Epy 110 Notes

TOM MBOYA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
EPY 110: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Instructor: Dr. JOAB M.KINZI
LECTURE 1
THE MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
In this lecture, an attempt will be made to introduce you to the broad field of psychology.
Psychology as a discipline will be defined and the major goals of psychology explained. We
shall also discuss the historical origins of psychology. Finally, we will look at the reason why
the study of psychology can be useful to you as a teacher.
1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
 Define psychology.
 Explain the major goals of psychology.
 Give a brief history of the development of psychology as a science of
human behaviour.
 Explain the importance of psychology to the policing profession.
1.3 Definition of Psychology

The term psychology may not be new to you but your understanding of the term might be
different from that of psychologists. Psychologists define it as the scientific study of human and
animal behaviour. Behaviour here means what people do, their thoughts, feelings, perceptions,
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reasoning processes, memories, emotions and so on. It encompasses both covert (indirectly
observable) and overt (directly observable) behaviours.
As a science, psychology is empirical, that is, it is based on experimentation and observation

rather than on opinion, belief or intuition. A science is a body of systematized knowledge that is
gathered by carefully observing and measuring phenomena. Psychologists carry out experiments
and make observations, which others can repeat; and they obtain data which others can verify.
This scientific approach is different from forming opinions on the basis of individual experiences
or arguing from premises that no one can test.
Research in psychology follows scientific procedures to collect, analyse, and interpret

information regarding the behaviour under study. Psychology is considered a science because it
uses systematic and precise methods of observation and measurement. Now that you have an
idea of what psychology is, we will now look at the basic goals of psychology.
Learning Activity:
Define psychology and give five reasons why it is a science.
1.4 Goals of Psychology

Psychology has four basic goals: to describe, explain, predict and change or modify behaviour.
In some studies psychologists attempt to describe behaviours by making careful scientific
observations. In other studies, they try to explain behaviour by conducting experiments to
determine their causes. For example, you may conduct a study to find out why Teachers solicit
for bribes.
Learning Activities:
 What is a goal of psychology?
 State and explain the four major goals of psychology.
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Psychologists use research information or findings to predict future behaviour. By knowing the
factors related to a particular behaviour, it is possible to predict when the behaviour is likely to
occur. Psychologists apply research findings to modify or change inappropriate behaviour or
circumstances. For example, by knowing that a teacher solicits for bribes because of poor pay,
you can try to encourage him or her to go for further studies so that he/she can get a salary
increment. Nevertheless, we can conclude by observing that the ultimate goal of psychology is
to gather knowledge for the benefit of humanity through research.
Goals of Psychology
The study of psychology has five basic goals:
1. Describe – The first goal is to observe behaviour and describe, often in minute detail, what
was observed as objectively as possible
2. Explain – While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what
is obvious and explain their observations. In other words, why did the subject do what he or she
did?
3. Predict – Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what
will happen in the future. There’s an old saying, which very often holds true: "the best predictor
of future behaviour is past behaviour."
4. Control – Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the
future, we can excerpt control over it. In other words, if we know you choose abusive partners
because your father was abusive, we can assume you will choose another abusive partner, and
can therefore intervene to change this negative behaviour.
5. Improve – Not only do psychologists attempt to control behaviour, they want to do so in a
positive manner, they want to improve a person’s life, not make it worse. This is not always the
case, but it should always be the intention.
1.5 Historical Perspective of Psychology

Psychology emerged as a formal science slightly over a century ago. However, this does not
imply that psychology never existed before. Prior to the time it became a formal science; issues
related to psychology were studied as part of philosophy, sociology, and also physiology.
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The development of psychology as a separate discipline was stimulated by the development of
research methodology appropriate to psychological questions. Thus, it became a separate
discipline when it acquired its methods of research. The contents of psychology have emerged
from the application of these methods. We shall discuss these methods in the subsequent lecture.
Psychology started as a formal discipline in the year 1879 when the first psychological
laboratory was established at the University of Leipzig by a German philosopher/psychologist
namely, Wilhelm Wundt. At about the same time, an American – William James set up his
laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. These two are considered to be the founders of
experimental psychology.
 Who were the founders of experimental psychology?
 What factors contributed to the evolvement of experimental psychology?
Through all these years, psychology has evolved as a true science. It has also developed
different approaches/perspectives or conceptual models that have been used to study
behaviour. Each of the approaches provides a different perspective (way of explaining
behaviour) emphasizing different factors. These approaches which are also referred to as schools
of psychology will be discussed in a later lecture.
1.6 Importance of Psychology to a Teacher

Can the knowledge of psychology improve the way you deliver services to the public? Having
defined and seen the origin of psychology, we will now look at why it is an important area of
study for prospective teacher. The knowledge you are going to acquire in psychology can help
you as a teacher to:
 Understand some of the problems related to Teaching. For example, lack of morale among
Teachers.
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 Understand cause of behaviour, good or bad/criminal.
 Understand the factors that contribute to the learning of various behaviours according to
various theories of learning.
 Understand and appreciate individual differences among Teachers. Teachers are different in
terms of intellectual, emotional, social and moral behaviour.
 Offer guidance and counselling to Teachers on matters pertaining to their behaviours, career
development, behaviour and so on.
 Identify Teachers’ problems and their causes. By knowing why, a Leaner behaves the way
he/she does you can make an attempt to rectify the situation.
 To make attempt to correct criminal behaviour and rehabilitate criminals.
Understand and appreciate the principals involved in Teaching practices. You will be able to
apply these principles in the work environment.
1.7 Summary
 Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and experience.

 Psychologists use scientific methods to investigate overt (observable) and covert
(unobservable) behaviours. The scientific approach insists on precision, consistency,
objectivity and reliability.
 The basic goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change behaviour.
 Psychology emerged as a formal scientific discipline in the year 1879 when a German
philosopher/psychologist Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at
Leipzig in German.
 The teacher profession requires psychological knowledge such as information on behaviours
related to crime.
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? Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain the reasons why psychology is a scientific discipline
2. Identify and explain the major goals of psychology.
3. Give a brief account of how psychology evolved as a formal science.
4. As a prospective or practicing Teacher, discuss how the knowledge of psychology can be
useful to you.
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LECTURE 2
METHODS OF STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
In the previous lecture, we defined psychology and discussed how it developed into a true
science with its own methods of study. In this lecture, we are going to discuss some of the
methods that have contributed to the knowledge we have in psychology today. The methods that
we are going to discuss are experimental and non-experimental methods.
 Differentiate between various methods of studying behaviour.

 Give the advantages and disadvantages of
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behaviour.
 Discuss some of the ethical considerations to be made when studying human
behaviour.
2.3 Experimental Research
What is experimental research? Weiten (1989:38) defines experimental research as a “Method in

which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and
observes whether there are changes in a second variable as a result”. Through an experiment a
researcher is able to isolate a single factor and examine its effect on a particular behaviour. Let
us look at some of the major components of experimental research.
The Hypothesis
Research in psychology begins by formulating a hypothesis which is an educated or informed

guess or a possible explanation for a behaviour being studied. It is usually expressed as a
prediction or a statement of cause and effect. A scientific hypothesis is based on facts and
theories that have been gathered and investigated by previous researchers. A theory is an
interrelated set of concepts that is developed in an attempt to explain a body of data and generate
testable hypotheses (Huffman, Vernoy, M. and Vernoy, J., 1995). A hypothesis is posed in a
way that indicates how the results can be measured. It may or may not be correct because it is
just a possible explanation of behaviour. Thus, it is subject to proof/verification through
scientific study. For example, there is a relationship between a teacher’s morale and
performance at the work place.
Learning Activity:
Give more relevant examples of hypotheses.
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Variables
A variable is a factor that may vary or change. It can assume more than one value, for example
factors such as, weight, height, scores on a test, motivation, and so on. An independent variable
is the factor that is selected and manipulated by an experimenter and is independent of anything
the subject does. The experimenter can vary it as he thinks is necessary in terms of what he
wants to achieve. The second variable is the dependent variable. Dependent variable refers to
a measurable behaviour or outcome exhibited by the subject and is affected by the independent
variable. In other words, its value is dependent on the independent variable. It is what you
measure after varying or manipulating the independent variable. For example, let us assume that
the level of professional training of Teachers have a direct effect on their performance in law
enforcement. The level of training would be the independent variable whereas the performance
in the battle field would be the dependent variable.
Give a definition and examples of the following components of experimental research:
 Hypothesis
 Dependent, independent and extraneous variables
 Experimental controls
The third type of variables is extraneous variable, that is, factors that may influence the results
if they are not adequately controlled. In the example given, such factors would include
intelligence, age, past experience and fatigue. Extraneous variables get in the way of the study
and make it look as though we found what we expected, even though we did not. They
confound (confuse) the results.
Experimental Controls
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In an experiment, the researcher randomly assigns subjects to experimental and control groups.
The experimental group receives treatment with the aim of discovering whether the treatment has
a predictable effect on some outcome or behaviour (dependent variable). The control group
(non-treatment group) does not receive such treatment so as to ensure that any changes in the
dependent variable are due to the treatment administered. The two groups are expected to have
similar attributes or characteristics. The effect of the treatment is assessed by comparing the two
groups after treatment is given to the experimental group.
2.4 Non-Experimental Research Methods

What are the non-experimental research techniques and what are their advantages and
disadvantages? Sometimes it may not be feasible for ethical or practical reasons to study
behaviour experimentally. For this reason, a number of non-experimental techniques have been
devised. These include naturalistic observations, surveys, case studies and correlational studies.
Although none of these techniques can be used to determine cause and effect in behaviour
beyond doubt, they are useful in determining relationships between variables and in providing
information vital to make predictions about future behaviour.
Learning Activity:
List the risks of carrying out a study to find out how confinement of an innocent person to jail
could affect behaviour.
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects without interfering with their natural situations or
environments. For example, observing the behaviour of Teachers manning a road block. The researcher,
systematically records the behaviour of the subjects in their natural state or habitat. The subjects should
not detect that they are being observed or studied because their behaviour becomes unnatural when they
know that they are being observed. However, in other cases the observer may interact with the subjects
being observed in which case the behaviour may change and consequently lower the reliability of the
findings.
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Learning Activity:
Make an observation checklist that you can use to differentiate between an innocent and a guilty
suspect.
Survey Research Method

In this method, a relatively large number of cases are studied in less depth. In a survey, the
subjects are asked specific questions about their behaviour or opinion, attitudes etc. Although a
small portion of the population is studied, a careful survey can provide accurate information
about how the large group of people feel about a particular issue. For example, one can conduct
a survey to find out how Kenyans feel about the behaviour of Teachers, free education, and
examination system.
This method employs various techniques of data collection such as telephone, questionnaires and
interviews.
Respond to the following survey questions:
i. Have you ever solicited for a bribe? YES/NO
ii. Have you ever lied to you partner? YES/NO
iii. Have you ever forced a suspect to give evidence? YES/NO
iv. Why would a suspect be tempted to give false information?
In a survey, it is important that the sample used is representative of the target population to
which the results are going to be generalized.
Case Study Method

A case study involves an in-depth or detailed investigation of a single research subject or a
limited number of subjects. In a case study, many aspects of a subject are studied in detail in
order to account for the possible causes and effects of the behaviour under investigation. For
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example, you may conduct a case study to find out why Teachers go wild and kill themselves. In
your study, you may try to gather information about his/her home background, intellectual
ability, professional habits and skills, peer influence, motivation, interests and aspirations and so
on. Another good example is that of studying the behaviour of a teacher suffering from work
related trauma.
Correlational Studies
What is involved in the correlational method of studying behaviour? A correlation study
involves finding out the extent to which two sets of variables or factors are related. Correlation
refers to the relationship between variables. It looks at whether two variables are correlated or
associated and provides information about cause-and-effect. The correlation between the two
sets of variables is indicated by means of a correlation coefficient (numerical index of the
degree of relationship between two variables) which may be either positive or negative. A
correlation coefficient of zero indicates lack of relationship between the two sets of variables. A
positive correlation ranges from 0 to +1.0, whereas a negative one ranges from 0 to –1.0. A
correlation coefficient of +1.0 indicates perfect positive relationship. A correlation coefficient of
–1.0 indicates perfect negative relationship. The method of calculating correlation coefficient
will be discussed in a different module in the course of your study. However, if you are
interested on how it is done, you can refer to any statistics book.
A positive correlation implies that scores of both variables increases correspondingly as opposed
to negative correlation in which an increase in scores of one variables means a decrease in scores
of the other variable. For example, a positive correlation would be expected between:
 level of training and efficiency of the Teaching fraternity.

 high morale and the efficiency of the Teaching fraternity
 performance in Kenya Certificate of Education (K.C.S.E.) examination and academic
performance in the programme.
 learning facilities and academic performance.
 level of education and one’s income.
 Condition of working environment and job satisfaction.
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Learning Activity:
List as many factors as possible that may correlate positively with criminal behaviour.
On the other hand, a negative correlation may be expected between:
 Low morale and the efficiency of the Teaching fraternity.

