Chapter 5

Energy

Benson: Chap.7
Newton’s paradigm is to understand interactions by writing down the expression of
& Chap.8
the force in an inertial frame. This paradigm was very useful for understanding the
nature, yet, it turns out that energy is a more fundamental, as well as more powerful, In this chapter,
notion than the force in physics. we will show how
the notion of
energy can often
5.1 Work be more
convenient than
Let us start with Newton’s 2nd law: the notion of
force.
F = ma (5.1)
d ⇣ m 2⌘
) F · v = ma · v = v (5.2)
Z Z dt⇣ 2 ⌘
d m 2
) F · vdt = v dt (5.3)
dt 2
Z rf  2 f
mv
) F · dr = . (5.4)
ri 2 i

Define work: Z rf
W ⌘ F · dr. (5.5)
ri

Define kinetic energy:

1
K ⌘ mv 2 . (5.6)
2
According to eq.(5.4), we have the work-kinetic energy theorem: There will be a
more general
W = K. (5.7) theorem called
work-energy
Amazing features of this equation include theorem.

• Its RHS is independent of the details of the process.

• It applies to any type of force.

34
 • It leads to important new physical notions: work and kinetic energy.
Holding a heavy
Comments: Only the force in the direction of motion works.
thing does no
Q: Do we have Wtotal
ext
= Ktotal ? work.
Power is the work per unit time:
Centripetal force
dW does no work.
P⌘ . (5.8)
dt

Q: What is the velocity of a point mass m when it hits the ground from a given
height h? How much time does this fall take?
Q: What is the velocity of a point mass m when it falls down a curvy slide of irregular
shape by a vertical distance h? How much time does this motion take?
Q: A block slides down two slopes following different curves from the same height to
the bottom at the same level. How is the final velocity at the bottom depending on
the curves? How is the time depending on the curves?

5.2 Conservative Force

5.2.1 Examples
Let us compute the work done by different types of forces.
Exercise: Spring
The force of a spring is given by

F= k(r r0 ). (5.9)

Therefore,
Z
F · dr = k(r r0 ) · dr

k
= |r r0 |2 , (5.10)
2
⇥ m 2⇤
which equals the change in kinetic energy 2
v according to the work-kinetic
energy theorem. As a result, the quantity
m 2 k
E⌘ |v| + |r r0 | 2 (5.11)
2 2
does not change over time — it is a constant of motion.
Q: How to determine the potential energy of a point mass m at a given position for
the gravitational force F = mgẑ?

35
Exercise: Gravity
The gravitational force by a mass M at the origin on a mass m at r is
Mm
F= G r̂. (5.12)
r2
The work done by this force is
d(r2 ) =
Z Z
r d(r · r) = 2r · dr,
p
F · dr = GM m · dr so dr = d r2 =
r3
 p1 d(r 2 ) =
GM m 2 r2
= . (5.13) 1 r
2r 2r · dr = r · dr.
r

As a result of the work-kinetic energy theorem, we have

m 2 GM m
E⌘ |v| (5.14)
2 r
a conserved quantity.
Q: What is the generalization of the constant E when there are N masses Mi located
at ri pulling on the mass m at r due to gravity? (Assume that ri remains constant
throughout the process.)
Exercise: Friction (as an exception)
The force of friction is
v
F= . (5.15)
v
Then the work is
Z Z
v
F · dr = · dr = t. (5.16)
v

Q: Can you rewrite the integral above as the difference of a “quantity” before and
after a process?
Exercise: For F (x) = ex t, x(t) = t2 , what is the work W from t = 0 to t = 1?
Exercise: What is the work W for t = 0 to t = 1 for F = x̂(x + y 2 ) + ŷc, r =
x̂vt + ŷ(wt + at2 /2), assuming that c, v, w and a are constants?

5.2.2 Potential Energy

Whenever a force F(r) has the mathematical property that
These relations
@U (r) @U (r) @U (r) are invariant
Fx (r) = , Fy (r) = , Fz (r) = , (5.17) under the change
@x @y @z
U!
or equivalently, U +constant.

