network of organs and tissues that help you breathe.

- It includes your airways, lungs, and blood vessels. The
muscles are also part of the respiratory system.
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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine,

and accessory organs/
- Receives, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients.
URINARY SYSTEM
- Consisting of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

- Removes wastes from the blood and helps to maintain
water and electrolyte balance.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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- The tissues, glands, and organs involved in producing
offspring (children).
- In women, the reproductive system includes the ovaries,
the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina.
In men, it includes the prostate, the testes, and the penis.
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PARTS OF A PLANT
- The basic parts of most land
plants are roots, stems, leaves,
flowers, fruits, and seeds.
- The leaves are where most of
the photosynthesis occurs to make
food for the plant’s growth. The
leaves also help the plant maintain
proper water balance through
openings on their underside called
stomata.
PARTS OF A FLOWER
- There are commonly four distinct whorls of flower parts:

(1) An outer calyx consisting of sepals; within it lies
(2) The corolla, consisting of petals;
(3) The androecium, or group of stamens; and in the
center is
(4) The gynoecium, consisting of pistils
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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Ecology
ECOLOGY – the scientific study of interactions between organisms

and their environment, focusing on energy transfer; A science of
relationships.
ENVIRONMENT – it is made up of two factors:
(1) Biotic Factors – all living organisms inhabiting the Earth.

(2) Abiotic Factors – non-living parts of the environment (i.e.,
temperature, soil, light, moisture, and air currents).
ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
(1) Organism – any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting

all the characteristics of life an individual.
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(2) Population – a group of organisms of one species living in
the same place and at the same, that interbreed, produce
fertile offspring, compete with each other for resources
(food, mates, shelter, etc.)
(3) Community – several interacting populations that inhabit a
common environment and are interdependent.
(4) Ecosystem – populations in a community and the abiotic
factors with which they interact, e.g., marine, terrestrial.
(5) Biosphere – life supporting of Earth composed of air, land,
fresh water, and salt water; highest level of organization.
HABITATS vs. NICHE
HABITAT – The place in which an organism lives out its life.
Examples of limiting factors:
1. Amount of water
2. Amount of food
3. Temperature
4. Amount of space
5. Availability of mates
NICHE – The role a species plays in a community. Its total way of

life. It is determined by the tolerance limitations of an organism or
a limiting factor.
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ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
- Organisms form relationships with each other because

they are connected.
- Some organisms compete against other organisms for
resources or space.
- Other organisms depend on each other to survive.
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
- Symbiosis, is a close ecological relationship between the

individuals of two (or more) different species.
Types of Symbiosis:
1. Mutualism, both species benefit

2. Commensalism, one benefits, other is unaffected.
3. Parasitism, one benefits, other is harmed.
4. Competition, neither benefit.
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
- Dictates the flow of energy and matter in an ecosystem.
Types of Feeding Relationships:
1. Producer – Consumer
2. Predator – Prey
3. Parasite- Host
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PRODUCER
- All autotrophs (plants)

- They trap energy from the sun.
- Bottom of the food chain.
CONSUMER
- All heterotrophs
- They ingest food containing the sun’s energy.
- (Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and decomposers)
1. PRIMARY CONSUMERS APEX PREDATORS

Eat plants called herbivores
EAT PRODUCERS
2. SECONDARY, TERTIARY… CONSUMERS
Omnivores. Carnivores, predators, scavengers and
decomposers.
TROPHIC LEVELS
- Represent a feeding step in the transfer of energy and

matter in an ecosystem.
Each link in a food chain, food web or ecological pyramid is

known as a trophic level.
As you move up a level, both available energy and biomass

decrease.
Energy is transferred upwards but is diminished with each

transfer.
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FOOD CHAIN - A simple model that
Shows how matter and energy move
through an ecosystem.
BIOMES
- A distinct biogeographical unit

consisting of a biological
community that has formed in
response to a shared regional climate.
TYPES OF BIOMES
1. Terrestrial Biomes
- Tropical Rainforest
Warm temperature, rainfall is 200 – 400 cm/yr., highest level
of numbers of trophic levels, most complex terrestrial
biome, organisms; plants (many varieties), animals (highest
variety).
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- Temperate Forest
Seasons, rainfall is 200 cm/yr., good regeneration from
human impact, organisms; plants (flowering seasonal
trees), animals (insects, birds, rodents and deer)
- Desert
High temperature fluctuations, unpredictable rainfall,
driest terrestrial biome, organisms; plants (deep rooted,
water, storing, CAM plants), animals (behaviorally
adapted insects, reptiles and mammals)
- Tundra
Long bitter winter, short summer, high moisture levels but no
trees, organisms; plants (seasonal grass), animals (grazing
migratory herds)
() Permafrost prevents root growth.
- Taiga (Boreal Forest)

Long cold winters, short wet summers, most precipitation
in form of snow, organisms; plants (cone bearing
evergreens) animals (large grazing animals like moose, elk
and deer)
- Grassland
Seasonal weather, rainfall is 30 to 50 cm/yr., organisms;
plants (grasses), animals (large herbivore and their
predators)
- Savanna
Warm temperature, rainfall is 30 to 50 cm/yr., seasonal
droughts and fires, organism’s plants (grass, sparse trees),
animals (large herbivores and predators)
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2. Aquatic Biomes
- Freshwater
Low concentration of salt, includes most ponds, streams,
lakes and rivers.
- Marine
Largest biome in the world, includes the 5 major oceans
(Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic and Arctic Ocean),
high level of salt.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
- The process of change in the species structure of an

ecological community over time. Two Types; Primary and
Secondary.
Primary Succession – the process of creating in an area where

no life previously existed.
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Secondary Succession – the process of restabilization that follows
a disturbance in an area where life has formed an ecosystem.
GLOBAL WARMING
- Long term heating of Earth’s climate system observed

since the pre-industrial period. (Between 1850-1900) due to
human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which
increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s
atmosphere.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
- A process that occurs when energy from a planet’s sun

goes through its atmosphere and warms the planet’s
surface, but the atmosphere prevents the heat from
returning directly to space, resulting in a warmer planet.
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GREENHOUSE GASES
- Methane (CH4)
- Nitrous Oxide (N20)
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Ozone (O3)
- Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
- Carbon Monoxide (CO)
- Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
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INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
- Big Bang Theory was credited to Fred Hoyle based on the

theory that all matter was created in one big bang.
- First organisms (living things) were single celled.
- Organisms changed over time (evolved).
- New organisms arose from older kinds.
- Today there are millions of species.
- They inhabit almost every region of Earth today.
THE SCIENCES OF LIFE
• Botany – study of plants.