 Indiscipline and academic performance.
 Cost of education and learners’ dropout. This implies that the higher the cost of education
the bigger the number of children who will drop out of school.
An example of a situation where you may expect zero correlation would be between a
policeman’s height and accuracy in shooting. This means that one’s knowledge about a
policeman’s height cannot be used to predict his/her accuracy in shooting. However, a
correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one variable causes the other.
A third variable that was not taken into account may have contributed to the observed
relationship.
2.5 Ethics in Psychological Research
Why should study in psychology be governed by various ethics? Psychologists mostly use
human beings in their investigations. Experiments involving human beings may often entail
exposing them to painful, stressful or unpleasant experiences. The nature of a research may
expose subjects to risk or negatively affect the lives of the research participants. For example, it
would be unethical to conduct experiments to find out how false accusation and confinement can
affect a person.
To deal with problem of ethics in research, organizations such as the American Psychological
Association (APA) have developed a code of ethics for research in order to protect the subjects
and avoid violating human rights.
Some of the ethical considerations are:

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 The right to privacy: Subjects have a right to conceal information about themselves that they
feel may be sensitive and private. To safeguard the privacy of subjects, the researcher should
obtain consent for participation from adults and consent from parents or teachers for children.
 The right to non-participation: A subject has the right to decline or discontinue from
participating in research at any time.
 The right to remain anonymous: Subjects have the right to insist that their identities be
concealed. The identities of participants should not be a salient feature of the research. To
ensure this, researchers focus their interest in group data rather than individual data. Subjects
can also be identified by numbers rather than by names.
 The right to confidentiality: Participants have a right to insist that data collected from them
be treated with confidentiality. To ensure this, researchers should list data by numbers rather
than by names and destroy the original questionnaires as soon as the study is completed.
 The right to be protected from physical or psychological harm: The researcher should be
sensitive to human dignity. He/she should ensure that subjects are not hurt by their
participation.
 The researcher should be open and honest to the participants. If the study requires
concealment or deception, the investigator should explain to the subjects the reasons for this
action and make an attempt to correct any undesirable consequences on the side of the
participants.
Psychologists who conduct research on animals are supposed to ensure that animals are not
subjected to unnecessary suffering unless the research findings are going to alleviate human
suffering.
2.5 Summary
 Research methodology includes the experimental approach that is used to investigate cause-
and-effect relationships and non-experimental approaches that provide description of
behaviour.
 An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation of behaviour. Independent
variables are the factors the researcher manipulates. Dependent variables are measurable
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behaviours of the subjects resulting from the manipulation of the independent variable.
 Experimental controls include assigning subjects to treatment and non-treatment groups
and holding extraneous variables constant.
 Naturalistic observation is used to study behaviour in its natural habitat.
 Surveys use mainly interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample of
1. Identify and discuss factors in your working environment that are likely to be correlated
positively to efficiency.
2. (a) Giving relevant examples, explain the following major components of the
experimental method of study:
 hypothesis.
 variables.
 experimental controls.
(b) Identify a problem in the Teaching and explain how you can investigate it using
the experimental method of study.
3. (a) Why do psychologists who carry out studies on human beings
prefer the non-experimental research methods?
(b) What ethical considerations would you take into account when
studying problems related to the behaviour of Teachers?
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of the following methods of study:
 experimental
 naturalistic observation
 survey
 case study
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 correlational
5. Explain four major methods of psychological research.
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LECTURE 3
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
What is a school of psychology? At the beginning of this module, we defined psychology and
gave a brief account of how it developed into a true science of human behaviour with its own
methods of study. In the history of psychology, different perspectives of explaining behaviour
evolved. This came as a result of strong differences of opinion about what psychology should
study and how it should do it. Schools of psychology can be thought of as groups of
psychologists who hold common beliefs about both the subject matter of psychology, that is,
what facets of mental processes and behaviours should be studied, and what methods of study
should be used. Thus, a school of psychology represents a view point or approach to the
explanation of behaviour. Most schools of psychology developed as a revolt against traditional
methods and beliefs at the time. Different schools provided ideas which influenced
contemporary approaches to psychology. In this lecture we are going to discuss various schools
of psychology and as we do this, keep your attention focused on how some of these schools
might have contributed to Teaching practices and understanding of the behaviour of Teachers
and criminals.

 Differentiate between various schools of psychology.
 State the major emphases and assumptions of various schools of psychology.
 Explain the major contributions of each school of psychology.
 Relate the various approaches of psychology to teaching processes.
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3.3 Major Schools of Psychology
The Major Schools of Psychology include:
i. Structuralism
Structuralism is one of the earliest schools of psychology that was founded by Wilhelm Wundt
in 1879. Remember we said that Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in German
at the University of Leipzig and therefore he is considered as the founder of experimental
psychology. The setting up of this laboratory marked the break of psychology from philosophy
to science.
The goal of structuralists was to find the units, or elements, which make up the mind. They
thought that a first step in the study of the mind should be a description of those basic or
elementary units of sensation, image and emotion which compose it (Morgan et al., 1986). They
were mainly concerned with determining the components of conscious thought.
Wundt and other structuralists used a technique called introspection to study the structure of
behaviour. Introspection is a method in which subjects are asked to describe in detail their
thoughts and feelings. The assumption was that one can understand the structure of the mind
through the objective reports and reactions of the subject. For example, a subject might be
presented with a coloured light and asked to describe it as minutely as possible.
Structuralists inaugurated psychology as a science and established the importance of studying

mental processes. However, psychologists felt that structuralism was limited to only one area of
behaviour and had few practical applications. These psychologists who were mainly Americans
began a new school of psychology called functionalism.
ii. Functionalism
William James was the leading force in the functionalism school of psychology. Functionalists
felt that psychology should study “what the mind and behaviour do”. They were specifically
interested in the fact that mind and behaviour are adaptive – they enable an individual to adjust
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to a changing environment. Psychologists in this school of thought were influenced by Darwin’s
theory of the survival for the fittest. Instead of limiting themselves to the description and
analysis of the mind, they did experiments on the ways in which learning, memory, problem
solving and motivation help human beings and animals to adapt to environments. In short, as the
name of the school implies, these early psychologists studied the functions of mind and
behaviour.
Functionalism had an impact on the development of psychology although it is no longer

considered a formal school (Huffman et al., 1987). It expanded the scope of psychology to
include research on emotions and observable behaviours. Functionalists initiated the
psychological testing movement, changed the course of modern psychology and were
responsible for extending psychology’s influence on diverse areas in industry. Other
Psychologists’ dissatisfaction with these initial schools of psychology led to the development of
new perspectives of looking at behaviour.
iii. Psychoanalytic Perspective

This approach was founded by Sigmund Freud (1956 – 1939), an Austrian physician whose area
of specialization was neurology (the study of disorders of the nerves and brain). It developed
because of his experience with his medical patients. In his treatment of neurological patients,
Freud noted that some of his patients presented symptoms that had no physical basis like brain
damage. These symptoms were real for the patients as if they had neurological causes.
Freud suspected that these problems were psychological in origin and as a result developed a
complex and sophisticated model of human behaviour known as psychoanalytic theory. From
this theory he developed the treatment known as psychoanalysis. Freud believed that behaviour
is brought about by inner unconscious forces, drives or impulses over which the person has little
control. These urges and drives are hidden from the awareness of the individual. In other words,
they are unconscious. It is the expression of these unconscious drives which shows up in
behaviour and thought. For example, psychoanalysts believe that dreams and slips of the tongue
are manifestations of what a person is feeling within a subconscious psychic activity.
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Freud also emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences on later personality
development. He coined the phrase, “the child is the father of the man”, to emphasize his
belief that our childhood experiences are stored in our unconscious state of mind and influence
our personality and behaviour when we are adults. For example, if you were neglected and
abused as a child, chances are high that you will lack affection and trust in other people. If you
are such a person, you may be cold and abusive in adulthood experience (Sindabi & Omulema,
1999).
Learning Activity:
What factors cause criminal behaviour from a psychoanalytic view?
Freud’s perspective was criticized because of his research methodology in which he exclusively
applied the individual case study technique without comparing his data to normal people as a
control. Thus, critics contend that this theory applies to abnormal behaviour, if it is applicable at
all. Despite the criticism, his school of thought has had an impact on psychotherapy (the
application of psychological principles and techniques to the treatment of psychological
disorders) and psychiatry (the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders especially with drugs).
iv. Gestalt Psychology

This school of psychology was founded in Germany around 1912 by Max Wertheimer and his
colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. Gestaltists felt that structuralists were wrong in
portraying the mind as being made up of elements. They maintained that the mind is not made
up of a combination of simple elements.
The German word gestalt means “form”, or “configuration, or organized whole”. The gestalt
psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole sensory
activity and the relationships and organization within this pattern. They felt that no single aspect
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of behaviour could be understood by itself, but only as part of a “whole” pattern of behaviour.
Thus, to them the whole is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements alone (the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts). They also emphasized the importance of the context
or background in creating meaning for a specific event. For example, if a child is involved in
delinquency, the context and background (e.g., home or school environment) are important in
understanding the behaviour fully. This school of psychology has made significant contributions
in the understanding of personality and perception.
v. Behaviourism
What was the major emphasis of the behavioural perspective? Behaviourists felt that observable
behaviour should be the focus of study rather than mental processes and unconscious
experiences. The proponents of this school of thought include, J. B. Watson, B. F. Skinner and
F. L. Thorndike. Behaviourists felt that the scientific method in psychology should be limited to
the study of behaviours that can be directly observed and verified. Watson believed that by
controlling a person’s environment any desired behaviour could be obtained irrespective of
his/her talents, abilities, heredity and other factors.
Behaviourists believed that all behaviour can be viewed as a response to a stimulus (an object or
event that causes an organism to respond in the environment). For example, a baby who cries
upon seeing a nurse whenever he/she is taken to the dispensary is demonstrating stimulus-
response behaviour. The nurse is the stimulus and the crying is the response. According to this
school of thought, nearly all behaviour can be accounted for by learning. Behaviour that has
been rewarded in the past will likely be repeated again whereas behaviour that is not reinforced
is likely to become extinct.
Learning Activity:
What factors cause criminal behaviour from a behaviouristic point of view?
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Watson and Skinner used animals (such as, rats, pigeons and cats) to study how behaviours are
acquired through learning and how behaviour can be changed. This perspective was criticized
for overemphasizing visible behaviour and environmental influences on behaviour to the extent
of ignoring thought and subjective experiences. This approach had significant influence on:
 How we learn new behaviours.
 How behaviour can be modified.
 The proper use of punishment and rewards.
vi. Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) are some of the most influential
psychologists associated with the humanistic approach. This school of psychology developed as
a reaction against the idea that behaviour is determined by forces beyond our control or by
environmental forces. It emphasizes on free-will, that is, the human ability to make choices and
decisions about one’s life. According to Huffman et al., (1987:34), humanistic psychologists
emphasized the importance of inner, subjective self, consciousness and feelings. Humanists
emphasize that human nature is naturally positive, creative and growth seeking unless blocked by
experience. We can freely choose to live more creative, meaningful and satisfying lives. Thus,
we are free to make choices and to decide how to behave. Each one of us is seen as a unique
individual with both the need and ability to fulfil our unique and optimum potential according to
Abraham Maslow. This school of thought has made major contributions in counselling which is
the process of assisting another person to find a solution to his/her problems through discussion
with a counsellor.
Learning Activity:
From a humanistic point of view, what is likely to be the cause of criminal behaviour?
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vii. Cognitive Psychology
The psychologist who is closely associated with this school of thought is Jean Piaget (1896 –
1980) who was a Swiss psychologist. This view was a reaction against radical behaviourists like
Skinner, who regarded cognition (thought) as outside the realm of psychology. The new view
came to be known as cognitive psychology and focused on reasoning and the mental processing
of information. Cognitive psychology is concerned with the acquisition, storage, retrieval and
use of knowledge. Cognitive psychology studies how we gather, encode and store information
from our environment using mental processes such as, perception, memory, imagery, concept
formation, problem solving, reasoning, decision making and language (Huffman et al., 1995).
Cognitive psychologists take an information processing approach based on the idea that
humans are like computers in that both take in information, process it and produce a
response/behaviour. Thus, we do not just respond to environmental stimuli, we mentally process
the sensory input, appraise the situation and respond accordingly. For example, if the same
ridicule is directed to three students, their reactions may be different. One may cry, another one
may take it as a warning not to continue misbehaving and the third one may not react at all.
Their reactions can be explained in terms of how they process and interpret the information.
i. Briefly explain the cognitive approach?
ii. Summarize its key assumptions
Piaget and other cognitive psychologists believed that behaviour has a cognitive element. We
understand and actively interpret information. Piaget believed that the ability to process
information undergoes dramatic transformation as children grow from one stage of development
to another. According to Piaget, children understand the world in an entirely different way from
adults. Thus, the difference in behaviour in children and adults reflects the difference in their
ability to know, understand and reason about things and events around them which develops
systematically. As children, we need to see and feel things to know and understand them, but as
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adults, we can know and understand things and events through abstract reasoning and conceptual
analysis.
Learning Activity:
Can criminal behavioural tendencies be inherited? Discuss with your fellow learners.
viii. Psychobiology
This school of thought explains behaviour in terms of the biological functioning of the body. It
emphasizes that genetic, physiological and neurological factors and processes determine
behaviour. The influence of the nervous system, particularly the brain is very crucial. A normal
human being depends on a properly functioning nervous system. Psychological development is
based on changes in brain growth, which are genetically determined, that is, maturation. Normal
behaviour or psychological or mental health are functions of a normally functioning healthy
nervous system. A problem or disease affecting the nervous system, which includes the brain,
will affect human behaviour, causing problems in learning and normal living (Sindabi &
Omulema, 2000).
ix. The Eclectic View

The various schools of psychology discussed are important in the historical development of
psychology. At any one time or another each was the dominant perspective. They influenced
thought and guided research in psychology. Most of the knowledge and content we have in
psychology today developed from these schools of thought.
Learning Activity:
Can one perspective in psychology exhaustively explain behaviour?
Most contemporary psychologists recognize that these perspectives are not mutually exclusive
from each other and hence the eclectic view/perspective which allows blending of ideas from
different perspectives. The eclectic approach adopts principles and practices from several
24
orientations or schools of thought. This approach holds that human behaviour cannot be
understood fully by taking one perspective. Each perspective focuses on a different aspect of
human behaviour and as such may be seen as complementary rather than competing. In many
cases, they provide explanations of behaviour at different levels. All the explanations may be
right since they address the task of understanding human behaviour at different levels and
perspectives. Rather than speak of schools of psychology, most modern psychologist prefer to
talk about the five basic perspectives or approaches that influence the topics studied in
psychology. These are the psychoanalytic, behaviouristic, humanistic, cognitive, and biological
approaches. These are the major perspectives that are widely evident in modern psychology.
Therefore, when faced by a particular situation, you should select the ideas which are helpful to
the particular situation.
3.4 Summary
 A school of psychology represents a group of psychologists who held common beliefs about
the subject matter of psychology and the methods of study to be used.
 Structuralists attempted to identify elements of consciousness and that form the structure of
the mind.
 Functionalists studied the functions of mental processes and behaviour in adapting the
individual to the environment.
 Psychoanalysts examined psychological problems presumed to be caused by unconscious
thoughts and conflicts.
 The Gestalt school studied organizing principles of perceptual processes.
 Behaviourism emphasized observable behaviours and the ways they are learned.
 Humanistic psychology focused on free will and the assumption that our nature is positive and
growth seeking.
 Cognitive psychologists focused on the role of reasoning and mental processes in behaviour.
 Psychobiology attempts to explain behaviour in terms of complex chemical and biological
events within the brain.
 The eclectic view allows blending of ideas from different schools of psychology in order to
understand behaviour fully. 25
23
1. What is a school of psychology?
2. Explain the difference between the two historical schools of psychology, that is,
structuralism and functionalism.
3. (a) In one or two sentences explain the major emphasis of the following
schools/perspectives in psychology:
 psychoanalytic
 gestalt
 behaviourism
 humanistic
 cognitive
 psychobiology
(b) Discuss the contributions of the six perspectives in 3a. in psychology.
4. Compare the cognitive approach with the psychobiological approach to psychology.
5. Explain how behaviour originates according to the behaviouristic approach to
psychology.
26
LECTURE 4
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
A branch of psychology is an area of specialization in psychology. Since psychology became a

formal scientific discipline various branches of psychology have evolved. The methods of study
and schools of psychology discussed in the previous lecture have contributed immensely towards
the development of specialized fields in psychology. Psychologists perform a wide variety of
roles in our society today. This shows how diverse the discipline has become. In this lecture, we
are going to discuss some of these areas. As we discuss these branches of psychology try to
reflect on their implications to profession of a police.