F(r) · dr = dU (r), (5.18)

36
the work-kinetic energy theorem implies that
E is the total
1 energy.
E ⌘ m|v|2 + U (r) (5.19)
2
is a constant of motion, i.e. it does not change throughout the process. Such a force
is called a conservative force, and U (r) is called the potential energy.
Q: Is eq.(5.17) or (5.18) necessary for the work-energy theorem to be valid?
For gravitational
The definition of the potential energy U for a conservative force F by eq.(5.18) potential energy
suffers an ambiguity: the shift of U by a constant U = mgh,
eq.(5.20)
U ! U0 = U + c (5.20) corresponds to a
shift of the
gives another equally valid candidate of the potential energy. reference height.

The potential energy is defined up to an additive constant,

except when the gravitational effect of energy is taken into consideration.
In Newtonian mechanics, the energy E is only defined up to an additive constant.
In General Relativity, the energy is a source of gravity, so adding a constant to it
changes physics.

Both the force of a spring and that of gravity are conservative.

Q: If F depends on v, is it possible that F is conservative? Why is there no potential
depending on v?
Q: Consider F = x̂(ẍ/ẋ). Show that there is a function U (ẋ) such that F · dr = dU .
Q: How do you know whether a force is conservative?
Which of the following is (are) conservative?
(1) F = x̂x2 8ŷy 3 , (2) F = x̂y + ŷx, (3) F = x̂y ŷx, (4) F = x̂vx .
Q: How to derive the escape velocity from the conservation of energy?
Q: What is the
Q: How to determine the velocity of a block when it is released from a compressed force for
spring? U = x3 ?

Q: Is the Lorentz force F = qv ⇥ B on a charge q conservative? What is the constant

The Lorentz
of motion? What is the potential energy? force of a
Exercise: What is the force at (x, y) for U = a(x2 + y 2 )/2? What is the work to magnetic field B
on a moving
be done to move a particle from the origin to (x, y) for this potential, assuming that
charge q with
v = 0 at the beginning and the end?
velocity v is
Exercise: What is the potential U for F = x̂y 2 + ŷ2xy? F = qv ⇥ B, so
F · dr = 0.
Q: If U < E for x 2 (x1 , x2 ), and U (x1 ) = U (x2 ) = E, what do you expect for an
object with total energy E moving in this region [x1 , x2 ]?
All fundamental forces (electromagnetic force, gravitational force, strong and weak
interactions) are conservative.

37
Q: If all fundamental forces are conservative, why are there non-conservative forces
like friction?
When a force is not conservative, usually it means that some details are omitted.
Q: What is ignored in the description of friction?

5.2.3 A Special Class Of Potential Energy

In Newtonian mechanics, for the statement of Newton’s 3rd law, each force must be
associated with a source. In many examples of interactions (e.g. spring, gravity,
electricity, etc.), the force is conservative, and the potential energy U is a single-
variable function
U = U (|r1 r2 |), (5.21)
where r1 and r2 are the position vectors of the subject of the force and the source.
Q: If U is larger for larger |r1 r2 |, is the force attractive or repulsive?
Exercise: Show that this potential has the following features:

1. Newton’s 3rd Law is satisfied.

2. It respects translation symmetry and rotation symmetry.

Q: Given eq.(5.21) as the potential energy for the conservative force of object 2 on
object 1. Should the force of object 1 on object 2 be conservative? What would be
the potential energy for the force on object 2 by object 1?
Exercise: Find the conserved quantity for the system of two bodies interacting with
each other through the potential (5.21).
Solution:

 Z Z
1 1
m1 v12 + m1 v12 = F12 · dr1 + F21 · dr2
2 2
Z  Z 
@U (|r1 r2 |) @U (|r1 r2 |)
= dx1 + · · · dx2 + · · ·
@x1 @x2
Z
= dU = U. (5.22)

As a result,
1 1
E ⌘ m1 v12 + m2 v22 + U (|r1 r2 |) (5.23)
2 2
is conserved. Clearly, here the potential energy is associated with two objects.
Q: If F12 and F21 are associated with U12 6= U21 , would there be a conserved quantity
The force is not
E as the exercise above? considered
The source and the subject of a conservative force share the same potential conservative if
energy. U12 6= U21
(unless the
difference is a
38 constant).
5.3 Work-Energy Theorem
5.3.1 Single Particle
When there are more than one forces in action,

F = F1 + F 2 , (5.24)

where F2 is assumed to be conservative

F2 · dr = dU2 . (5.25)

Then the work done by F1 is

Z Z Z
W1 = F1 · dr = F · dr F2 · dr
Z Z 
1
= F · dr + dU2 = mv2 + U2 = E. (5.26)
2

The work-energy theorem states that

W = E, (5.27)

where the work W excludes the force whose potential energy is included in E.
The LHS is the
As the time derivative of the work-energy theorem (5.27), power:
dE F · v = dW
dt ⌘ P.
F·v = (5.28)
dt

for an object with velocity v under an external force F.