• Zoology study of animal life/animal science.
• Anatomy – identification and description of the structures
of living things.
• Biochemistry – study of chemical processes within and
relating to living organisms.
• Ecology – study of the relationships between living
organisms, including humans, and their physical
environments.
• Pathology – study of disease, the causes and effects of
disease or injury.
• Phytopathology – study of plant diseases.
• Physiology – study of animal and human function.
• Taxonomy – study of classifying, naming, and defining
groups of biological organisms; system of classification.
• Genetics – study of genes, genetic variations, and heredity
in organisms.
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• Embryology – study of the prenatal development of
gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and
fetuses.
• Pharmacology – study of drugs and their actions to living
systems.
• Endocrinology – study that deals with the endocrine
system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as
hormones.
• Cytology – study of individual cells of the body.
• Histology – study of the composition and structure of plant
and animal tissues in relation to their specialized functions.
• Protozoology – study of protozoans (single celled
organisms).
• Bacteriology – study of bacteria.
• Mammalogy – study of mammals.
• Ornithology – study of birds.
• Ichthyology – study of fishes.
• Virology – study of viruses.
• Helminthology – study of worms.
• Herpetology – study of reptiles and amphibians.
• Mycology – study of fungi
• Phycology -
• Biogeography – study of geographical distribution of plants
and animals.
• Entomology – study of insects.
• Microbiology – study of microorganisms or microbes.
MILESTONE IN BIOLOGY
- The Human Genome Project is a global, long term research

effort to identify the estimates 50,000 – 10,000 genomes in
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human DNA and to figure out the sequences of the
chemical bases that make up human DNA.
- Stem Cell Technology is a rapidly developing field that
combines the efforts of cell biologists, geneticists, and
clinicians and offers hope of effective treatment for a
variety of malignant and non-malignant diseases.
Healing Potential of Adult Stem Cells
o Muscle Loss
o Hair Loss
o Bone Loss
o Tooth Loss
o Hearing Loss
o Vision Loss
o Skin Renewal
o Cardiovascular Repair
o Joint and Organ Repair
o Neural Dysfunction
o Immune Dysfunction
o Metabolic Disorders
- Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering
principles and design concepts to medicine and biology
for healthcare purposes (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic).
- Genetic Engineering
o Cloning – one of the most controversial uses of
genetic engineering has been cloning or producing
a genetically identical copy of an organism. While
the ethics of cloning are hotly debated, the first ever
sheep (named Dolly) was cloned in 1997 by the
scientists.
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o Dolly The Sheep – was the first mammal cloned from
an adult cell. She was born in 1996 and died in 2003.
She was 6 when she died, about half the usual age
for a sheep.
THE WORLD OF BIOLOGY
- Living Things. Some organisms are composed of a single

cell. Other organisms are composed of many cells.
UNIFYING THEMES IN BIOLOGY
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Cell is the basic unit of life.

- All organisms are made and develop from cells.
- Some composed of only single cell (unicellular) which is
usually identical to parent.
- Most organisms are composed of many cells (multicellular).
- Cells are different (undergo differentiation).
- Cells are small.
- Cells are highly organized.
- Cells contains specialized structures (organelles) that carry
out the cell’s life processes.
- Many different kinds of cells exist.
- All cells surrounded by a plasma membrane (cell
membrane).
- Contain a set of instructions called DNA (genetic
information).
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STABILITY AND HOMEOSTASIS
- Organisms must maintain very stable internal conditions –

HOMEOSTASIS.
- Temperature, water content, chemical, content, etc. must
be maintained.
REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE
- All organisms produce new organisms like themselves –

REPRODUCE.
- Organisms transmit information to their offspring –
INHERITANCE.
DNA
- Genetic information in all cells.

- Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
- DNA contains instructions for traits – GENES.
- Make the structures and complex chemicals necessary for
life – PROTEINS.
- DNA in every body cell (SOMATIC CELLS) is exactly alike.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Hereditary information from two different organisms of the

same species are combined.
- Egg and sperm → zygote (fertilized egg)
- Zygote contains hereditary information from both parents.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Hereditary information from one, usually unicellular,

organism that divides.
- Resulting cells contain identical hereditary information.
- Genetic information from single parent.
NATURAL SELECTION
- Natural Selection is the driving force of evolution.

- Organisms that have certain favorable traits are better
able to successfully reproduce than organisms that lack
these traits.
INTERDEPENDENCE OF ORGANISM
- Interaction of organisms with one another with their

environment – ECOLOGY.
- Insects and flowers depend on each other for food and
pollination – COEVOLUTION.
- All organisms need substances such as nutrients, water,
and gases from the environment.
- The stability of the environment depends on the healthy
functioning of organisms in that environment.
EVOLUTION
- Populations of organisms change (evolve) over

generations (time).
- Explains how many different kinds of organisms came into
existence – SPECIES.
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- Explains how modern organisms are related to past
organisms.
- Explains why organisms look and behave the way they do.
- Provides a basis for exploring the relationships among
different groups of organisms.
MATTER, ENERGY, AND ORGANIZATION
- Living things are highly organized.

- Require a constant supply of energy to maintain their
orderly state.
- ALL energy comes from the SUN (directly or indirectly)/
- Photosynthesis is the process by which some organisms
capture the energy from the sun (solar) and transform it
into energy (chemical) that can be used by living things.
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon Dioxide + Water → Sugar + Oxygen
Light Energy
AUTOTROPHS
- Organisms that make their own food are called autotrophs

- Phototrophs use solar energy (photosynthesis) to get
energy.
- Convert H2) and CO2 into sugar and O2.
- Chemotrophs use different chemical processes to get
energy.
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HETEROTROPHS
- Organisms must take in food to meet their energy needs

are called heterotrophs.
- Consume autotrophs (herbivores), other heterotrophs
(carnivores) or both (omnivores) for their energy needs.
- Complex chemicals are broken down and reassembled
into chemicals and structures needed by the organisms.
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE IN LIVING STATE
Inorganic Substances
1. Water
2. Carbon Dioxide
3. Acid, Base and Salts
4. Other inorganic substances
Organic Compounds
1. Proteins
2. Nucleic Acid
3. Carbohydrates
4. Lipids
BASICS OF CHEMISTRY
Element – substance that can’t be broken down by chemical

processes into simpler substance.
Compound – two or more elements combined chemically.
- Properties of the elements change once combined.