 Identify various branches of psychology.
 State areas of psychology related police science.
 Explain the various branches of psychology.
 Discuss contexts in which psychology is applied in the day-to-day activities in
your society.
 Relate various branches of psychology to the military processes.
4.3 Major Branches of Psychology

The following are the major branches of psychology:
i. Physiological Psychology
Physiological psychology is also known as biopsychology. It studies the relationship between
the brain and the rest of the nervous system to behaviour. It is concerned with the body as a
biological and neurological system. Physiological psychologists study perception, thought,
27
learning, personality and behaviour in relation to the underlying neurological activity – all of
which are of interest to psychologists and professionals concerned about Teachers.
ii. Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology focuses on development from conception to death. Developmental
psychologists study growth and development in various stages of development (i.e., prenatal,
infancy, childhood, adulthood, and old age). Issues studied include, physical, cognitive,
personality, moral, language, emotional and social development.
Learning Activity:
Identify developmental factors that may contribute to criminal behaviour.
iii. Social Psychology

This field of psychology studies the behaviour of people in group situations. It focuses on the
interaction between people, their perceptions of one another and the effect of groups on the
individual’s behaviour. Some of the topics studied include; social perception, impression
formation, aggression and violence, formation and change of attitudes, leadership, conformity
and social influence. In our schools today, most cases of indiscipline and riots can be attributed
to peer influence and children’s need to conform to the social norms of the groups to which they
belong.
Learning Activity:
How does the wider members of the public perceive a teacher.
iv. Personality Psychology

Personality psychology is concerned with the study of consistency and change of behaviour over
time. It focuses on individual differences, that is how people differ in terms of their
characteristics such as anxiety, motivation, aggression, emotional stability and so on. It also
28
looks at the causes of individual differences and personality characteristics. Personality and
group dynamics will be dealt with in a later lecture in this module.
Learning Activity:
Identify developmental factors that may contribute to criminal behaviour.
v. Clinical Psychology
Have you ever felt anxious, depressed, psychologically disturbed and unable to sleep? Clinical
psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how human behaviour and mental processes
become disordered, what causes abnormal behaviour and its treatment. Clinical psychology is applied in
the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists work in hospitals and
clinics. It is applicable in the Teacher service especially in handling policemen experiencing
psychological problems.
Learning Activity:
If you had an opportunity to seek counselling services, which issues would you wish to be
assisted in.
vi. Counselling Psychology

Counselling psychology is similar to clinical psychology but is generally concerned with
advising and helping people solve milder emotional and personal problems. Counselling
psychologists assist people having problems with drug abuse, career choice and development,
family living, study habits, subject choice, stress management and so on. Teachers may need
counselling matters such as career decisions, issues to do with adjustment to the working
environment and family problems.
vii. Industrial Psychology
This is a field of specialization concerned with the human factor in the industrial or technological
settings, that is, how satisfied workers are with their jobs, how to increase morale and
29
productivity, how to improve services, and how to develop better job training and placement
procedures. Industrial psychology has contributed to the human engineering discipline referred
to as ergonomics, which involves the design of equipment and machinery that are more efficient
and easier to use because they fit the actual size, strength and capabilities of human beings who
use them (Sindabi & Omulema, 2000). The production of Teacher equipment that is user
friendly to Teaching personnel is the concern of every country.
Learning Activity:
What actions, if taken, do you think would make your work as a Teacher enjoyable? .
viii. Consumer Psychology

This is a field of psychology that studies buying habits and the effects of advertising on buyer
behaviour. It also studies marketing strategies, determines characteristics of consumers and so
on. You might have fallen victim to consumer psychology by buying something because the
offer looked very attractive. For example, in a sale offer in a supermarket you are promised a
free gift for purchases worth a certain amount of money, or prices of a few items are drastically
reduced while those of others are increased.
Learning Activity:
Have you ever bought something, only later to realize that you did not get value for your money?
Why does this haven?
This field explains why manufacturers and companies spend millions of shillings on
advertisements and promotions as a result of which they make good profits. For example, you
may be aware that private schools and institutions choose an attractive name (such as, St.
Joseph’s Academy) and use very attractive or persuasive language to advertise their programmes
30
(such as, an offer for free computer lessons, transport, uniform, educational tours etc). These are
marketing gimmicks and may have no truth in them.
ix. Educational Psychology

This is an area of applied psychology concerned with the application of psychological principles,
knowledge, concepts, and techniques to problems in education. Educational psychologists help
in analysing educational needs, developing curriculum and teaching materials, and evaluating
instructional programmes. It also focuses on how people learn and which teaching methods are
effective.
x. Health Psychology
This is an area of psychology that studies the relationship between psychological factors and
physical ailments and diseases. For example, how stress affects physical health. It is also
concerned with ways of promoting behaviour related to good health (such as increased exercise)
or discouraging unhealthy behaviour (such as smoking and drinking of alcohol). As a teacher
you need to be in good health to perform your duties effectively.
Learning Activity:
Sick in mind, sick in body. Discuss this statement in view of health psychology.
xi. Environmental Psychology

This is a field of psychology that is concerned with studying the relationship between a person’s
physical environment and his/her behaviour. A person’s physical environment can affect his/her
behaviour. For example, our religious beliefs, attitudes, prejudices and eating habits can be
attributed to our experiences in the immediate environment. The Teaching profession has
established traditions and unique environments that greatly contribute towards the behaviour of
Teachers and their efficiency.
xii. Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on how psychology is related to the
law. The main part of forensic psychology is working with the criminal justice system in order to
31
better study the human mind and crime. Most of a forensic psychologist’s time is spent in a
courtroom working as a witness for the court, answering questions based on the interviews and
discussions with people suspected of a crime. The job of the forensic psychologist is to decide on
the suspect’s ability to stand trial, and his or her thoughts about the crime. A forensic
psychologist acts as an expert who uses psychology to study a suspect to see if they were capable
of doing the crime in question.
Forensic psychology has some major roles in a court that bring psychology into a legal arena.
The first is "malingering", where a defendant is pretending to have a mental illness, or is lying to
the court about his state of mind. A forensic psychologist keeps in mind that a defendant may
have a mental disorder but also keeps in mind to watch for signs of deception, or errors in the
defendant’s story. Another job of a forensic psychologist is to investigate the state of mind of the
defendant at the time he or she committed the crime. Another is to see whether or not the
defendant is able to be charged with the crimes due to his or her mental condition. Another job is
to evaluate the defendant to see if he or she is able to be rehabilitated, or if he or she might
commit the crime again. These are a few of the jobs that forensic psychologists do. Their work in
and out of courtrooms and with Teacher and criminals extends to all different directions in the
world of criminal justice and psychology.
xiii. Criminological Psychology
Criminology comprises the body of knowledge dealing with the causes and consequences of
crime. Criminology also involves study of criminal behaviour and the impact of laws on human
behaviour. Both the positivist and classical schools take a consensus view of crime – that a
crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society.
There are two types of laws:
 Natural laws are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm
to persons (e.g., murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery).
 Statutory laws are passed by legislatures and reflect current cultural mores. In the United States,
such laws include those that prohibit marijuana use and gambling. When it comes to such laws,
there is often great societal debate rather than consensus.
32
Definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the cultural mores.
Criminology is a multi-disciplinary field; criminologists may have degrees in criminology, law,
sociology, psychology, social policy, political science, anthropology, or others. Popularly,
criminology may involve crime statistics, criminal psychology, forensic science, law
enforcement, and investigative methods; academically, these areas are somewhat marginal to
criminology.
4.4 Summary
 A branch of psychology is an area of specialization in psychology.
 Psychologists perform research and can specialize in several areas, including clinical,
counselling, educational, health, environmental, industrial, and consumer psychology.
 Some of the areas of psychology that may have a direct application to teaching include,
counselling, clinical, industrial developmental, learning, personality and social
psychology. Psychometrics is another area that has benefited.
 The diversity of psychology makes it relevant and applicable in homes, schools, business,
religion, war, and in our individual daily lives.
1. Identify professions in which psychologists can find employment in our country.
2. What is a branch of psychology?
3. List five branches of psychology and explain their areas of specialization.
4. Identify behaviours among Teachers that may require the application of counselling
psychology.
5. Identify some of the branches of psychology that you might have benefited from and
explain how.
6. Briefly explain areas in the profession of a teacher that have benefited from psychology.
33
LECTURE 5
BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BASES OF BEHAVIOUR

5.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to look at the controversy that existed among psychologists on how
heredity and environment contribute to the differences in human behaviour. The issue of how
much of human behaviour is inherited and how much is acquired through experience within the
environment has been one of the greatest problems in psychology. We shall also discuss the
nervous system and see how it affects our behaviour. In our discussion we shall examine the
major divisions of the nervous system; the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the
brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of the nerves in
the body outside the central nervous system. We will also examine the endocrine system, which
consists of glands that help regulate our behaviour by secreting hormones, or chemicals into our
blood stream. An understanding of how heredity and environmental factors interact to determine
behaviour and how much our inherited potential can be realized can help us to understand
individual differences in behaviour.
Learning Activity:
Which one do you think is more important than the other in determining your characteristics –
heredity or environment?
Behaviour is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). For a long time in
the history of psychology, psychologists have debated on the relative importance of heredity and
environment in determining our behaviour. The question they have tried to answer is whether
our behaviour is determined or decided upon by heredity or by environment.
34
 Explain the nature versus nurture controversy.
 Explain how heredity and environment interact to determine human behaviour.
 Give the implication of the nature versus nurture debate on the learning process.
 Explain how neurons convey electrochemical information throughout the body.
 Discuss how the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system initiate
bodily activity and regulate body functions.
 Identify the major structures of the brain and state their role in behaviour.
 Explain the role of hormones in human behaviour.
5.3 Genetic Influence

The influence of heredity on our behaviour cannot be overemphasized. At the moment of
conception, when the sperm unites with an ovum an incredible number of personal features and
developmental patterns are determined. The hereditary instructions are transmitted through the
chromosomes that contain thousands and thousands of genes, which determine our inherited
traits. Chromosomes are long chainlike structures containing genes and are found in the nuclei
of body cells.
The individual inherits 23 chromosomes from each parent. These chromosomes combine to
make a pair of 23, meaning that each single human cell will have a total of 46 chromosomes.
The thousands and thousands of genes carried in each chromosome determine the sequence of
growth, timing of maturity, skin colour, hair colour, body size, vulnerability to some diseases
(e.g., sickle-cell anaemia and mental disorders), body shape, height, intelligence, athletic
potential, personality characteristics and other traits. If you are more interested in the
mechanisms of genetic inheritance, you can read books on developmental psychology. In this
lecture our concern is to show how hereditary and environmental factors interact to influence our
behaviour. Both heredity and environment are important in determining behaviour and
35
development. The two are inseparable. As one grows, there is a constant interaction between
the forces of nature and nurture. Therefore, the total person is a product of heredity and
environmental factors.
Learning Activity:
Give a brief explanation of how heredity determines various traits
Heredity shapes behaviour and development by providing a framework of personal potentials

and limitations that are altered by environmental factors such as nutrition, culture, disease,
learning, parents, peers, home, school and so on. Environmental factors determine how much of
our inherited potentials or capacities will be realized. For example, a child with a very high
inherited academic potential will not achieve high grades unless he or she is exposed to an ideal
and conducive learning environment. The observed academic achievement in this case may be
far much below the child’s inherited ability.
5.4 Environmental Influence