Exercise: A particle of mass m under the influence of a given potential
U (x, y, z) = a(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )/2 (for a given constant a)
together with an additional force F0 (t) is found to move along the trajectory
r = x̂vt + ŷc + ẑ cos(!t) (for given constants v, c and !).

1. Find the force due to the potential U at any time t.

2. Find the additional force F0 (t) on the particle.

3. Find the kinetic energy K(t) at any time t.

4. Find the total energy E(t) = K(t) + U (t) at time t.

5. Find the power done by F0 (t) on the particle, and compare it with the rate of
change in E(t).

39
Exercise: A planet on an orbit of radius R suffers a tiny force F = Av in the
direction of its motion. How does its orbit change over time?
Solution:
Here we give two different derivations. (One of them is wrong.) Both derivations use the
approximation that the trajectory is at any time very close to an orbit of a fixed radius.
First approach:
The energy of the orbit of radius R is
1 GM m GM m
E(R) = mv 2 = , (5.29)
2 R 2R
where v satisfies v 2 = GM/R. The force F reduces E(R) as
✓ ◆
GM m GM m
dE = d = dR = F vdt = Av 2 dt. (5.30)
2R 2R2
This implies a slow change in R by the rate
dR 2R2 Av 2 2AR
= = . (5.31)
dt GM m m
The solution is
2At/m
R = R0 e . (5.32)
2nd approach: (wrong!)
We have
dv F Av
= = . (5.33)
dt m m
This implies
At/m
v = v0 e . (5.34)
R is related to v via v 2 = GM/R, so
GM GM
R= 2
= 2 e2At/m (!) (5.35)
v v0
This is clearly wrong, as it means that the radius will become larger and larger, as if more
and more energy is pumped into the system.
Q: Why is this calculation incorrect?
In the above, we have considered the work and energy for a single object. What
about a system of particles?

5.3.2 Composite Systems

Consider a system of N particles of mass mi and position ri . The force on the i-th
particle is X
Fi = Fext
i + Fij . (5.36)
j6=i

Assume that all internal forces Fij are conservative:

@
(Fij )x = Uij (ri , rj ), (5.37)
@xi

40
etc. for some function Uij (ri , rj ). By definition, interchanging the indices i and j
leads to
@
(Fji )x = Uji (rj , ri ), etc. (5.38)
@xj
We shall assume that Check that the
spring and
Uji (rj , ri ) = Uij (ri , rj ). (5.39)
gravity both
As a result, satisfy eq.(5.39).

@ @
Fij · dri + Fji · drj = dxi + · · · + dxj + · · · Uij (ri , rj ) = dUij (ri , rj ).
@xi @xj
(5.40)
Prove that
Hence Newton’s 3rd law
" #
X1 XZ and eq.(5.39)
mi vi2 = Fi · dri imply that
i
2 i
" # Uij (ri , rj ) =
XZ X Ûij (ri rj ) for
= Fext
i + Fij · dri some function
i j6=i
Ûij .
XZ XXZ
= Fext
i · dri dUij
i i j>i
" #
X X
= Wiext Uij . (5.41)
i i<j

Rearranging the identity above gives

W ext =
P
i Wi .
ext
W ext = E, (5.42)

where
X1 We can also
1X
E⌘ mi vi2 + Uij (ri , rj ). (5.43) choose to
i
2 2 i6=j exclude an
external force
from W ext and
That is, for a given physical system, if W ext is the work done by external forces, include the
and the potential energy in E excludes external forces, we have W ext = E. corresponding
potential energy
Exercise: What is the total energy of a system of N particles of mass mi and
in E.
position ri (t) connected with each other by springs of spring constant kij ? (Assume
that kij = kji .)
The requirement (5.39) is necessary to ensure the work-energy theorem. It should
be included in the definition of conservative forces.
Q: Give a hypothetical example of U12 (r1 , r2 ) 6= U21 (r2 , r1 ) without breaking Newton’s
3rd law. Is it possible to define E so that the work-energy theorem holds?
Newton’s 3rd law assumes that all interactions are two-body interactions. But we
also commented that it can be replaced by the notion of momentum conservation,