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Organic Compounds
- Molecules of life (carbos, protein, lipids, nucleic acids).

- Contain the element carbon, hydrogen.
CARBOHYDRATES
- Include sugars, starches, cellulose.

- Contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H). and oxygen (O).
- Provide 4 calories of energy per gram.
- Called monomers
- Glucose, fructose, sucrose.
Monosaccharide
- Building blocks of larger more complex carbohydrates

(MACROMOLECULES).
- Glucose (Major source of cellular energy), fructose.
- Formula: C6H12O6
- Quick energy: 20 minutes to turn into energy.
Disaccharides
- Compound of two sugars combined.

- Formula: C11H22O11
- Sources: sugar, milk sugar, malt sugar.
- Sucrose, lactose, maltose.
Polysaccharides
- Formula: C60+H110+O55+
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- Starch is in cereal grains (wheat, oats, rye, barley,
buckwheat, rice, etc.), potatoes and legumes (beans,
peas, lentils).
- Fiber is in whole grains (whole-grain bread, brown rice,
etc.) and legumes.
- Glycogen
o Made for the purpose of short-term energy storage.
o Stored in liver and muscles.
- Chitin
o Forms of exoskeleton or arthropods.
o Lobsters, insects, crabs.
LIPIDS
- 3 fatty acids are key components of many lipids.

- Glycerol found in lipids glycerides.
- Immiscible with water.
- Includes fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.
- Provide:
o Long-term energy storage (fat, oil).
o Protection from water or waterproofing (wax).
o Structure for cells (phospholipids)
o Fats have most energy per gram (9 cal/gram).
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Unsaturated Fatty Acids are liquid at room temperature. Carbon
chains have double bonds. Examples: Fat of plants and fish.
Saturated Fatty Acids are solid at room temperature and carbon

chains contain only single bonds. Examples: animal fat products
such as cream, cheese, butter, other whole milk dairy products,
and fatty meats which also contain dietary cholesterol.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA encode genetic

information for synthesis of all proteins. Blueprint.
EVOLUTION
- Change over time. It is the process by which modern

organisms have descended from ancient organisms.
- A scientific theory is a well-supported testable explanation
of phenomena that have occurred in the natural world.
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LAMARCK’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION
Lamarck’s Theory of Use and Disuse
- Jean Baptiste de Lamarck: French Biologist

- He observed that the fossil records shown that organisms in
the past are different from the present and surviving
organism are adapted to their environment.
- Organisms develop specialized characteristics by
necessity of use of organs and might disappear due to
disuse. Example: Giraffe’s long neck.
DARWIN’S THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION
- Species have the ability to produce a large number of

offspring.
- The resources of natural world are limited.
- Because of the limited resources, organisms compete and
those that can adapt continue to live.
- No two individuals are exactly alike. Many traits are
inherited by chance distribution.
- Organisms that have survived and produced offspring are
those that have inherited beneficial traits for survival.
- The population gradually becomes better adapted to the
environment as the evolution continues.
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MECHANISM OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION
Forces that cause populations and species to evolve.
- Variation and Natural Selection – favors beneficial

variation and eliminate harmful to the organisms.
- Genetic Drift – accidental changes in frequency of genes
for certain traits that may occur when individual become
isolated from a population.
- Migration – movement of the organisms from one location
to another.
- Adaptive Radiation – rapid multiplication or related species
with specialization to fit a particular ecological role.
- Allopatric Speciation – development of species as result of
geographical isolation that prevent interbreeding.
- Mutation – abrupt but stable change of a gene that result
in heritable modification of a trait that cause change in life
forms.
Types of Mutations
o Missense – change in one DNA base pair that results

in substitution of one amino acid.
o Silent-altered – DNA sequence signals the cell to
stop building protein.
o Insertion – plus one piece of DNA.
o Deletion – removing one piece of DNA.
o Duplication – DNA copied one or more times.
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DIVERSITY OF LIFE FORMS
- PLANTAE
- FUNGI
- ANIMALIA
- PROTISTA
- MONERA
THE NEW 6TH KINGDOM SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
- PLANTAE: multicellular, eukaryotic.

- ANIMALIA: multicellular, eukaryotic.
- FUNGI: eukaryotic, unicellular and multicellular.
- EUBACTERIA: unicellular, prokaryotic.
- ARCHAEBACTERIA: unicellular, prokaryotic.
KINGDOM PLANTAE
- Most of the plants are eukaryotic and chlorophyll

containing organisms.
- Cell walls of plant cells are comprised of cellulose.
- They have an ability to grown by cell division.
- In life cycle of plant cells, the interchanges occur from the
embryos and are supported by other tissues and self-
produce.
- Plants have both organs and organ systems.
- They obtain their energy from sun through photosynthesis.
- Plans reproduce both by sexual and asexual.
- Plants develop a self-defense mechanism to protect them
from being destroyed by animals, fungi, and other plants.
- Organisms within Kingdom Plantae are multicellular,
eukaryotic, and autotrophic.
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- They lack motility.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
- The major group of animals are classified under the

Kingdom Animalia, also known as Metazoa. ASCOMYCETES
- This kingdom does not contain prokaryotes. All the
members of this kingdom are multicellular, eukaryotes.
- They are heterotrophs, they depend on other organisms
directly or indirectly for food.
- Most of the animals ingest food and digest in the internal
cavity.
- Most organisms are motile which means they can move
independently and spontaneously.
- There are around 9 to 10 million species of animals, and
about 800,000 species are identified.
- Fossil records of animals were found in the era of the
Cambrian explosion, about 540 million years ago.
- Animals are divided into various sub-groups, biologists
have identified about 36 phyla within the animal kingdom
including birds, mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians, etc.
KINGDOM FUNGI
- Includes a vast variety of organisms such as mushroom,

yeasts, and molds, made up of feathery filaments called
hyphae (collectively called mycelium).
- Fungi are multicellular eukaryotic. They are also
heterotrophs, and gain nutrition through absorption.
- Phycomycetes (Lower Fungi): Rhizopus.
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- Ascomycetes (Sac Fungi): Neurospora.
- Basidiomycetes (Club Fungi): Agaricus.
- Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti): Fusarium.
- Classification of Fungi
Fungi
Sexual Sexual Reproduction