The influence of environment on behaviour and development begins immediately after
conception and continues until death. During prenatal (before birth) development a number of
factors can affect the foetus before it is born. The mother’s nutrition and exposure to disease,
drugs and radiation through x-ray can result to malformation of the baby, low birth weight,
mental retardation and other permanent effects.
After birth, the influence on behaviour and development includes a variety of environmental
factors such as the culture, peers, media, family, nutrition, parents, disease, learning and school.
In the early years of life, the most important influence comes from an infant’s caretaker. Thus,
the quality of mothering is of prime importance (Omulema & Sindabi, 1999).
Without the interaction of heredity and environment behaviour may not be manifested. For
example, a child will not learn language unless he/she is exposed to a spoken language. As one
grows, there is a constant interaction or interplay between the forces of nature and nurture. Our
36
heredity does not change, but produces various physical changes that occur throughout our life
time.
i. Give a brief explanation of how environment determines various traits.
ii. Discuss how much you can do on heredity and environment to improve your traits.
The relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors differs from one trait to another. A
certain trait may be determined largely by heredity but not much by environment and vice-versa.
For example, genes contribute more to intelligence than they do to other personality traits such
as, attitudes, beliefs, prejudice, interest and values. The real issue in understanding human
behaviour and development is the question of how heredity and environment interact or work
together to produce our psychological traits and developmental changes but not the percentage of
contribution of each.
Today psychologists support an interactionist model or approach. From a Teaching point of

view, the most important thing to learn is that many of our characteristics can be influenced by
the environment. Although there is little or nothing we can do about heredity, much of the
environment still remains under our control. Therefore, we should try to improve the
environment for our Teaching fraternity to enable them realize their full potential and perform to
their best.
Research findings on the contributions of heredity and environment have revealed that:
 The intelligence quotient (IQ) correlations between identical twins (who develop from the
same egg) are exceptionally high when raised together and slightly less when raised in
separate environments (Eysenck & Kamin, 1981). The slight variation can be attributed to
differences in their environment.
 The IQ scores of fraternal twins (who like siblings develop from different eggs) are
correlated at about the same level as those of non-twin brothers and sisters.
37
 The more closely two people are genetically, the higher their IQ correlations.
 The correlation between the IQ scores of a child and its mother is the same as the correlation
between the IQ score of the child and its father.
 The IQ scores of adopted children show correlation with those of their biological parents.
 The correlation between unrelated children reared in separate environments is zero, whereas
if the same set of children are brought up in the same environment it rises to about 0.25.
 The IQ scores of adopted children are more closely related to their biological parents than
their adoptive parents, who raised them (Bourchard, 1984).
5.5 The Nervous System

Why do psychologists study the nervous system? Psychologists study the nervous system to
understand how it affects behaviour. For example, the areas of your brain that control speech are
known. Physiology is an integral part of psychology. The kind of behaviour of which a species
is capable is determined partly by the kind of nervous system it possesses. The human nervous
system, especially the brain is highly developed and more complex compared to that of other
animals. Hence, human behaviour is complex compared to that of other animals.
The nervous system is divided into two major divisions: central; constituting the brain and
spinal cord; and peripheral which includes nerves outside the central nervous system serving
muscles, glands and sensory receptors. Each of these systems is made up of several components
that contribute in one way or the other to behaviour. They initiate bodily activity and regulate
body functions.
The Neuron
This is the basic unit of the nervous system (a single nerve cell). Neurons transmit information
throughout the body as well as the brain. Each neuron receives and sends signals to other
neurons. All behaviour - everything you do, think or feel is a result of neural activity. Your
movement, thinking, heartbeat and so on depends on what happens at the level of the neuron. A
38
neuron has three basic features: dendrites, cell body and an axon. Neurons in different parts of
the nervous system may differ in size and shape but they all have the three major parts.
The dendrites receive information from other neurons. Each neuron may have hundreds or
thousand of dendrites. The cell body, or soma has several functions;
 It integrates the electrical information coming from the dendrites.

 It absorbs needed nutrients.
 It produces the majority of protein molecules needed for normal functioning of the cell.
The axon which is a tube-like structure transmits neural information to axon terminals (nerve
endings). It is highly sensitive to changes in the electrical charge of its membranes. If the
electrical charge is sufficient, an action potential (an electrochemical impulse) is initiated at the
junction between the soma and the axon. This action potential travels down and branches into
the axon terminal buttons. These terminal buttons form junctions with other neurons and with
muscles, which in turn are activated by chemicals released by the terminal buttons. While a
neuron is a single cell consisting of the three parts discussed, a nerve is a bundle of axons that
have a similar function.
Neurons do not touch one another. They are separated by a gap between them known as a
synapse. When an action potential reaches the axon terminals, it causes neurotransmitters to be
released into the synaptic gap, the space between the two cells. Neurotransmitters are
chemicals (such as acetylcholine, histamine, serotonin) released from terminal buttons into the
synaptic gap.
These chemicals cross the gap and stimulate/excite the presynaptic terminals of the next cell
which in turn releases an electrical charge or spark. The neurotransmitters may either have
excitatory or inhibitory effect on their target cells. Excitatory neurotransmitters instruct the
receiving neuron to fire or conduct an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters instruct the
receiving neuron not to fire an action potential. Excitatory neurotransmitters include
39
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. An example of an inhibitory
neurotransmitter is endorphine that blocks neural signals (Huffman, et al., 1995).
Learning Activity:
What does excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters do?
Figure 1: Structure of a neuron
Psychoactive drugs (drugs that affect the nervous system like alcohol or caffeine) have their
effect by either increasing or decreasing the amount of neurotransmitters released into the
synapse. Drugs like alcohol and pain killers work by suppressing the release of
neurotransmitters or increasing the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters. Drugs like caffeine
and cocaine increases the amount of neurotransmitters in the synapse or directly activates
receptor sites on the dendrites – thus they have a stimulating effect on the nervous system.
40
The nervous system is made up of millions of neurons, which make up the basic structural units
of the nervous system. About 80 percent of all neurons are found in the brain.
Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
It includes all the nerves going to and from the brain and the spinal cord. It serves to transmit
neural impulses to and from the brain and the spinal cord. It consists of two systems, the
somatic and the autonomic nervous systems. The two divisions work jointly with the CNS in
carrying out their functions.
The somatic nervous system directs the movement of the skeletal muscles, which are usually
under our voluntary control. It regulates voluntary actions. For example, when you move your
hand when writing, the somatic nervous system sends neural impulses to and from the brain with
instructions for the skeletal muscles to contract or relax.
The autonomic nervous system controls the more automatic (self-regulating) bodily functions
such as heart rate, sweating and breathing, which are beyond our voluntary control. It maintains
homeostasis – the regulation of body balances necessary for survival. It regulates the glands,
heart muscles, muscles of the blood vessels, internal organs and other involuntary responses.
The autonomic nervous system is made up of two systems, the parasympathetic and the
sympathetic nervous systems. These two tend to work in opposition to each other in regulating
the functioning of such organs as the heart, intestines and the lungs.
The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant when a person is in a relaxed, non-stressful

physical and mental state. It slows the heart rate, lowers blood pressure, dilates arteries, and
increases digestive and eliminative processes. In short, it performs bodily maintenance.
The sympathetic nervous system which is an emergency system takes over when a person is
under some type of stress, or some type of mental and physical strain. It stops digestive and
eliminative processes, increases blood pressure, respiration, heart rate and causes several
hormones to be released into the bloodstream. This happens to get more oxygenated blood and
glucose to the skeletal muscles, thus making a person able to deal with the source of stress. In
41
other words, it prepares the body to fight or flee from whatever is causing the stress or anxiety.
When you feel very tense and anxious when taking a very important examination or being
interviewed for a job, the sympathetic nervous system is the one that would be responsible for
such feelings. When the crisis is settled, the parasympathetic division resumes control and the
activity of the related organs returns to their usual level.
Peripheral nervous system

(All nerves going to and from the CNS)
Autonomic nervous system (Regulates

Somatic nervous system
(All nerves carrying sensory and bodily functions - automatic
motor information – voluntary)
Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous system

system (maintains basic bodily (Activates body to deal with
functions) stress)
Figure 2: Subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system
During combat, the sympathetic nervous system will be active and when the combat is over and
the threat from the enemy is no more, the parasympathetic division will take over.
42
Table 21 The actions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches
of the Autonomic Nervous system
Parasympathetic Body system/organ Sympathetic
Constricts Pupil Dilates
Stimulates salivation Salivary glands Decreases salivation
Constricts Blood vessels Dilates
Slows Heart Speeds
Constricts Airways in lungs Opens
Relaxes Hair Erects
Constricts Sweat glands Opens
Increase contractions Stomach Reduces contractions
Contracts Bladder Relaxes
Relaxes Reproductive system Excites
In short, the function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to quiet the body and bring it to a
lower level of arousal whereas the function of the sympathetic nervous systems is to generally
activate the body.
The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the control
centre for all voluntary behaviour (such as writing, computing and talking) and a good part of
involuntary behaviour (such as feeling embarrassed). The spinal cord contains the structures
responsible for reflex actions and the nerve fibres that link the brain and other parts of the body.
(a) The spinal cord
It is the part of the nervous system found within the spinal column which is involved in reflexes
and the relay of neural information to and from the brain. It is involved in all the voluntary and
reflex responses of the body below the neck. A reflex is a simple, automatic response integrated
within the spinal cord such as a knee jerk.
43
The spinal cord has two major components, the grey matter and white matter. The grey matter
near the centre contains mainly cell bodies within which information is processed within the
spinal cord itself. The white matter is the outer layer of the spinal cord. Within the white matter,
axons transmit information to and from the brain. When damaged, all muscles served by
sections of the spinal cord below the damaged part will not function normally and a person may
be paralysed.
(b) The brain
Learning Activity:
As you read through this section draw a table with two columns and indicate in one column the
various parts of the brain and in the other one the behaviours controlled by those parts.
As we have seen, the brain is the control centre for the body. It controls what we do, think and
feel. The human brain is complex and highly developed as compared to that of other animals.
This accounts for the complicated nature of human behaviour. The major divisions of the brain
are the cerebrum, consisting of the cerebral cortex and sub cortical areas, the cerebellum and the
brain system.
(i) The cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex makes the outside surface of the brain. It is the largest structure of the brain
and accounts for more than 70 percent of the neurons in the central nervous system. It is
composed of two hemispheres connected by a thick band of fibres called Corpus callosum. The
two sides control opposite sides of the body. The right half mainly controls the left body areas.
The left half mainly controls the right side of the body. Each hemisphere is divided into four
areas or lobes according to their general functions and structures. The four areas are the frontal,
parietal, occipital and temporal lobes (see figure 3).
44
Figure 3: Parts of the Brain
The frontal lobes

The frontal lobes are located at the top front portion of the brain hemispheres. Their functions
include self-awareness, initiative and ability to plan ahead. At the back of the frontal lobes lies
the motor control areas which controls all voluntary body movements. For example, when you
remove your pen from your bag, it is the motor control area of the frontal lobes that guide your
hand.
A specialized area in the left frontal lobe on the surface of the brain near the bottom of the motor
control area is the broca’s area, which controls the muscles used to produce speech. The
remaining part consists of association cortex that is believed to control mental operations or
complex psychological functions such as, thought, perception, imagery, problem solving,
emotions, memory, language and thinking (Luria, 1973, 1980). The association areas organize
45
and integrate sensory information received from other brain areas to enable us to perform various
functions.
The parietal lobes

The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes. They control body sensations and
memory about the environment. Bodily sensations such as touch, pain, pressure and temperature
are channelled to the parietal lobes.
The occipital lobes

The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They mainly control vision and visual
perceptions. When you are hit at the back of your head with your eyes closed you will see stars
or flashes of light. This is because the blow activates the nerve cells in the occipital lobes.
Damage or injury to this area can affect vision.
The temporal lobes

The temporal lobes are located on the sides of the brain. Their major functions are auditory
perception (hearing), language, memory and some emotional control. They are also important in
the formation of new concepts and memories. Damage to the temporal lobes will cause
impairment to the above functions.
(ii) Sub cortical brain areas
The sub cortical brain areas are found in the centre of the brain and are surrounded by the
cerebral cortex. They include the corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus and a group of
structures collectively known as limbic system.
The corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres and makes it possible for the
hemispheres to communicate or coordinate with each other. If this part is damaged, we will have
two brains that can function independently of each other, conditions known as split brain. In
such a case, each hemisphere will have its own sensations, perceptions and concepts. For
example, if one sees or learns something with one eye and blindfolds it and uses the other, the
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second eye will not recognize what was seen or learned. However, in conflict one side overrides
the other and therefore one will behave normally.
The thalamus is located below the corpus callosum and between the two hemispheres. It serves
as the major sensory relay centre for the brain. It receives input from nearly all the sensory
system, and then projects this information to the respective or appropriate areas of the brain. It
sorts out and directs information from the sensory organs to specific sensory and motor regions
of the brain. The thalamus also plays a role in learning and memory. If damaged, one would
have problems in forming new memories.
The hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. Its major function is homeostasis, that is, the
regulation of the internal environment of the body. It controls blood temperature, the
concentration of salt and sugar in the blood, the concentration of hormones and other
chemicals in the body. It accomplishes this function through regulating the endocrine system.
For example, if it detects high levels of sugar in the blood, it will send signals to the pancreas to
produce insulin that will bring it down to the required level. It is a master control centre for
emotion and other basic motives. The hypothalamus controls behaviours such as sexual
response, rage, anger, eating and drinking, sleeping, waking and emotion. If damaged, all these
functions may be impaired. It is also a part of a group of subcortical and cortical structures
collectively known as limbic system.
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Figure 4: The limbic system
The limbic system comprises of the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, parts of the
thalamus and parts of the frontal and temporal cortical lobes. It controls emotional and
motivated behaviour especially aggression, rage, fear, pleasure and other intense arousals.
Damage to this brain system will affect all these behaviours.
(iii) The cerebellum
The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain. It regulates posture (maintenance of balance
when walking, riding, sitting etc), muscular coordination and motor activities/movements. The
cerebellum makes our movements coordinated and smooth. It also plays a role in some types of
memory.
(iv) The brain tem
The brain stem consists of the pons, medulla and the reticular activating system. The Pons is
involved in functions such as respiration, movement, facial expression and sleep.
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Figure 5: The Brain Stem
The Medulla is located at the bottom of the brain and at the top of the spinal cord. It mainly
controls automatic bodily functions such as breathing, heartbeat and swallowing. Injury to the
medulla can affect these functions and endanger life.
The Reticular activating system (RAS) which is also known as the Reticular formation filters
incoming information. It selectively attends to some information and ignores or excludes
unimportant sensory input. It is important for attention and arousal. This part of the brain is also
responsible for various degrees of alertness and wakefulness. If damaged one can go into coma
resembling sleep.
As you have seen in this lecture, behaviour is a complex process that has its roots in the
interaction between heredity and environment and also the nervous and endocrine systems. The
more you learn about the influence of heredity and environment on behaviour and the brain and
nervous system the more you will understand why people behave the way they do.
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Learning Activity:
As you read through this section draw a table with three columns and indicate in one column the
various endocrine glands and in the second column indicate the hormones/chemicals they secrete
and in the third one, the behaviours controlled by each of them.
5.6 The Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of several glands that release hormones into the blood stream.
The nervous system and the endocrine system work together to direct our behaviour and
maintain our body’s normal functioning. The nervous system activates the endocrine system to
secrete hormones which are passed into the blood stream which circulates them throughout the
body. These hormones affect behaviour and the nervous system itself. These glands include the
pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, gonads and the pancreas.
(a) The pituitary gland