41
which does not have to assume two-body interactions. Therefore, in principle, 3-
body or 4-body interactions could be discussed without much trouble in Newtonian
mechanics.
Q: Why does nature appear to prefer two-body interactions?
Q: Can you think of a (hypothetical) potential U (r1 , r2 , r3 ) for a 3-body interaction?
What would happen to the work-energy theorem?
For a system of N particles, let the force on the i-th object be given by a given
potential U (r1 , r2 , · · · , rN ) as Fi = @U/@xi , etc. Then
N
X XN
@U
Fi dxi = dxi = dU. (5.44)
i=1 i=1
@xi

Hence the work energy theorem persists.

Q: For the forces of a 3-body interaction, What would be the natural replacement of
Show that, for
the 3rd law? conservative
For an isolated system, i.e., when there is no interaction between the system and forces, the
the external world, W ext = 0 and the total energy of the system is conserved. This is translation
called energy conservation: symmetry implies
F123 + F231 +
The energy of an isolated system is conserved. F312 = 0.
Energy conservation is viewed as a fundamental principle in physics. It is also a
Energy
practically extremely useful idea.
conservation is
Q: What is the gravitational potential energy of two point masses m1 and m2 ? related to the
In general, the gravitational potential energy of N point masses mi (i = 1, 2, · · · , N ) symmetry of
is time translation
X 1X (via Noether’s
Utotal = Uij (ri rj ) = Uij (ri rj ), (5.45)
2 i6=j theorem when
i<j
there is an
where action). It
Gmi mj
Uij (r) ⌘ . (5.46) demands major
|r|
modification only
HW: (2-4) What is the gravitational potential energy of a uniform thin shell of mass when we
M and radius R? (The shell itself is the source of gravity.) introduce
General
Q: What is the gravitational potential energy of a point mass m due to its own Relativity.
gravity?
Exercise: A uniform rope of length L is initially lying on a table
with an infinitesimal part of it hanging over the edge of the table.
What is the velocity of the rope at the moment when the whole
rope is falling over the edge?
Solution:
Energy is conserved. (Momentum is not conserved.)

⇢Lv 2 /2 = ⇢LgL/2 ) v 2 = Lg.

42
Q: In the exercise above, why does not normal force work? Why does not tension
work?
HW: (2-5) Following the exercise above, if the coefficient of the kinetic friction is µ
between the rope and the table, what is the velocity of the rope when a length x of
the rope is hanging over the table?
Exercise: Chain drop experiment (whipping effect)
A chain with one end fixed on the edge of a table is held up from the other end and
then released. How fast is the the released end falling when it has fallen a height of
h?
Solution:
The change in the potential energy after the free end drops by h is

U= (h/2 + (L/2 h) + h/4) hg. (5.47)

Final kinetic energy is

Note that there
K = (L/2 h + h/2) v 2 /2, (5.48) is no work done
which the initial kinetic energy vanishes. The conservation of the total energy E = K + U on the fixed end
of the chain
implies that
because it has
(h/2 + (L/2 h) + h/4) hg 2(L/2 h/4)hg not moved.
v2 = = > 2hg. (5.49)
(L/2 h + h/2) /2 (L/2 h/2)

Recall that v 2 = 2hg when something falls by h.