Reproduction Absent
Present
DEUTEROMYCETES
Mycelium Mycelium Aseptate

Septate
PHYCOMYCETES
BASIDOMYCETES
KINGDOM PROTISTA
- All single celled organisms are placed under the Kingdom

Protista.
- The term “protista” was first used by Ernst Haeckel in the
year 1886.
- This kingdom forms a link between other kingdoms of
plants, animals, and fungi.
- Protists represent an important step in early evolution. The
first protists evolved probably 1.7 billion years ago.
- Members of protista are primarily aquatic in nature. It is a
very large group comprising of at least 16 phyla.
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- Many protists like algae are the primary producers in the
aquatic ecosystem, some protists are responsible for
serious human diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness.
KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
- Bacteria are microscopic organisms that comprise the

domain Eubacteria.
o A domain is the highest grouping of organisms,
superseding the level of kingdom in the classical
Linnaean System of Biological Classification.
- There are three domains, two or which, Eubacteria and
Archaea, are composed of entirely of prokaryotic
organisms; the third domain, Eucarya, encompasses all
other (eukaryotic) life forms, including the single-cell and
multicellular cell protists, as well as animals, green plants
and fungi.
- Unlike eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells lack nuclei and
other organelles, and tend to be less complex.
- Eubacteria can easily withstand the hostile environment
created by volcanic activities.
- Eubacteria are differentiated from archaea primarily
based on chemical composition of cellular constituents.
For example, bacterial cell walls are composed of
peptidoglycan (though there are examples of bacteria
that lack cell walls) while archaeal cell walls are composed
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of a protein – carbohydrate molecule called
pseudopeptidoglycan or other molecules.
- Bacterial cell membranes are composed of fatty acids
joined to glycerol by ester bonds (COOC), while archaeal
membranes are composed of isoprenoids rather than
glycerol, linked to fatty acids by ether bonds (COC). In
addition, the archaea have a more complex ribonucleic
acid (RNA) polymerase than bacteria.
KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA
Ancient Bacteria, 3 types:
- Methanogens – produce methane gas. Helps breakdown

organic material that would otherwise pollute water
sources and lead to environmental degradation.
- Halophiles – “salt-loving”. Found on areas with high salt
concentration, use salt to generate ATP.
- Thermophiles – means “heat-loving”. They often found in
hot springs and convert into sulphur to produce food.
SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
A. KINGDOM – animalia.
o Animals. Organisms that are able to move on their
own.
B. PHYLUM – chordata.
o Chordates. Animals with backbone.
C. CLASS – mammalia.
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o Mammals. Chordates with fur or hair and milk
glands.
D. ORDER – carnivora.
o Primates. Mammals with collarbone and grasping
fingers.
E. FAMILY – felidae.
o Hominids. Primates with relatively flat faces and
three-dimensional vision.
F. GENUS – panthera.
o Homo. Hominids with upright posture and large
brains.
G. SPECIES – panthera pardus.
o Homo sapiens. Member of the genus Homo with a
high forehead and skull bones.
EARLY DISCOVERIES ON THE CELL
Robert Hooke – examine thin slice of cork from three bark –

observe tiny compartment.
Felix Dujardin – discovered internal substance – sarcode.
Robert Brown – discovered nucleus.
CELL THEORY
Matthias Schleiden – all plants are made of cells.
Theodor Schwann – all animals are composed of cell.
Rudolf Virchow – living cells come from pre-existing living cells.
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PROKARYOTIC CELL – any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus

and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS – any cell or organism that possesses a clearly

defined nucleus. The eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane
that surrounds the nucleus, in which the well-defined
chromosomes (bodies containing the hereditary material) are
located.
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PLANT CELLS - the basic unit of all plants.
Plant cells, like animal cells, are eukaryotic,
meaning they have a membrane-bound
nucleus and organelles. Plant cell walls
are composed of cellulose, which sets
them apart from other organisms with cell
walls, such as bacteria (peptidoglycan)
and fungi (chitin).
ANIMAL CELLS – are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a

plasma membrane and containing a membrane-bound nucleus
and organelles. Specialized cells that formed nerves and
muscles—tissues impossible for plants to evolve—gave these
organisms mobility.
41
CELL DIFFERENTIATION – is the process by which dividing cells
change their functional or phenotypical type. All cells presumably
derive from stem cells and obtain their functions as they mature.
... For instance, the cells in a stem cell population differentiate into
multiple cells but maintain their number by self-renewal.
PARTS OF THE CELL
- Cilia and Flagella are motile extensions from the cell.

Shorter cilia re abundant on the free surfaces of certain
epithelial cells (respiratory linings), and a lengthy flagellum
can be found on sperm cells.
- The cytoplasm consists of a clear liquid (cytosol), a
supportive cytoskeleton, and networks of membranes and
organelles.
Cell Membrane
- Regulates the movement of substances in and out of the

cell, participates in signal transduction, and helps cells
adhere to other cells. It is selectively permeable.
- Plasma membrane encloses cell and cell organelles.
42
- Made of hydrophobic and hydrophilic components.
o Semi-permeable and fluid-like.
o “lipid bilayer”.
Cytoplasm and organelles
- Cytoplasm is (cytology) the contents of a cell except

for the nucleus it includes cytosol, organelles, vesicles, and
the cytoskeleton.
- Organelle is (label) a specialized structure found inside
cells that carries out a specific life process (eg ribosomes,
vacuoles)
Cell organelles
- Endoplasmic Reticulum – made up of membranes,

flattened sacs, and vesicles, and provides a tubular
transport system inside the cell.
- Ribosomes – protein synthesis.
- Mitochondria – the powerhouse of the cell and contain
enzymes needed for aerobic respiration.
43
- Golgi Bodies – composed of flattened sacs, and refines,
packages, modifies, and delivers proteins.
- Lysosomes – “garbage disposals” of the cell and contain
digestive enzymes to break up old cell components and
bacteria.
- Microbodies – usually a vesicle with a spherical shape,
ranging from 0.2-1.5 micrometers in diameter. Microbodies
are found in the cytoplasm of a cell, but they are only
visible with the use of an electron microscope.
- Cytoskeleton – micro tubules are intermediate filament,
micro trabecular lattices, and microfilament.
- Vacuoles – membrane-bound structures are basically just
enclosed compartments that are filled with both inorganic
and organic molecule, along with water to support the
organelle.
- Microfilaments – also called actin filaments, are protein
filaments in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that form part
of the cytoskeleton. Microfilament functions include
cytokinesis, amoeboid movement, cell motility, changes in
cell shape, endocytosis and exocytosis, cell contractility,
and mechanical stability.
- Centrioles – structure made up of two hollow cylinders
called centrioles that functions in the separation of
chromosomes during cell division.
- Plastids – generally involved either the manufacture or
storage of food, they include chloroplasts, chromoplasts,
and leucoplasts.
- Peroxisomes – contain enzymes that function in the
synthesis of bile acids, breakdown of lipids, degradation of
rare biochemicals, and detoxification of alcohol.
44
Nucleus
- A membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's