It is located at the base of the brain. One of the major hormones produced by the pituitary gland
is the growth hormone which controls the growth of the skeletal system. Too much growth
hormone produces gigantism and too little of it produces dwarfism. It regulates the functioning
of the other glands (especially the thyroid, adrenal glands and the gonads). It functions mostly
under the control of the hypothalamus, to which it is attached. In women, it controls the
production of milk. The pituitary gland is also called the master gland because of its many
effects on other glands.
(b) The thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is located in the neck region. It produces thyroxin hormone, which controls
metabolism rate of the body (i.e., the rate at which energy is produced and expended). As a
result, it has an effect on personality. A person with an overactive thyroid (termed
hyperthyroidism) tends to be thin, tense, excitable and nervous. An under active thyroid
(termed hypothyroidism) can cause inactivity, sleepiness, slowness and overweight among
adults. In infancy, hypothyroidism limits development of the nervous system and can cause
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mental retardation. Deficiency of iodine which is part of the thyroxin hormone causes goitre
which is the swelling of the thyroid gland.
(c) The adrenal gland

The adrenal glands are located at the upper end of the kidneys. They are always two, with an
inner core/layer called adrenal medulla and an outer layer called adrenal cortex.
The adrenal medulla is the source of adrenaline, which helps the body to perform in
emergencies by increasing heart rate, permitting the flow of sugar and oxygen etc. It also
influences emotional behaviours such as crying and aggression.
The adrenal cortex produces hormones called corticoids whose function is to regulate salt
balance in the body and helps the body to adjust to stress. The adrenal cortex is also a secondary
source of sex hormones.
(d) The gonads

The gonads are the testes and ovaries. They play a key role in sexual behaviour. They produce
gametes (sperms and ovum). Among other hormones the ovaries produce oestrogen which
influences sex drive, development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., the development of
breasts and pubic hair) and ovulation. One of the major male hormones is testosterone which
influences sex drive, development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., the development of
beards and deep voice). The hormones produced by the gonads contribute to the physical and
psychological development during the onset of adolescence and continues to influence sexual
responsiveness throughout adulthood.
(e) The pancreas

The pancreas secretes insulin – a hormone that controls the amount of sugar circulating in the
blood. If little insulin is produced, there will be more sugar freed from the liver and vice versa.
Diabetes results due to non-insulin production. This affects brain functioning which utilizes
about ¼ of the sugar in the body.
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In conclusion, you have seen how behaviour and personality among other body functions are tied
to the flow of hormones in the blood which are produced by the endocrine system.
5.7 Summary
 Heredity and environment interact to determine behavioural characteristics.

 Heredity shapes behaviour by providing a framework of personal potential and limitations. The
environment determines whether a person will realize the full-inherited potential or not. Whether
or not you can function to your full potential as a person depends on the environment provided
your employer.
 Since there is little or nothing, we can do about genetic inheritance we should improve the
environment, much of which is in our control for our police force to perform to their maximum
according to their inborn potential.
 Neurons transmit information throughout the body.
 Neurons do not touch one another. Information is transferred from one neuron to another at the
synapse which is a gap between them via chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are released by axon terminal buttons when an action potential reaches the
buttons.
 The endocrine system releases hormones into the bloodstream that regulate behaviour.
 The peripheral nervous system includes all nerves going to and from the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system has two major divisions, the somatic and autonomic nervous
system.
 The autonomic nervous system is divided into two branches, the parasympathetic and
sympathetic, which tend to work in opposition to each other.
 The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant when a person is relaxed.
 The sympathetic nervous system is dominant when a person is under physical or mental stress.
 The central nervous system is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.
 The major divisions of the brain are the cerebral cortex, the sub cortical areas, the cerebellum and
the brain stem.
 The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes; frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal that
perform different functions.
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 The cerebellum is responsible for smooth movement and coordinated motor activity.
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1. Explain the controversy about the role of nature and nurture in human behaviour.
2. Which has the greatest effect on human behaviour; heredity or environment? Explain.
3. Why are psychologists interested in the study of the nervous system?
4. Identify the major divisions of the nervous system.
5. Identify three types of neurons and describe their functions.
6. Describe how nerve cells communicate and discuss the importance of neurotransmitters
to human behaviour.
7. How does a neuron fire and conduct information to the next neuron?
8. Identify the various parts of the brain and explain their functions.
9. Why is it impossible to quantitatively determine the relative contributions of heredity and
environment when considering a particular trait?
10. How do psychoactive (mind altering drugs) produce their effects?
11. Choose one particular behaviour and describe the influence of heredity and environment
on that behaviour.
12. Explain how the autonomic nervous system functions.
13. Describe how the body reacts to an emergency.
14. Discuss why it may be possible for a teacher to realize his/her full Teaching potential.
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LECTURE 6
INTELLIGENCE
6.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to discuss the concept of intelligence. We will examine the meaning
of the term, some of the methods devised to assess it and intellectual differences among
individuals.

 Define intelligence and state various components of intelligence.
 Explain the various uses of intelligence tests.
 Explain how intelligence is assessed.
 Discuss the implications of intelligence on leaning.
6.3 Definition of Intelligence

What is Intelligence? Intelligence has been one of the most difficult concepts to define in
psychology. Different psychologists have defined the term intelligence differently.
Davis (1983:434) defines intelligence as “the ability to learn quickly, solve problems,
understand complex and abstract issues, and generally behave in reasonable, rational and
purposeful manner”. Huffman et al. (1995:245) defines it as the cognitive abilities
employed in acquiring, remembering and using knowledge of one’s culture to solve
everyday problems and to readily adapt to and function in both a changing and stable
environment. According to Wechsler (1975), intelligence refers to the global and
aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, to act purposefully and to deal
effectively with his/her environment.
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Although these three definitions are more comprehensive than others, a look at what
psychologists thought to be the components of intelligence will give us a better understanding of
what it is. For a long time, psychologists could not agree on what abilities an intelligence test
should measure.
Learning Activity:
Explain some of the characteristics of intelligent people.
Give a simplified definition of intelligence in your own words.
Spearman (1927) proposed that intelligence is composed of a single factor or a general cognitive
ability that enables people to reason, solve problems and do well in all areas that require
cognition (Huffman et al., 1995). He called this general ability the g factor. Thurstone (1938)
proposed that intelligence is composed of seven distinct primary mental abilities (PMA) that
he believed were independent of each other. They included:
 verbal comprehension/ability
 world fluency
 numerical
 perceptual speed
 memory
 spatial (to do with space) ability
 reasoning.
Later Paul Guilford (1967) identified as many as 120 intellectual abilities.
Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consists of two components, namely crystallized and
fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence refers to the knowledge and experience a person
accumulates during his life and is assessed by tests of vocabulary and information (Mwamwenda,
1995). This kind of intelligence increases with age, but may decline during old age. Fluid
intelligence, which is innate, includes a person’s ability to reason, discriminate and engage in
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abstract thinking. It is genetic and consists of our capacity for learning new knowledge and
solving problems.
In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligence. He postulated that
intelligence consists of the following abilities:
 abilities in language.
 visual and spatial thinking.
 musical.
 body kinesthetic skills (e.g., dancing and athletic abilities).
 Intrapersonal skills (e.g., self-knowledge)
 interpersonal skills or social competence (leadership and social abilities including the ability
to show interest in others and to interact effectively with them).
Learning Activity:
Summarize all the abilities of intelligence as identified by various scholars. Give more
abilities that are not listed in this lecture.
He felt that some people tend to excel in some areas of intelligence than in others. Therefore,
intelligence testing should consist of assessing a person’s strengths in different areas rather than
coming up with a single IQ score (Gardner, 1986).
Perhaps now you understand why psychologists have had difficulties in defining the term
intelligence. Different psychologists had different views on what it is. Although many views on
the components of intelligence existed, many contemporary psychologists believe that
intelligence is composed of many different abilities but not one general ability. In view of this,
our school system should provide learning environments tailored to students’ unique strengths
and learning styles. For example, schools for performing arts, science, technology and so on.
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6.4 Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence tests are used to measure a person’s level of intelligence. These tests provide a
mental age (MA) which when divided by a person’s chronological age (CA) and then
multiplied by 100 gives an intelligent quotient (IQ) measure (i.e., a score or an index of
intelligence). Thus, to determine/calculate a persons’ intelligence quotient, mental age is divided
by his chronological age and then the ratio is multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals.
Chronological age is one’s actual age in years or his/her physical age. Mental age is a type of
score expressing mental development in terms of the age level at which a child is performing.
For example, if a 10-year-old boy does as well on an intelligence test as the average child of 12
years, his mental age is 12. In this example, the boy’s IQ would be calculated as follows:
IQ = MA x 100 = 12 x 100 = 1.2 X 100 = 120
CA 10
If MA equals CA, IQ will be 100 points, that is, the IQ for an average person. A person
below average will have an IQ score of less than 100 points while a person above average
will have an IQ score of above 100 points.
Like many other psychological traits, intelligence seems to be normally distributed in the
population in such a way that most people make scores in the middle range while only a few
people make very high or very low scores. Thus, the average IQ of a randomly selected group of
people on most tests would be about 100. This produces a bell-shaped distribution, a curve
which statisticians call a normal curve (see figure 6).
Figure 6: Mental classification
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Approximately 2.2% of the population score 70. Only about 2.2% of population score over 130
and about 50% of the whole population score between 90-100. At the extremes of intelligence
are the mentally gifted and mentally retarded.
Learning Activity:
Using the normal curve, give an estimate of your IQ. Give reasons for your estimated IQ.
Table 22: Classification on the basis of IQ
IQ Score Description
130 – 145 Gifted
120 – 129 Superior
110 – 119 Bright normal
85 – 109 Average
70 - 84 Borderline
55 - 69 Mildly mentally retarded
40 - 54 Moderately mentally retarded
25 - 39 Severely mentally retarded
0 - 25 Profoundly mentally retarded
As you can see from table 22, individuals who score less than 70 are considered to be mentally
retarded. Some of the causes of mental retardation include:
 Down’s syndrome that involves an extra chromosome 21 in the body’s cells. The person will
have three rather than a pair of the 21st chromosome.
 Extreme environmental deprivation in the early years of life.
 Genetic inheritance.
 Prenatal environmental factors during pregnancy such as malnutrition, drugs, chemicals and
radiation.
 Birth injury.
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However, in many cases there may be no known cause for the mental retardation.
IQ tests
There are many different kinds of IQ tests and each approaches the measurement of intelligence
from a different perspective. Let us have a look at some of the IQ tests that have been used.
The revised Stanford – Binet Test

This test is administered individually and measures mental age for the ages 1 – 14 years. It is
among the best known and most widely used measure of intelligence. It consists of a wide
variety of different subtests graded in difficulty so as to correspond to various age levels. It
measures four separate areas: verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning
and short-term memory.
Examples of questions asked of 6-year-olds are; “A bird flies; a fish ", "An inch is short; a
mile is ".
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

The Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC – R where R stands for revised in 1974) can
be administered individually (one test taker one test giver) to children between 6 and 16 years of
age. It consists of 12 subtests divided into two parts, verbal tests and performance tests. The six
verbal subtest measure information, comprehension, arithmetic, similarities, vocabulary and digit
span. The six performance subtests comprise picture completion, picture arrangement, block
design, object assembly, coding and mazes. Digit span and mazes are not used to measure
normal children (Mwamwenda, 1995).
The Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT)

This is a group test of intelligence. Group tests are usually paper-and-pencil or computer
administered tests that can be given to a large group at one time. The CogAT yields verbal,
quantitative and non-verbal scores.
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Otis-Lennon School Ability Test
This is another example of a paper-and-pencil test. It is used to assess school related ability.
This test measures vocabulary, reasoning and numeric ability.
The Army Alpha Test