5.3.3 Friction: Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Energies

While all microscopic interactions are conservative forces, friction is everywhere in
the macroscopic world.
Friction is a macroscopic effect due to our ignorance of the microscopic degrees of
freedom.
The macroscopic description of a system ignores many details (microscopic degrees
of freedom). For instance, in a macroscopic description of a system composed of N
particles, the information of the locations of N particles in a system could be replaced
by merely the center-of-mass location.
Exercise: Prove that
X1 1
K micro ⌘ mi vi2 K macro ⌘ M vCM
2
. (5.50)
i
2 2

Exercise: Consider a box sliding down a ramp due to gravity. Express the work
Here we assume
done by friction in terms of microscopic and macroscopic energies. that in the
Solution: microscopic
Macroscopically, in the rest frame of the ramp and the earth, there is no work done to the description all
interactions are
43 conservative.
ramp and the earth. The work done by the friction to the box is

W fr = E macro = [K macro + U macro ] , (5.51)

where K macro is the kinetic energy and U macro the gravitational potential energy of the box.
Microscopically, label all particles on the box, the ramp and the earth by the index i,
energy conservation states that

E micro = 0, (5.52)

where
X1 X
E micro ⌘ mi vi2 + Uij . (5.53)
2
i i<j
P
The potential energy i<j Uij includes the gravitational potential energy between a particle
in the box and a particle on the earth, as well as the potential energy between two particles
in the box. The former should (approximately) equal U macro .
Taking the difference between the two equations above, we find
⇥ ⇤
W fr = E micro E macro
2 3
X1 X
= 4 mi vi2 + Uij K macro U macro 5
2
i i<j
2 3
X1 1 1 X 1 X
= 4 mi vi2 2
Mbox vbox + Uij + Uij 5 . (5.54)
2 2 2 2
i i,j2b i,j2r+e

The work done by the friction (which is negative) tells how much energy is lost
track of in the macroscopic description. This energy remains in the microscopic world
and is called “heat”.
Q: Can we understand friction simply as the effect of microscopic (frictionless) bumpy
surfaces?
Q: What are the necessary ingredients in the microscopic world for friction?

5.4 Work-Energy Theorem in Different Reference Frames

Q: Does the work-energy theorem hold after a boost?
Under a boost by the velocity u (switching to another inertial frame which moves
at the velocity u with respect to the original reference frame),
Q: What
Z Z
0 happens to a
W ! W = W + F · udt = E + u · Fdt
system of N
Z
particles?
= E + u · madt = E + u · (mv). (5.55)

44
The potential energy is assumed to be invariant

U ! U 0 = U. (5.56)

The kinetic energy changes by

Note that there
1 1 is a shift of
K ! K 0 = m(v + u)2 = K + mv · u + mu2 . (5.57) energy by a
2 2
constant 12 mu2 .
Therefore the work-energy theorem is preserved

W0 = E0 = (K 0 + U 0 ) (5.58)

in the new reference frame.

Exercise: Crate sliding down ramp
A wooden crate slides down a wooden ramp. The angle of the ramp and the coefficient
of kinetic friction are chosen such that the crate slides down the ramp at constant
speed. The crate is watched by two observers, one standing on the ramp and one
sitting on the crate. Both observers make measurements in a coordinate system fixed
with respect to themselves.
(a) Are either observers in a non-inertial frame?
(b) Do the two observers agree on the kinetic energy of the crate?
(c) Do the two observers agree on the work done by any of the forces acting on the
crate? (Gravity, normal force and friction.)
(d) How would the two observers explain the generation of the heat at the surface
between the crate and the ramp?
Solution:
(a) No. They are both inertial frames.
(b) No. The ramp frame thinks K = 12 mv 2 and the crate frame thinks K = 0.
(c) No.
For both frames, the gravity is mgẑ, the normal force is N = mg cos ✓n̂ = mg cos ✓(cos ✓ẑ+
sin ✓x̂), and the friction is Ff r = mg sin ✓(cos ✓x̂ sin ✓ẑ). The total force on the crate is
0.
For the ramp frame, the gravity does work Wgrav = mgh. The normal force does no
work. The friction does work Wf r = Ff r (h/ sin ✓) = mgh.
For the crate frame, the crate has never moved, so no force does work.
For both frames, the total work is 0, so the kinetic energy does not change.
(d) In the ramp frame, the friction does negative work (at macroscopic scale) to cancel the
work done by gravity on the crate. The friction transfers macroscopic work (done by gravity)
on the crate into microscopic energy (heat).
In the crate frame, the gravity or friction does not work on the crate. But there is
friction on the ramp, which moves by the distance h/ sin ✓ in the opposite direction of the
friction. This negative work is turned into heat.

45
46