chromosomes. Pores in the nuclear membrane allow for
the passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus.
OSMOTIC PROPERTIES OF THE CELL
Osmotic Pressure – a pressure that would be required to stop

water from diffusing through a barrier by osmosis.
- Osmosis (Greek, osmos, “to push”)

o Movement of water down its concentration
gradient.
45
- Hydrostatic pressure
o Movement of water causes fluid mechanical
pressure.
o Pressure gradient across semi-permeable
membrane.
- No osmotic pressure
o Cell is in an isotonic solution.
o Water does not cross membrane.
- Increased osmotic pressure in cytoplasm

o Cell is in a hypotonic solution.
o Water enters cell, swelling.
- Decreased osmotic pressure in cytoplasm

o Cell is in a hypertonic solution.
o Water leaves cell, shrinking.
46
CELL LYSIS
- Lysis refers to the breaking down of the cell, often by viral,

enzymic, or osmotic mechanisms that compromise its
integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is
called “lysate”.
- Cell lysis is used to break open cells to avoid shear forces
that would denature or degrade sensitive proteins and
DNA.
CELL PERMEABILITY
- Passive Transport
o Channels or pores
- Facilitated Transport
o Assisted by membrane-floating proteins
- Active transport pumps and carriers
o ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is required
o Enzymes and reactions may be required.
47
Sodium Potassium Pump
- Against their electrochemical gradients.

- For every 3 ATP, 3 NA+ out, 2 K+ in.
EXOCYTOSIS – membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane,

releases enclosed material to extracellular space.
ENDOCYTOSIS – cell membrane invaginates, pinches in, creates

vesicles enclosing contents. Pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
48
CELL LOCOMOTION
Significance:
- Host defense
- Angiogenesis
- Wound healing
- Cancer metastasis
- Tissue engineering
CYTOSKELETON
- A component of structural functions is critical to cell

motility.
- Cells have three types of filaments that are distinguishable
by the diameter.
- Actin filaments (microfilaments): 5-9nm diameter with
twisted strands.
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
49
50
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Types of Asexual Reproduction
- Prokaryotes reproduce by BINARY FISSION.

- FISSION: example, Amoebas.
- BUDDING hydra and yeast.
- FRAGMENTATION: starfish, planaria. The body breaks into
pieces that eventually develop into complete adult
organisms.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Organisms that have a male and female reproduce

sexually:
51
o Each produces sex cell, each with one copy of their
DNA.
o When they join, fertilization occurs.
o The offspring is a mix of its parents, having received
half of its genes from each one.
- Small differences accumulate, so descendants can be
very different from ancestors.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
- ZYGOTE – the new cell formed by the process of fertilization.

- GAMETE – a specialized cell for reproduction.
- HAPLOID – having a single set of chromosomes; the haploid
number for a human is 23.
- DIPLOID – having two sets of chromosomes; the diploid
number for human is 46.
- SPERMS – the gametes in male
- EGGS – the gametes in female.
- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION – reproductive process involving
two sexes and resulting in offspring genetically different
from both parents.
- FERTILIZATION – the process by which gametes from two
parents combine to form one new cell.
- CHROMOSOME – double stranded thread-liked structure
that carries genetic material.
- ZONA PELUCIDA – a thick transparent envelope that
surrounds a developing ovum, allowing only one sperm cell
through fertilize the ovum.
GENETICS – science deals with the study of inherited traits.
52
TRAIT – is any characteristics that can be passed from parents to
offspring.
- Blended trait was believed to b e passed on the next

generation. This hypothesis was accepted for many years.
HYBRID – an organism that receives different genetic information

for a trait from a parent.
PARENTAL GENERATION (P) – considered as the pure-bred plants.
FIRST FILIAL OR FIRST OFFSPRING GENERATION (F1) – offspring
F2 GENERATION – hybrid plants that are self-fertilized.
MENDEL’S OBSERVATION
- Gregor Mendel, mathematician. 1865: Mendel’s Peas.

- He observed that F1 hybrids were as tall as the parental
plants.
- When F1 were self-fertilized, the trait for shortness
reappeared. F2 generation consisted of about ¾ tall plants
and ¼ short plants. With a ration of 3:1.
- Dominant Trait – a trait that showed in a hybrid.
- Recessive Trait – a trait that did not show in the hybrid.
- In the experiment the tallness was dominant, and shortness
was recessive.
GENETIC TERMINOLOGIES
- Alleles for certain traits are often represented by letters.

o Dominant Trait – represented by capital letter.
53
o Recessive Trait – represented by small letter.
Ex. Tallness – Dominant : T Recessive – t
- Diploid organisms have two allele trait.
o Genotype – actual genetic makeup of an organism.
Ex. Pure-bred tall – TT
Pure-bred short – tt
Hybrid Pea Plants – Tt
o Phenotype – the form of the trait that is observed.
Ex. TT is tall, tt is short, Tt is tall because T is dominant over t.
HUMAN GENETICS
EPISTASIS – mode of inheritance whereby one gene interferes with

the expression of another gene that is independently inherited.
PEDIGREE – describing the interrelationship of parents and children

across the generations. It helps to understand the past and
predict the future.
INHERITED DISORDERS IN HUMAN
RECESSIVELY INHERITED DISORDERS – range in severity from

handicaps to deadly diseases. It shows up only in the homozygous
individuals who inherit one recessive allele from each parent. Ex.
Albinism, cystic fibrosis.
DOMINANTLY INHERITED DISORDERS – classified if a single copy is

sufficient to significantly affect phenotype. Ex. Huntington’s
disease, Alzheimer’s disease, manic-depressive disease.
54
THE SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
There are 11 major organ systems in the human body which

include the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, nervous,
and endocrine systems.
The immune, integumentary, skeletal, muscle, and reproductive

systems are also part of the human body.
Integumentary System
- It serves mainly for protection and covering.