This is one of the oldest paper-and-pencil tests to be administered, to inductees in the U.S.A.
army during World War I. It measured cognitive abilities such as mathematical reasoning,
analogies and critical judgment. Other group tests include the California Test of Mental
Maturity, the School and College Ability Test and the Differential Aptitude Test.
Some of these tests and other traditional intelligence tests have been criticized as being
culturally biased or unfair to individuals from ethnic and social groups outside the white middle
class population. As a result of this, black Americans were said to be less intelligent than the
whites. In other cases, children were placed in classes for the mentally retarded on the basis of
testing conducted in a language other than their native one (Lefrancois, 1997).
Such biases led to an attempt to devise culture-free or culture-fair intelligence tests (measures
that do not disadvantage certain groups). These tests avoid questions that depend on a particular
cultural background. This is because heredity and cultural environment are believed to
contribute towards one’s measured intelligence. Thus, performance in a particular intelligence
test may depend on the culture one has been raised in.
6.5 Uses of IQ Tests
Learning Activity:
Can your academic performance be close representation of your IQ? Explain why.
Although IQ tests are not widely used in Kenya, they have a variety of uses. IQ tests can be used
for the following purposes:
 to predict academic achievement.
 to hire and promote employees.
 to predict career success.
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 to identify children with special needs such as the mentally gifted and retarded.
 to diagnose learners with learning difficulties or problems. The symptoms of such
difficulties include frustrations, anxiety, emotional disturbances, underachievement and
disruptive behaviour.
 to assign pupils to special programmes and institutions, for example, admitting students into
certain programmes in the university. Teacher recruits can be screened and placed in
different areas on the basis of their intelligence.
 assessment of maturational and developmental factors so as to predict success at elementary
school level, for example, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.
 to determine whether individuals are functioning up to their intellectual levels.
The various uses in which IQ tests have been previously put into show that they can be used to
supplement our national examinations in decision making about learners. They can also be used
effectively in various professions such as identification of Teacher recruits especially in
selection, placement and in making decisions on training
6.6 Summary
 Theorists have differed in their definition of intelligence. Among other definitions, Davis (1983)
defines it as “the ability to learn quickly, solve problems, understand complex and abstract issues and
generally behave in a reasonable, rational and purposeful manner”.
 intelligence consists of the cognitive abilities employed in acquiring, remembering and using knowledge of
one’s culture to solve everyday problems and readily adapt to and function in both changing and stable
environment (Huffman et al., 1995).
 psychologists have differed on the components of intelligence. Some felt that it is composed of few abilities
whereas others proposed many abilities.
 IQ tests may not measure overall intelligence; rather, most of them are designed to measure verbal and
quantitative abilities needed for school success.
 people with IQs of 70 and below are identified as mentally retarded while people with IQs of 130 and above
are identified as gifted.
 Causes of mental retardation include genetic and environmental factors. For some cases of mental
retardation there may be no known cause.
 61 assign learners to special tasks and
IQ tests can be used to: predict academic success,
recruit and make placement decisions.
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1. Define intelligence and explain why psychologists found it difficult to define the concept
of intelligence.
2. List some of the components of intelligence that psychologists thought an intelligence
test should capture.
3. Giving an example, explain how intelligence is assessed.
4. What is a “culture free” or “culture fair” test of intelligence?
5. What causes mental retardation?
6. Discuss the various uses you would recommend for intelligence tests if they were to be
introduced and extensively used in the Kenyan education system.
7. Differentiate between fluid and crystallized intelligence.
8. Discuss evidence for both genetic and environmental influences on intelligence.
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LECTURE 7
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
7.1 Introduction
Learning is a process that involves absorbing information through various sensory modalities and
interpretations of the sensory input to make/draw meaning out of it. In your learning
experiences, you might have noticed that you easily forget information that you hear, but what
you hear, see, touch or manipulate, smell and taste may take long before it is erased from your
memory. Psychologists and teachers are interested in studying the concepts of sensation and
perception because of their importance in the learning-teaching process. In this lecture, you will
learn how our sensory organs gather sensory information and convert it into signals the brain can
understand and how the sensory input is organized and processed to make sense out of it.

 Define sensation and perception.
 Explain the factors that affect perception and sensation.
 Explain how you can draw and keep the trainee’s attention focused.
 Discuss the implications of sensation and perception on policing.
7.3 Sensation
Behaviour as we know it, our own private experiences and the reported experiences of others
would be impossible without some way of knowing about the world around us. Through the
sense of smell, touch, vision, taste and hearing we learn about the world. To appreciate the
importance of the sensory process in behaviour, imagine what it would be without one or more
of your senses.
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Sensation can be defined as the process of receiving, translating and transmitting raw data from
the external and internal environments to the brain. The process of sensation involves the
entering of raw sensory data from the senses to the brain. To experience sensation, our sense
organs (eyes, nose, tongue, ears, skin) must detect stimuli and convert them into a language the
brain can understand.
Learning Activity:
Explain how you acquire information from the environment.
Sensory Processing
Our senses are capable of detecting a wide range of stimuli out of which they selectively attend
to some and ignore others that are not important. This process is called sensory reduction, in
which the sensory system filters incoming sensation by analysing their relative importance
before it sends a neural impulse to the brain. Our sensory organs contain cells called receptors
that receive and process sensory information from the environment. Through a process called
transduction, the receptors convert the stimulus into neural impulses, which are sent to the
brain. The receptor cells found in each sensory organ reduce the amount of information we
receive, otherwise the brain would be overwhelmed by the amount of information detected at any
one given time.
The brain differentiates between incoming sensations such as smell and sound through a process
called coding. Coding is a process through which a particular sensory input is converted into a
specific sensation. The coding for a specific sensation depends on the number and type of
sensory cells that are activated, on the precise nerve that is stimulated and ultimately the part of
the brain that the nerve stimulates.
The different neural impulses travel by different routes and arrive at different parts of the brain.
For example, visual messages are channelled to the occipital lobes in the brain.
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Stimulus Detection and Discrimination
The smallest/weakest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to be detected is known as
absolute threshold. A Stimulus is energy that produces a response in an organism. Stimuli
vary in both type and intensity. Different stimuli activate different sense organs. Difference
threshold is the smallest magnitude of difference in stimulus energy that a person can detect. It
is also known as a just noticeable difference. For example, in a test of hearing loss, a tone
generator is used to produce sounds of different intensities and pitches. The earliest point at
which you can hear the tone indicates the absolute threshold or the smallest magnitude of sound
you can detect. To test your difference threshold, you are supposed to indicate/respond when
you notice a difference with small variations in volume. By noting your hearing threshold and
comparing it to that of people with normal hearing, a specialist can determine whether you have
a hearing loss and if so the extend of the loss.
Sensory thresholds exist not only for hearing but also for vision, taste, smell and the skin senses.
People with sensory impairment have thresholds that differ from the norm. Among individuals
with no sensory difficulties there is a considerable range in sensitivities. Moreover, the
sensitivity of an individual can vary from moment to moment, depending on his or her
physiological state. For example, sickness and certain drugs can change a person’s normal
threshold. The presentation of learning materials should be done in such a way that pupils with
the lowest levels of thresholds are able to get what is being communicated.
Sensory Adaptation
When a constant stimulus is presented to you for a length of time, the sensory organs begin to
adapt and your response to the stimulus decreases. This process in which response to a sensory
system to continuous stimulation decreases is known as sensory adaptation. This process
allows you to operate efficiently in a wide range of stimulus intensities and makes you more alert
to novel stimuli. For example, when you enter a room with a distinctive odour, the smell is very
noticeable at first, but soon it fades. Similarly, if you enter a room from outside it will appear
dark at first, but after sometime you will adapt and see it as less dark.
All sensory systems display adaptation but some, such as, smell and touch adapt quickly whereas
others such as the sense of pain, adapt very slowly. Sense receptors in the body are designed to
be sensitive to changes in stimulation. Children in schools located in towns where they are
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exposed to constant noise readily adapt and are able to concentrate in learning, almost unaware
of what is happening outside.
Learning Activity:
Define the following terminologies:
i. Sensation
ii. Sensory reduction
iii. Coding
iv. Transduction
v. Absolute threshold
vi. Sensory adaptation
Each of the sensory principles we have discussed, that is, reduction, transduction, coding,
thresholds and adaptation apply to all the senses, yet each sense is uniquely different. In this
lecture we will not discuss the details of each sense. However, if you are interested in learning
more about how each sensory organ functions you can refer to any psychology or biology book
in any of the libraries close to you.
7.4 Attention
Attention is a process closely related to sensation and is important in the process of learning
because persons who pay attention gain from the learning experience. Attention can be defined
as the ability to process part of incoming sensations and ignore everything else. It is the
selection of incoming messages or focusing on some stimulus. Attention is selective or
voluntary. Your brain’s processing capacity is limited and cannot cope with all the incoming
information and hence the selection. Selective attention means that you give priority to the
more important stimuli for further processing while you ignore the less relevant ones. When you
attend to one message, it prevents others from entering through. For example, a teacher trainee
cannot hear what his/her colleague is trying to whisper to him/her and at the same time hear what
the instructor is saying. It is not possible to attend to two conversations at the same time.
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However, the trainee may be able to pick part of what the desk mate is saying and what is being
communicated by the instructor because attention constantly shifts from one stimulation to
another.
Factors Affecting Attention
Let us now look at some of the factors that affect our attention to sensory stimulation. These
include external and internal factors.
External Factors
 Intensity: The intensity of a stimulus such as, loud noise, bright colours, strong odours and
high pressure on the skin will attract more attention. Thus, as a trainer of Teachers can use
stimuli of adequate intensities such as bright colours and audible voice while training to keep
the trainee’s attention focused.
 Novel stimulus: New and different, irregular or unusual stimulus or event will catch our
attention quickly, such as a new method of training.
 Variable or changing stimulus: Changes in stimulus will attract a person’s attention, such
as change in tone, charts and audio-visual aids
 Regularity: Regularity implies emphasis in the stimulus being presented. If a stimulus is
presented regularly, it will attract more attention. For instance, if you repeat something for a
long time it may attract the attention of your audience and stick in their minds.
 Habitual or conditioned stimulus: A conditioned stimulus will catch our attention easily.
For example, if your name is mentioned in a conversation by people, you will pick it faster
than anybody else because you are conditioned to it. For example, giving examples from the
known and relating it with the unknown could catch and keep attention focused.
 Cueing: Cues are hints or signals that draw our attention to the most important aspects of a
particular issue. When training Teachers, the instructor can occasionally use cues, such as
“Take note of “, “Pay more attention to”, or “Pay special attention to…”
Internal Factors
These are internal factors that are unique to a person. In most cases, they are physical and
mental predispositions that determine how sensitive and attentive we are in a particular issue.
These factors include the following:
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 Interest: Things that we are interested in tend to draw our attention and keep it focused. For
example, your attention and concentration will be high in a criminal case you are interest in.
 Motives or needs: Needs such as, the need for food, water, fresh air, recognition and so on
will detract our attention from what we are doing. The attention will be focused on how
these needs can be satisfied.
 Fatigue: A lot of mental or physical activity depletes (lessens) our energies and the whole
body becomes sluggish in response. When your body is exhausted, your response rate to
stimuli is reduced.
 Arousal: Attention is affected as arousal (alertness) increases up to a certain point. Our
arousal starts from a threshold (the minimum level at which stimulus can be detected) and
increases up to an optimum from where it flattens and then declines. Thus, our attention to a
particular stimulus varies with the level of arousal. You may have realized that when you are
revising for your examination in the previous day, your concentration is very low at the
beginning, then it picks and when you begin getting tired, it diminishes.
 Attention needs: These include curiosity, exploration and manipulation. Human beings are
curious and explorative by nature. If Teachers are curious and interested in their work, they
will tend to be very attentive to what is going on in the profession.
 Expectation: Attention is drawn to those ideas and activities we least expect or sometimes
vice versa. Introduction of new conditions of service may make you more attentive.
7.5 Perception
The processes of sensation and perception are intimately related and difficult to separate but
there is a distinct difference. Earlier in this lecture we defined sensation as the process of
receiving, translating and transmitting raw data from the environment to the brain. Perception is
the process in which the brain interprets the sensations it receives, giving them order and
meaning. According to Huffman et. al. (1995), it is the process of selecting, organizing and
interpreting sensory data into usable mental representations of the world. It is hard to separate
sensation from perception, because the first, quickly and effortless leads to the second.
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After receiving and selectively attending to stimuli, the sensations are analysed or organized and
interpreted in the light of past experience with similar stimuli. Normally, our perceptions agree
with our sensations, but there are times when they do not. This results in an illusion. Illusions
are false impressions of the physical world that can be produced by actual physical distortions, as
in desert mirages or by errors in the perceptual process, as in the illusion shown in figure 7.
Figure 7: Horizontal – vertical illusion

Is x longer than y? The horizontal line may be perceived as shorter than the vertical one, but
measurements will give a different answer.
Learning Activity:
Give examples of visual illusion.
Perception consists of three basic processes: the selection, organization and interpretation of
incoming sensations. Now we are going to examine these processes and see how they enable us
to perceive our world.
Selection
The first step in perception is selection in which we choose the stimuli to which we will attend.
In almost every situation there is an excess of sensory messages, but through the process of
selection, the brain sorts out the important messages and discards the rest. This process is known
as selective attention. For example, you cannot be able to listen to two people talking to you at
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the same time. The same internal and external factors that affect perception also influence
sensation (see section 7.4).
Organization
After selecting incoming information, we organize it into patterns that will help us to understand
the perceived stimulus. In organization, we assemble the selected sensation into usual patterns or
shapes. Raw sensory data are like the parts of a radio. They must be assembled into a
meaningful way before they are useful.
Form Perception
Gestalt psychologists were the first to research on how sensory impressions are organized by the
brain. The German word gestalt means “whole” or “pattern”. The gestalt movement was
founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler who believed that form
perception is impossible to understand simply by analyzing the many sensations that are
registered in the brain when we sense something. Gestaltists emphasized the importance of
organization and patterning in enabling us to perceive the whole stimulus rather than perceiving
its discrete part as separate entities. They argued that the whole is more than the sum of its
parts. A given object cannot be understood by analyzing one aspect at a time. It can be
understood by having a global picture of it.
Gestaltists developed a number of laws of organization that specify how we perceive form.
Some of these laws are the law of figure and ground, the law of proximity, the law of similarity,
the law of closure and the law of continuity.
The Law of Figure and Ground

This law assumes that perception consists of two aspects: the figure, which stands out, has a
definite shape or pattern and is clearly outlined, and the ground which is more indistinct; vague
or unclear and has no fixed form or shape. In perception we tend to distinguish between these
two. In a given environment, you may focus your attention on a certain aspect, which will then
become the figure and the rest is the background within which the figure is situated. The ground
could become the focus of attention, in which case the figure will be transformed into ground
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and the ground will be transformed into the figure. The determining criterion is the degree to
which attention is focused on one rather than the other. In figures 9, 10, 11 and 12, it may be
difficult to see the figure and ground simultaneously.
Figure 8: Two faces or a flower vase

When you look at the figure above, you may
see a vase or two faces depending on your
perspective.
Figure 9: Riders and horses
In the above figure, do you see the white horses and riders? Now look for the black horses and
riders, how does your perception change? When you read this material, your eyes are receiving
sensations of black lines and white paper, but your brain is organizing this sensation into letters
and words that are perceived against a backdrop of white pages. The letters and words constitute
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the figure and the pages constitute the ground. The figure has meaning and stand in front of the
rest.
The Law of Proximity