- For sensation for it contains millions of nerve endings.
- It regulates body temperature.
- For excretion – sweat also contains extra salt and water as
released through perspiration.
- It synthesizes Vitamin D.
- Sweat glands in humans cools the body.
- Sebaceous Glands – secretes fatty, oily substance that
keeps the skin and hair pliable.
- Subcutaneous fats in seals and whales insulates the body
and keep it warm.
- Pigment is scattered throughout the skin and is
concentrated in the epidermis.
- Keratin – a tough fibrous protein accumulates in interior of
the cells. Process is called keratinization and the
transformed is said to be cornified.
- Stratum Corneum is consists of cornified cells which are
highly resistant to abrasion and water diffusion.
- Areas exposed to pressure or friction such as calluses in
human palms and soles have thick epidermal layer.
55
- Chromatophores – special pigment scattered through the
layers of the epidermis in mammals.
- Melanin – a group of black and brown pigments.
- Melanophores – melanin deposited in growing hair giving
colors to mammals.
- Xanthophores – causes yellow and red colors.
- Iridophores – contain crystals of guanine and other purine.
With silvery or metallic effect.
- Epidermal products: hair and nails.
- Burn classification (first, second, third degree).
- Diseases of the Skin
o Psoriasis – a chronic skin condition that causes your
skin cell production to speed up. The overactive cell
production cause your skin to develop red patches
and plaques, often with whitish-silvery scales. These
patches and scales may be sore, itchy, and even
painful.
o Skin Cancer – a disease which cancerous cells
develop in your skin’s tissues. Skin cancer is the most
common type of cancer in America today. It affects
5 million Americans each year. There are 3 types of
skin cancer:
▪ Basal Cell Cancer – most often develop on
areas of skin exposed to the sun, such as the
face.
▪ Squamous Cell Cancer – develops in
squamous cells that make up the middle and
outer layers of skin. It is not life-threatening,
but it can be aggressive.
▪ Melanoma – begins in the cell (melanocytes)
that control the pigment in skin.
56
Skeletal System
- Two types of skeletal system:

o Exoskeleton – located outside the body.
o Endoskeleton – found inside the body,
- Two main divisions:
o Axial – forms the vertical axis of the body and
includes the bones of the head, neck, back, and
chest of the body. It consists of 80 bones that
include the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic
cage.
o Appendicular – consists of 126 bones and includes
all bones of the upper and lower limbs.
- Kinds of freely movable joints:
57
o Ball and Socket Joint – acetabulum and head of
femur; glenoid fossa and the head of the humerus.
o Hinge Joint – knee and the elbow.
o Gliding Joint – found at the waist.
o Pivot Joint – one that attaches the two bones of the
forearm at the elbow, enables bones to rotate
around each other.
- Bone Structure:
o Red Bone Marrow – material that produces blood
cells.
o Yellow Bone Marrow – mostly of fat cells often found
in the cavities within shafts of long bones.
o Haversian Canal – circular channels through which
nerves and blood vessels,
o Osteoblasts – make the new bone cells needed for
growth and repair.
- Osteoblast Cells are the bone builders. They are
responsible for creating healthy new bone in the process
called bone ossification.
- Osteoclast Cells are the bone recyclers. They are
responsible for breaking down old and damaged bone in
a process called bone resorption.
- Functions:
o Protects delicate organs such as the brain, heart,
and lungs.
o Provide attachments for muscles, hence aid in
bodily movements.
o Manufacture blood cells – bone marrow.
o Store mineral salts, calcium, and phosphate.
58
Muscular System
- Functions:
o Movement and locomotion.
o Move the skeletal muscles.
o Keep the heart beating.
o Enable internal organs to do their work.
- Parts of the muscle:
o Origin – part of which is immovable.
o Insertion – movable part.
o Belly – fleshy part of the muscle.
- Three types of muscles:
o Skeletal – attached to bones.
o Smooth – involuntary muscle of the internal organs.
o Cardiac – muscles of the heart.
- Two types of muscle action:
o Voluntary – under conscious control.
o Involuntary – not under conscious control.
- Diseases of the muscular system:
o Muscle Pains – a sign of an injury, infection, disease
or other health problem.
o Congenital Muscular Dystrophy – a general term
for a group of genetic muscle diseases that occur
at birth (congenital) or early during infancy.
o Degenerative Muscle Disease
59
Digestive System
- Helps in the process of:

o Ingestion – the act or process of taking in something
for or as if for digestion.
o Mastication – chewing, in which food is crushed and
mixed with saliva to form a bolus for swallowing, is a
complex mechanism involving opening and closing
of the jaw, secretion of saliva, and mixing of food
with the tongue.
o Digestion – the process in the alimentary canal by
which food is broken up physically, as by the action
of the teeth, and chemically, as by the action of
enzymes, and converted into a substance suitable
for absorption and assimilation into the body.
o Absorption – the simple molecules that result from
chemical digestion pass through cell membranes of
the lining in the small intestine into the blood or
lymph capillaries.
o Circulation – the movement in a regular or circuitous
course, as the movement of the blood through the
heart and blood vessels.
o Assimilation – the movement of digested food
molecules into the cells of the body where they are
used. Ex. glucose is used in respiration to provide
energy.
o Oxidation – the process in which a chemical
substance changes because of the addition of
oxygen. The reaction between magnesium metal
and oxygen involves the oxidation of magnesium.
Oxidation is a process in which chemical substance
changes because of the addition of oxygen.
60
o Excretion – the process by which rid waste products
and of the nitrogenous by-products of metabolism.
o Egestion – the act of excreting unusable or
undigested material from a cell, as in the case of
single-celled organisms, or from the digestive tract
of multicellular organisms.
- Digestive Tube – tube-shaped passage including mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines that
is concerned with taking in, breaking down, and absorbing
food and discharging solid waste. digestive tract.
- Chyme – a thick semifluid mass of partially digested food
and digestive secretions that is formed in the stomach and
intestine during digestion.
- Churning – an uncomfortable, agitated sensation caused
by a variety of stomach and intestinal issues. These can
range from indigestion to viruses.
- Pyloric and Esophageal Sphincter – the pyloric sphincter at
the bottom of the stomach governs the passage of food
out of the stomach into the small intestine. The lower
esophageal sphincter at the top of the stomach regulates
food passing from the esophagus into the stomach, and
prevents the contents of the stomach from reentering the
esophagus.
- Pepsin digests protein
- Gastric acid mostly HCI
- Regions of small intestines:
o Duodenum – the first part of the small intestine. It is
located between the stomach and the middle part
of the small intestine, or jejunum. After foods mix with
stomach acid, they move into the duodenum,
61
where they mix with bile from the gallbladder and
digestive juices from the pancreas.
o Jejunum – it absorbs sugars, amino acids, and fatty
acids. Both the jejunum and ileum are peritoneal.
o Ileum – the final section of the small intestine in most
higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles,
and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine
are not as clear and the terms posterior intestine or
distal intestine may be used instead of ileum.
- Large Intestine – portion which extends from the ileum to
anus. Also called colon. It is divided into ascending colon,
transverse, and descending colon, sigmoid colon, and
rectum.
- Disorders of digestive systems:
o Diarrhea – characterized by loose bowel which
accompanied vomiting. It is usually cause by eating
contaminated foods which infect the digestive
tract.
o Constipation – characterized by hard, dry stool, and
bowel movements that are infrequent or hard to
pass.
o Irritable Bowel Syndrome – a disorder in which a
person alternatively experiences diarrhea and
constipation. It caused by stress, allergies, and
insufficient intake of dietary fiber.
o Obesity – an abnormal accumulation of pat in the
body. It is a metabolic disorder which occurs when
a person takes more calories than the amount he or
she uses.
62
o Lactose Intolerance – inability of the body to absorb
sugar. It caused by a deficiency in the enzyme
lactose which breakdown sugar.
o Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) – this
occurs when stomach acid frequently flows back
into the tube connecting your mouth and
stomach (esophagus). This backwash (acid reflux)
can irritate the lining of your esophagus. Many
people experience acid reflux from time to time.
Respiratory System
- The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply

the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver
oxygen to all parts of the body.
- This is done through breathing.
- Breathing involves the mechanical act of inhalation and
exhalation.
63
- Upper Respiratory Tract
o Nose
o Nasal Cavity – the inside of your nose. It is lined with
a mucous membrane that helps keep your nose
moist by making mucus so you won't get nosebleeds
from a dry nose. There are also little hairs that help
filter the air you breathe in, blocking dirt and dust
from getting into your lungs.
o Pharynx – an organ in the back of the throat.
Meeting point of the digestive and respiratory
systems.
▪ Nasopharynx – the upper part of the throat
(pharynx) that lies behind the nose. It's a box-
like chamber about 1½ inches on each
edge. It lies just above the soft part of the roof
of the mouth (soft palate) and just in back of
the nasal passages.
▪ Oropharynx – the middle part of the pharynx
(throat), behind the mouth. It allows air, food,
and fluid to pass through.
o Larynx or voice box which contains the vocal cords.
- Lower Respiratory Tract
o Trachea or Windpipe – filters the air we breathe and
branches into the bronchi.
o Bronchi – two air tubes that branch off of the
trachea and carry air directly into the lungs.
o Bronchioles – any of the minute branches into which
a bronchus divide.
- Lungs – main organs of the respiratory system.
64
o Alveoli are the millions of tiny compartments of the
lungs where exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place.
o Pleural Cavity – surrounds the lungs in the thoracic
cavity. There are two pleural cavities, one for each
lung on the right and left sides of the mediastinum.
o Pleura – includes two thin layers of tissue that
protect and cushion the lungs. The inner layer
(visceral pleura) wraps around the lungs and is stuck
so tightly to the lungs that it cannot be peeled off.
The outer layer (parietal pleura) lines the inside of
the chest wall.
Nervous System
- It is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating

system in the body.
- It is the center of all mental activity including thought,
learning, and memory.
- Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is
responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis.
65
Circulatory System
- Functions:
o Moves nutrients, gases, and wastes to and from
cells.
o Helps fight diseases
o Helps stabilize body temperature and pH to
maintain homeostasis.
- Blood – mainly red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white
blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
- Blood Vessels – transport blood throughout the body.
- Capillaries – the microscopic vessels which enable the
actual exchange of water and chemicals between the
blood and the tissues.
- Arteries – carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
- Veins – carry oxygen-poor blood towards the heart.
- Systematic Circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular
system which carries oxygenated blood away from the
66
heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood back
to heart.
- Coronary Circulatory System provides a blood supply to
the heart. As it provides oxygenated blood to the heart, it
is by definition, a part of the systematic circulatory system.
Immune System
- Made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work

together to protect the body.
- One of the important cells involved are white blood cells,
also called leukocytes, which come in two basic types that
combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing
organisms or substances.
- Other parts of the immune system include the bone
marrow, where white blood cells are produced; lymph
nodes, which produce and store infection-fighting cells
throughout the body; and the spleen, which helps control
the amount of blood in the body and cleans out old or
damaged blood cells from the body.
- Serology – the study of blood serum (the clear fluid that
separates when blood clots).
67
- Immunology and Serology Laboratories focus on the
following:
o Identifying anti-bodies. These are proteins made by
a type of white blood cell in response to a foreign
substance (antigen) in the body.
o Antigen-antibody interaction or antigen-antibody
reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between
antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood
cells and antigens during immune reaction.
- Diseases of the Immune System
o Systematic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is an
autoimmune disease. The body’s immune system
mistakenly attacks healthy tissue. It can affect the
skin, joints, kidneys, brain, and other organs.
o Urticaria is an autoimmune disease attacking the
normal tissues of the body causing hives. It affects
the skin and connective tissue.
o Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis – immune system attacks the
thyroid gland, causing it to produce less thyroid
hormone.
Endocrine System
- Has a similar job to nervous system, but uses chemicals to