According to this law, element that are physically close together are perceived as belonging
together or as a single unit. For example, figure 13 shows that on the left, there appear to be
three horizontal rows. On the right, the grouping appears to be in vertical columns. Because the
spacing is altered slightly, your perception organizes the images so that they are grouped
together. We see these images not as a collection of unrelated dots, but as three distinct columns
or rows.
Figure 10: Horizontal rows and vertical columns

The law of proximity suggests that the parts of an animal's body will be perceived together as a
whole. Therefore, when a person or animal wants to hide, it must position itself so that parts of
its body are grouped together with its surroundings.
The Law of Similarity

When objects look similar to one another, they are often perceived to be part of a pattern. This
applies to colour, size and shape as shown on figure 11.
Figure 11: The law of similarity
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The triangles within the square on the left seem to form a pattern. Therefore, it appears as though
there is one large triangle within the square. On the right side, we switched two of the shapes.
Although there are the same number of triangles, people are less likely to perceive them as a
single whole. However, the three smaller triangles in a row now tend to be perceived together as
a unified whole.
A person who wants to be camouflaged, may want to take advantage of this law by breaking up
the pattern. Blurring the edges will make it more difficult to form a "gestalt." In addition, that
makes the person much harder to see.
The Law of Closure

Humans tend to perceive an enclosed space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the
figure. Often we perceive an object as a whole, even though what we actually see of the object is
incomplete.
Figure 16 shows three black circles covered by a white triangle, even through it could just as
easily be three incomplete circles joined together. Our minds react to patterns that are familiar,
even though we often receive incomplete information.
Figure 12: A triangle and three incomplete circles
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Often it is easy to spot a person even if they are partially hidden by branches. A big part of the
art of camouflage is breaking up the pattern to prevent the formation of closure. A camouflage
jacket is also good "breaking the law" of closure.
The Law of Continuity

This law states that patterns or objects that continue in one direction tend to be perceived as
belonging together. Thus, perception tends towards continuity. In figure 17, even though both
sets of circles of different colours are connected, it looks as though the circles on top fit more
correctly in an established pattern. We tend to perceive the upper circles as part of the pattern,
but not the lower circles.
Figure 13: Law of continuity
The law of continuity tells us that we can blend into an object such as a tree, if we can make
ourselves look like a continuation of an existing pattern. On the flip side, the discontinuous
pattern of a camouflage jacket creates no continuous pattern. This jumble of shapes goes against
the Gestalt law of continuity, and makes it harder to see.
In figure 14 below, we perceive the figure as two crossed lines instead of four lines meeting at
the centre.
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Figure 14: A cross and four lines
Learning Activity:
Explain the following principles/laws of perception:
i. Figure and ground
ii. Closure
iii. Similarity
iv. Continuity
v. Proximity
Perceptual Constancies
Now that we have an overview of the laws of organization, we will now look at the principle of
perceptual constancy which explains how we perceive consistency in the environment.
Although we are particularly alert to changes in our sensory input, we manage to perceive a great
deal of consistency in the environment. The ability to perceive constancy in our environment
makes this possible. The principle of perceptual constancy refers to the ability to perceive the
environment as remaining the same even with changes in sensory input. We perceive objects as
constant in size, shape, colour and other properties despite changes in their retinal images.
Perceptual constancies are based on prior learning/knowledge and experience with the same
objects.
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Size constancy
This is the process in which the perceived size of an object remains the same, even though its
retinal image changes. For example, the image of a departing car rapidly becomes smaller, but
you do not perceive the car as shrinking in size.
Colour Constancy
This is the tendency for the colour of an object to be perceived as remaining the same even when
the amount of light changes. For example, red will be perceived as red whether in a dark room
or lit room.
Interpretation
The third major process involved in perception is interpretation. After selecting incoming
sensory messages and organizing them into patterns, the brain uses this information to explain
and make judgement about the external world. The interpretation of sensory information is
influenced by several factors, including early life experiences, perceptual expectations, cultural
factors, personal motivations and frame of reference. Let us briefly look at these factors.
Early life experiences
How did you come to perceive the world as you do? Perceptual processes are a matter of
learning. Babies enter the world with little or no ability to see form, perceptual constancies and
so forth. Through development and learning experiences they come to perceive the world as
adults do. Thus, early life experiences influence the process of interpretation.
Perceptual expectations
In our daily lives, our expectations often bias our perceptions especially when incoming
sensations are ambiguous. In such a case, we perceive what we think we should perceive. For
example, consider the husband who is expecting an important phone call, he will hear the
telephone ring in the night while his wife does not. The wife on the other hand, may be more
likely to hear the baby crying than the telephone ringing.
Motives and needs

Individual differences in our motives and needs affect perception. Often, we attend to and
organize sensory inputs in ways that match our needs. For example, when we are hungry, thirsty
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or sexually aroused we are likely to pay attention to events in our environment which will satisfy
these needs.
7.6 Summary
 Sensation is the process of receiving, translating and transmitting data from the external
environment to the brain.
 Perception is the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting sensory data into mental
representations of the world.
 Sensory processing includes reduction, transduction and coding.
 Transduction is the conversion of physical stimuli into neural impulses and it occurs at the
receptors in our sensory organs.
 Each sensory system is specialized to code its stimuli into unique sets of neural impulses that the
brain interprets as light, touch and so on.
 The three basic process of perception are selection, organization and interpretation.
1. Differentiate between sensation and perception.
2. Distinguish between absolute and difference threshold.
3. Discuss the phenomenon of sensory adaptation.
4. Discuss psychology’s contribution to our understanding of perception.
5. Describe perceptual constancies.
6. Name the body senses and make brief notes on each of them.
7. Explain transduction, reduction and coding in sensory processing.
8. Describe the role of selection in the process of perception.
9. Explain how an instructor can draw and sustain the attention of administration Teacher
trainees’ during a four hours session of training.
10. Explain how the process of sensation and perception are involved in reading this module.
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LECTURE 8
EMOTIONS
8.1 Introduction
Have you ever felt very anxious and tense when sitting for an important examination, or an
interview, very excited, very nervous or very shy? All these and many others are feelings we
experience every day. Such feelings may have an impact on how we respond to the environment
and our behaviour in general. For example, you might have not been able to recall learnt
material in an examination because you were too tense and anxious but after the examination,
when you are relaxed, the material flows in your mind though too late for the examination. By
the time, you go through this lecture you will understand what emotions are and their effects on
behaviour.

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to
 Define emotion.
 Explain the components of emotions.
 Discuss various emotions.
 Explain the effect of emotions on behaviour.
8.3 Definition of Emotion

Emotion can be defined as a stirred-up or an aroused state of an individual that involves mental,
physical, physiological, situational and habitual factors. This definition is similar to the one
given by Huffman, Vernoy and Vernoy (1995) that refers to emotion as “feelings or affective
responses that result from physiological arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and
bodily expression”. An understanding of the following four components of emotions will give
you a better picture of what emotions are and what they involve.
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i) The physiological component: This involves active changes in the physical body.
When the body is emotionally aroused, the heart rate accelerates, pupils dilate,
respiration increases and so on.
ii) The cognitive component: Emotions are generated partly by our cognitive appraisal of
a given situation. Our thoughts, beliefs and expectations are important in determining
the type and intensity of our emotional response. For example, depending on our
cultural background we may have beliefs about emotions that are inappropriate and
therefore cannot be expressed openly. Thus, some emotions are supposed to be
suppressed while healthy ones can be expressed.
iii) The Behavioural component: This involves the various forms of expression that
emotions may take or the outward observable signs of emotional feelings. For example,
facial expressions, bodily postures and gestures, tone of voice and so on. These
expressions communicate emotions from one person to another.
iv) The subjective experience: This is the private, subjective experience of having an
emotion. It includes elements of pleasure, displeasure, intensity of feeling and
complexity. What one person may experience as pleasurable may be boring or aversive
to another. If you observe a bridegroom crying during the happy moments of a
wedding, it is likely to be an expression of joy and not sadness. In such a case, the
observed expression would be different from the subjective or personal feeling of the
person expressing the emotions.
Emotions have an impact on the behaviour of the person experiencing them and the perceptions
and responses of others. Our perception of the emotional expression of others makes us to
respond appropriately.
If you want to ask for a favour from your friend or parent, you are likely to assess their emotional
mood before you make your request. If they appear happy, you will feel free to make your
request. If they appear moody or annoyed, you are likely to postpone the request until an
appropriate time. Before the ban of corporal punishment in schools, you may have read in the
newspapers about teachers who out of anger would punish pupils to the extent of seriously
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injuring them. The effects of emotions on the individual and behaviour will be discussed later in
this lecture.
8.4 The Physiology of Emotion

Studies of the physiological component of emotion have found that most emotions involve a
general, non-specific arousal of the nervous system. In our earlier discussion on the nervous
system, we saw that the limbic system, frontal lobes of the brain, the hypothalamus and mainly
the autonomic nervous system trigger the physiological reactions involved in emotions. We
mentioned that the limbic system and in particular the hypothalamus seems to play a significant
role in emotions such as fear, anger, aggression and sexual desire.
If you have ever felt very frightened while walking in darkness, your limbic system must
undoubtedly have been aroused. Your emotion of fear would have then led to the behavioural
reaction of running or preparing to fight. Such motor responses would be programmed by the
frontal lobes, which organize and execute responses from the hypothalamus (Huffman, et al.,
1995).
Learning Activity:
Explain how you felt during an important experience like an examination, bereavement etc.
The Autonomic Nervous System

Although the limbic system and the frontal lobes play important roles in emotional behaviour,
the most obvious and easily recognized signs of emotional arousal are produced by the
autonomic nervous system (ANS). Such signs include, increased heart rate, increased
respiration, sweating, trembling and dry mouth. The autonomic system is part of the peripheral
nervous system which controls automatic bodily functions such as heart beat and breathing
which are beyond our voluntary control. It affects organs such as the heart and blood vessels, the
digestive system, the reproductive organs, glands (e.g., the adrenal and gonads) and so on. Each
of these organs has an ongoing activity independent of the autonomic nervous system, but input
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from the autonomic system modulates this activity, increasing or decreasing it. By modulating
the organs’ activity, the autonomic system coordinates their functioning to meet the needs of the
whole organism and prepares the body for changes.
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

The ANS has two major divisions, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic
nervous system. The bodily changes that occur in emotions are produced by these two systems.
The sympathetic system produces the observable symptoms of emotion. It prepares the body
for emergency action. When one is emotionally aroused, this system becomes active and
increases heart rate, respiration, muscle tension, blood pressure, dryness of mouth, pupil dilation
and so on. In general, it readies the body for action and is active in many emotions such as fear,
anxiety and anger.
In emotion, the sympathetic system causes the discharge of the hormones epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Adrenaline circulates in the blood system
and helps to mobilize blood sugar (glucose) into the blood and thus makes energy available to
the brain and muscles and it also causes the heart to beat faster. Norepinephrine helps to
constrict peripheral blood vessels thus increasing blood pressure.
The parasympathetic nervous system controls resting behaviour and is active when we are
relaxed. It influences activity related to the protection, nourishment and growth of the body for
example digestion. In other words, it does things that help to build up and conserve the body’s
storage of energy. For example, it decreases the heart rate, reduces blood pressure, diverts blood
into the digestive tract, constricts bronchi and so on. After a very strong emotion, the
parasympathetic system may overreact and lower blood pressure too much. This is why some
people become dizzy or faint at the sight of blood and other similar shocks. In general, the
effects of the parasympathetic system are opposite the effects of the sympathetic system.
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8.5 Gender Differences in Emotions
Our culture often trains boys from an early age that crying is for girls and that it is unmanly to
show fear and vulnerability. According to research cited by Omulema and Sindabi (2000:134)
on adult college students it was found that on four of the five basic emotions (joy, love, fear,
sadness and anger) women report more intense and more frequent emotions than men. The fact
that men ‘outperformed’ women on anger is also a reflection of early training. Males are
socially trained to compete, fight and to be aggressive, while women are encouraged toward
“soft” emotions such as joy, love, fear and sadness. This could explain why the profession of
Teaching is mainly a domain of men.
Learning Activity:
List and discuss behavioural differences that you think are as a result of socialization.
Women not only experience “soft” emotions more intensely and frequently, they also read
emotions better and are more responsive in both positive and negative situations. This sensitivity
may help to explain why both men and women report that their friendships with women are
usually more intimate, nurturing and accepting.
8.6 Common Emotions

Some of the common emotions that you may encounter is your day-to-day experiences with
people include the following:
Fear: Fear is the tendency to run away or to avoid certain situations, especially painful ones. It
is a response to real and sometimes to imaginary or subjective danger or situation. Fear is more
closely related to anxiety, but it is more intense and specific. It can be aroused by unexpected
events (death, war, failure in exams, ill health), material objects (snakes, guns, animals), social
failure and so on. Many fears especially among children are irrational (e.g., fear of classmates,
darkness, speaking in public, exams, strangers etc), and disruptive to the individual. However,
the irrational fear which is also known as phobia tends to decrease with the advancing age of
children.
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Anxiety: Anxiety is fear caused by uncertainty about something imaginary or real. It is a
response to a vague subjective danger. Prolonged and extreme anxiety is detrimental to the
individual. It can cause diseases like high blood pressure, dermatitis (skin disease), and ulcers.
Moderate anxiety may have positive motivational value to the individual. Moderately anxious
individuals tend to perform highly in tasks that require competence. On the other hand, too low
anxiety and excessive anxiety may lead to poor performance in tasks that require competence.
Some of the factors that can cause anxiety are:
 an environment that is inconsistent, unjust and harsh.
 feelings of inadequacy.
 Uncertainty about the future, and so on.
Anger: Anger is a disruptive and an unhealthy emotion which is a learned response to
environmental stimuli. It can be caused by frustration of a goal directed behaviour, failure to
achieve success in examinations, being unfairly treated and so on. Anger is a dangerous emotion
that must be periodically vented (expressed) to prevent a destructive build-up of tension and
stress that may have detrimental effects on the body. It can be vented by allowing the individual
to express feelings of anger freely.
Pleasure: This is a positive constructive emotion which involves the feeling of enjoyment,
satisfaction and happiness. It is the feeling of gratification after fulfilling a need or reaching a
goal. The emotion of pleasure produces relaxation to the body. Activities that satisfy your needs
such as security, accomplishment, adventure, belonging and physical satisfaction give you a
feeling of pleasure.
Affection: Affection is an emotion characterized by a feeling of fondness, liking and attachment
to others. People respond positively to qualities that underlie affection such as sympathy,
kindness, patience, courtesy and interest in others (Hammachek, 1968). In Teaching profession,
genuine affection arises from a sincere interest in staff and an understanding of their abilities,
problems and limitations by superiors or the administration.
Aggression: Aggression is an emotional behaviour aimed at hurting other people. The term
applies to feelings of anger and hostility. Aggression is often associated with thwarting or
blockage of a motive or goal directed behaviour. It may be expressed directly (direct aggression)
by attacking objects or persons perceived to be the cause of difficulties. In other cases, it may be
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expressed indirectly (indirect aggression) by venting hostility on less threatening objects or
persons other than the cause of frustration. For example, when Teachers are dissatisfied with the
administration, which they cannot face directly, they may direct their anger towards property or
family members at home.
8.7 Effects of Emotions on Behaviour