“communicate”. These chemicals are known as hormones.
- A hormone is a specific messenger molecule synthesized
and secreted by a group of specialized cells called
endocrine gland.
- These glands are ductless, which means that their
secretions (hormones) are release directly into the
68
bloodstream and travel to elsewhere in the body to target
organs, upon which they act.
- Diseases of endocrine system:
o Goiter – is used to describe any enlarged thyroid
gland. The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland
located in your neck.
o Cretinism – refers to severe hypothyroidism in an
infant or child. This is classically the result of maternal
iodine deficiency.
o Addison’s Disease – also called adrenal
insufficiency, is an uncommon disorder that occurs
when your body doesn't produce enough of certain
hormones.
o Hirsutism – a condition in women that results in
excessive growth of dark or coarse hair in a male-
like pattern — face, chest and back.
69
Reproductive System
- The female reproductive system has two functions:

o To produce egg cells
o To protect and nourish the offspring until birth.
- Major internal organs of female reproductive system:
o Vagina and Uterus which act as the receptable for
semen.
o Ovaries which produce the female’s ova.
o The vagina is attached to the uterus through the
cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus
to the ovaries.
- Fertilization is the process of combining the male gamete
or “sperm” with the female gamete or “ovum”. The
product of this combination is a cell called zygote.
- Ovulation is the release of ripe egg from the ovary. The egg
is release when the cavity surrounding it (the follicle) breaks
open in response to hormonal signal. It occurs around 14
to 15 days from the first day of the woman’s last menstrual
cycle. When ovulation occurs, the ovum moves into the
fallopian tube and becomes available for fertilization.
- The hymen is a piece of skin covering the vaginal opening
in females.
o In about 3rd or 4th month of pregnancy, the hymen
in female fetuses begins to form. It remains intact
until it is broken by most sexual intercourse. It can
also be broken by activity or the insertion of
something into the vaginal canal.
o It may stretch on its own and even rupture during
growth and development and be on non-existent
once a female reaches full maturity. For this reason,
70
it is almost impossible to use this to see if a female is
a virgin or not.
o Girls who actively play sports or use tampons may
not have a hymen anymore.
o When it ruptures, there may be bleeding and pain.
If the rupture was not due to the first-time sexual
intercourse, a small rupture may heal back to its
normal state.
o The hymen tends to be thinner in children and
thickens at the onset of puberty due to hormonal
changes.
- The male reproductive system has one function:

o To produce and deposit sperm
- The male reproductive system makes, stores, and moves
sperm.
- Testicles produce sperm.
- Fluid from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland
combine with sperm to make semen.
- The penis ejaculates semen during sexual intercourse.
71
- Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation.

- Diseases in the reproductive system:
o Prostate Cancer – prostate gland.
o Breast Cancer – mammary gland.
o Ovarian Cancer – ovary.
o Penile Cancer – penis.
o Uterine Cancer – uterus.
o Testicular Cancer – testicle.
o Menorrhagia – the occurrence of excessive
bleeding during periods, with the periods
themselves being regular.
o Dysmenorrhea – painful periods, menstrual cramps.
Its usual onset occurs around the beginning of the
menstruation. Symptoms typically last less than three
days. The pain is usually in the pelvis or lower
abdomen.
o Epididymitis – an infection of the epididymis. It is a
disease of young men, usually 19 – 35 y. o.
Gonorrhea and Chlamydia are common causes of
epididymitis.
72
o Erectile Dysfunction (ED) – when a man has trouble
getting or keeping an erection. ED becomes more
common as you get older.
o Gonorrhea (clap) – is a common sexually
transmitted infection caused by the bacterium
Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
o Syphilis – a sexually transmitted infection caused by
the spirochete bacterium treponema pallidum,
subspecies pallidum.
o Infertility – refers to the biological inability of a
person to contribute to conception.
o Sterility – permanent inability to produce offspring.
o Female Orgasmic Dysfunction – failure of a female
to achieve orgasm during intercourse.
o Vaginismus – vaginal tightness causing discomfort,
burning, pain,
penetration problems, or complete inability to have
intercourse.
Excretory System
- Responsible for removing wastes produced by the body.

These wastes must be removed or excreted for the body to
remain healthy.
- It includes the skin, kidneys, large intestines, and the liver.
- Diseases in the excretory system:
o Pyelonephritis – a type of urinary tract infection
(UTI) that generally begins in your urethra or bladder
and travels to one or both of your kidneys.
o Kidney Stone – are hard, pebble-like pieces of
material that form in one or both of your
73
kidneys when high levels of certain minerals are in
your urine. Kidney stones rarely cause permanent
damage if treated by a health care professional.
Kidney stones vary in size and shape.
o Cystitis – is the medical term for inflammation of the
bladder. Most of the time, the inflammation is
caused by a bacterial infection, and it's called a
urinary tract infection (UTI).
74

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GENED – BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Anatomy and Physiology

ANATOMY – deals with the structure (morphology) of the body

PHYSIOLOGY – science of life. It is the branch of biology that aims

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

- ANATOMY refers to the internal and external structures of

The two disciplines are closely interrelated because the

HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS:

1. Integumentary System – body covering

- Body’s outer layer.

- Body’s central framework.

- Composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers.

- Body’s command center.

- Complex network of glands and organs;

- Made up of the heart and blood vessels, distributes oxygen

- Consisting of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, and

- The network of organs and tissues that help you breathe.

- Made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine,

- Consisting of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

- The basic parts of most land

plants are roots, stems, leaves,

flowers, fruits, and seeds.

- The leaves are where most of

the photosynthesis occurs to make

food for the plant’s growth. The

leaves also help the plant maintain

proper water balance through

openings on their underside called

- There are commonly four distinct whorls of flower parts:

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Ecology

ECOLOGY – the scientific study of interactions between organisms

ENVIRONMENT – it is made up of two factors:

(1) Biotic Factors – all living organisms inhabiting the Earth.

(1) Organism – any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting

HABITATS vs. NICHE

HABITAT – The place in which an organism lives out its life.

Examples of limiting factors:

NICHE – The role a species plays in a community. Its total way of

- Organisms form relationships with each other because

- Symbiosis, is a close ecological relationship between the

1. Mutualism, both species benefit

- Dictates the flow of energy and matter in an ecosystem.

Types of Feeding Relationships:

- All autotrophs (plants)

1. PRIMARY CONSUMERS APEX PREDATORS

- Represent a feeding step in the transfer of energy and

Each link in a food chain, food web or ecological pyramid is

As you move up a level, both available energy and biomass

Energy is transferred upwards but is diminished with each

FOOD CHAIN - A simple model that

Shows how matter and energy move

- A distinct biogeographical unit

- Taiga (Boreal Forest)

- The process of change in the species structure of an

Primary Succession – the process of creating in an area where

- Long term heating of Earth’s climate system observed

- A process that occurs when energy from a planet’s sun

- Big Bang Theory was credited to Fred Hoyle based on the