Emotions have positive as well as negative effects on the life and behaviour of an individual.
Emotions act as a source of motivation to behaviour. For example, emotions such as fear, love,
anxiety and anger may act as motives that direct people to engage in goal-directed behaviour.
The fear of failure in an examination can motivate a person to study hard so as to pass. The fear
of burning in eternal fire in hell could be considered as the driving force behind being a devoted
Christian.
Mild levels of emotional arousal tend to produce alertness and interest in the task at hand. At
very low levels of arousal the nervous system may not function fully and sensory messages may
not get through. Usually, people perform at their optimum at moderate levels of arousal. At
high levels of emotional arousal, performance may decline because the nervous system is
responding to too many stimuli at once and therefore the appropriate set of responses is
prevented from dominating.
Other emotions, particularly positive ones act as a source of enjoyment and relaxation to our
lives. They add pleasure and excitement to life. Life would be dreary without the feelings that
add colour and spice to living. For example, we anticipate parties and dates with pleasure.
Emotions of joy, affection and excitement make us feel relaxed.
Emotions can also act as a source of strength and endurance to the body. You can do unusual
work under emotional excitement which appears difficult in normal conditions. For example, if
you are chased by a dog, you can jump a five feet high wall which you cannot under normal
circumstances. You can also endanger your life to save a loved one. In training of policemen,
those who love their profession and instructors may work for many hours without showing signs
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of fatigue. What we have said seems to mainly centre on the positive effects of emotions on
behaviour. Emotions also have damaging effects on the behaviour of the individual. Intense
emotions may result in decrease in performance. Imagine that you are in the wilderness with
only one match stick that must light for you to prepare a meal, chances are that you will not
succeed because you will be too anxious and nervous; or you are facing an enemy with only one
bullet to go, chances are that you are likely to miss him/her.
Constant emotional tensions may cause insomnia (lack of sleep), restlessness, fatigue,
headache, lack of appetite and so on. Excessive emotional stress can affect memory and cause
memory lapses. Maybe you can recall an occasion in which you were unable to recall learnt
information while taking an examination, but immediately you are out of the examination room
and relaxed you were able to do so. This is similar to a situation where logical thinking may be
distorted when one is emotionally stressed. Prolonged emotional stress and experiences can
disturb the total personality of an individual and may lead to neuroticism. In training of
Teachers, constant emotional pressure can disturb the trainee’s learning ability and also affect
concentration.
8.8 Summary
 Emotion refers to feelings or affective responses that result from physiological arousal,
thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression.
 The basic components of emotions are
- The physiological (increased heart rate, respiration rate and so on)
- The cognitive (thoughts, beliefs and expectations).
- The behavioural (facial expressions and bodily gestures).
- The subjective (evaluation of intensity, pleasure versus displeasure and so on.
 Bodily changes that occur in emotion are mainly produced by the autonomic nervous
system which has two divisions; the sympathetic and parasympathetic.
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 The positive effects of emotions include:
- motivation of behaviour/activity.
- source of pleasure and excitement to the individual.
- source of strength and endurance to the body.
 The negative effects of emotions include:
- Fatigue
- Insomnia
- Stress
- Irritability
- Lack of concentration
- Memory lapses and
- Neuroticism
1. Define emotion.
2. Identify the four components of emotion and describe the physiological changes that
occur during emotional arousal.
3. Contrast the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion.
4. Discuss the emotions of fear, anxiety, affection and aggression.
5. Discuss the role of the autonomic nervous system in emotional arousal.
6. Discuss the various effects of emotions on behaviour.
7. Explain how emotional arousal may affect the performance of a Teacher during an
operation.
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LECTURE 9
DRIVES AND MOTIVATION
9.1 Introduction
Motivation is increasingly becoming important in many aspects of our lives; in schools, learning,
work place, families etc. What makes workers in the private sector to be hard working and more
productive than those in the public sector? What are some of the things that parents do to
encourage their children to excel in school? Why do students of the same ability perform
differently? Why do some Teachers climb through the ranks to senior position while others
remain in the same rank? These and other similar questions can be answered by understanding
motivation and the factors that energize an individual to engage in certain behaviours. In this
lecture we will discuss the concepts of drives and motivation, which explain the forces behind
our behaviours. In our discussion we will also look at theories of motivation and the implication
of motivation on the learning-teaching process.

 Define drive and motivation.
 Differentiate between primary and secondary motives.
 Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
 Explain the various theories of motivation and their implications to learning.
 Motivate learners adequately.
9.3 Definition of Drives and Motivation

A drive is a motive or a force within the individual that activates behaviour and directs it
towards a goal. A drive can also be defined as the psychological representation of internal need
states, for example, hunger, thirst etc. Many behaviours begin with a need (lack or deficiency
within the individual) which causes a psychological sate/drive to develop.
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Motivation can be defined as the process of initiating, sustaining and directing behaviour toward
a particular goal. It can also be defined as the internal factors within an individual that arouse,
maintain and channel behaviour toward a desired goal. Motivation cannot be directly observed,
but can only be inferred from behaviour. Motivation is an energizer or a driving force, a desire
or an urge that causes an individual to engage in a certain behaviour. Such inner forces are
referred to as drives. Our behaviours are purposeful in the sense that they have a cause and
effect. In other words, our behaviours are motivated either externally or internally.
Motivation explains why we do what we do. It explains the basis of behaviour and it is therefore
important to learning psychologists and Teaching fraternity.
A model of motivation: Motivated behaviour begins with a need (e.g., need for food, water, air
etc). The need causes a psychological state called a drive to develop. The drive activates a
response/behaviour or a series of actions designed to attain a goal that will satisfy the need.
Meeting the need temporarily ends the motivational sequence. A simple model of motivation is
shown in figure 23.
Need Drive Response Goal
Need reduction
Figure 15: A model of motivated behaviour
9.4 Types of Motives

Psychologists distinguish between primary and secondary or learned motives. Let us look at
the difference between these two major types of motives.
Primary motives: These are motives that are based on the biological needs of an organism that
must be met for survival. They are guided by the biological functioning of the organism and
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include such needs as the need for food, water, oxygen, pain avoidance, regulation of body
temperature, sleep, elimination of body waste and so on. How do these needs arise? When there
is an imbalance in the body, tension is created by the body’s demand for constancy or
homeostasis. When this happens, the brain sends signals that direct activity/behaviour to restore
homeostasis.
Secondary motives: Secondary motives are also referred to as acquired or learned motives.
These are motives that are learned as one matures and comes into contact with learning
experiences in the environment. These account for the great diversity of human activities. They
are associated to primary motives in that, in an attempt to satisfy some of our secondary motives
our primary drives are met. For example, we work for money to satisfy our basic needs such as
the need for food and shelter. Examples of secondary motives include the need for affiliation,
love, social approval, self-esteem, knowledge, self-actualization and money.
9.5 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

After knowing the difference between primary and secondary motives now we are going to look
at two types of motivation, that is, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation: This is motivation that comes from within the individual rather than the
presence of external rewards. It is motivation that derives from the enjoyment or satisfaction of
engaging in an activity. For example, if your interest in this course is to in learn as much as you
can or acquisition of knowledge for the sake of it, you are intrinsically motivated. Examples of
intrinsic motivators are curiosity, exploration, interest and manipulation drives. All these are
drives that can make you engage in an activity.
Intrinsic motivation can sustain interest to learn for a long time and promote creativity. The
learner will be motivated in learning because he/she derives satisfaction by doing so or because
the learning activity is rewarding in itself. Failure to engage in an activity that is intrinsically
motivating may result to internal psychological tensions that will drive the individual to action.
Teachers who are intrinsically motivated tend to perform better than those who are externally
motivated (Gottfriend, 1983) because intrinsic motivation is more effective than external
motivation. Intrinsic motivation also has long-term effect on behaviour.
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Extrinsic motivation: This is motivation based on obvious external rewards rather than
inherent satisfaction of the activity. It is the desire to perform an activity because of external
rewards or the avoidance of punishment or something unpleasant. Examples of extrinsic
motivators are pay, money, grades, approval, promotion, avoidance of pain, food etc. For
example, if you are studying this module to fulfil your degree requirements or to attain a degree
so that you can get a promotion or earn more money, you are extrinsically motivated.
Extrinsic motives can sustain interest in an activity if used carefully or sparingly, but if used
excessively they may interfere with the effort to engage in the activity because you will not
engage in it if there are no obvious immediate rewards. Thus, their effect in behaviour
modification may be short lived.
The use of extrinsic incentives can affect intrinsic motivation. For example, when Teachers are
rewarded for performing tasks that they enjoy, their intrinsic motivation may be reduced. This is
called the over justification effect-the loss of interest that occurs when an individual shifts from
an intrinsic to extrinsic motivational orientation (Kaplan, 1990). The rewards undermine the
intrinsic interest in the activity.
Learning Activity:
Differentiate between the following:
i. Drive and need
ii. Primary and secondary motives
iii. Intrinsic and extrinsic motives
9.6 Theories of Motivation

In this section we will consider several theories of motivation which psychologists interested in
the subject have developed. These theories fall into two major general categories – biological
and psychological.
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Biological Theories
The biological theories of motivation look for inborn processes that control and direct
behaviours. For the purpose of our discussion, we will look at two of these theories – the instinct
and drive – reduction theories.
Learning Activity:
Explain why the Teaching fraternity is dominated mainly by males. Explain other professions
that are dominated by one gender.
Instinct Theory
Do human beings have instincts that motivate behaviour? Instincts are behavioural patterns that
are unlearned or inborn, uniform in expression and universal in a species (Huffman et al., 1995).
Human beings have instincts such as repulsion, self-assertiveness, fear, curiosity, parenting,
aggression and so on. This theory suggests that there is some inborn genetic component to
motivation. We act or behave the way we do because we are naturally predisposed to behave
that way. For example, some psychologists have asserted that men are instinctually aggressive
and women have the maternal instinct. Men are said to be destroyers while women are builders.
For example, it is mainly men who go to war while women perform the domestic and more
nurturing jobs.
Drive-reduction Theory
This theory assumes that motivated behaviour begins with a physiological need (a lack or
deficiency). The need produces a drive or an aroused psychological state directed toward
satisfying the need. It suggests, that, internal tensions produced by the body’s demand for
homeostasis, push the organism toward satisfaction of the original drive. The organism learns
which specific actions to perform to meet the desired goal. Under this approach, secondary
motives may have a basis in the basic physiological needs. For example, we acquire education
so that we can get a job to earn money that will enable us to satisfy our basic needs. There are
also non-homeostatic motives that influence behaviour. For example, the sex and reproductive
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desires do not contribute to individual balance or survival but they are necessary to the survival
of the species. The drive-reduction theory helps to explain why we eat, sleep, avoid pain, engage
in sexual behaviour and so on, but it may not adequately explain behaviours that do not seem to
be related to biological needs. For example, why people are motivated to seek contact with
others.
Psychological Theories
The instinct and the drive-reduction theories have difficulties in explaining non-biological drives.
For example, they may not explain why we continue to eat even when our biological needs are
completely satisfied, or why we continue to acquire and work for money when we have enough
of it to meet our basic needs. Such questions can be answered by theories that emphasize
psychological and cognitive factors.
Incentive Theory
The incentive theory assumes that motivation results from environmental or external stimuli that
“pull” the organism in certain directions. Motivated behaviour under this theory is said to
follow a goal directed sequence whereby a biological need produces a drive (a state of
psychological arousal), in which the individual is ready to respond to a relevant stimulus known
as an incentive. The incentives serve as rewards for the behaving organism and determines
whether one is going to act or not. It assumes that due to certain characteristics of the external
stimuli (goal), the individual is motivated to perform some actions to obtain the desired goals or
act in some ways to avoid or eliminate the undesirable events. Thus, the attractiveness or
undesirability of the goal trigger behaviour. For example, if you are presented with a very
delicious meal, you may continue eating even when you are not hungry. Incentives that may
motivate behaviour are objects like money, grades, contentment, recognition, praise and so on.
In conclusion, we can say that behaviour is dependent upon the anticipated outcomes,
attractiveness of the goal and also the likelihood of achieving the goal. This theory can be
applicable to the Teaching profession through:
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 setting achievable goals so that the staff can anticipate to succeed if they work diligently.
Such goals serve as incentives.
 rewarding staff in one way or another. This will make them work hard so as to be rewarded.
 creating a conducive learning working environment. By so doing, staff will be motivated to
be in their workplace.
 setting attractive or desirable goals.
 establishing fixed goals that can act as incentives.
Learning Activity:
Give and discuss behaviours that you engage purely because of the incentives attached to them.
The Value/Expectancy Theory

Have you ever felt that you wanted to achieve something in life but because you don’t have the
means to do so you feel there is no need to strive towards that goal? The value/expectancy
theory explains how our mental appraisal, thoughts and expectations determine whether we will
be motivated towards a goal or not. This theory assumes that if a goal is attractive and valued
but you do not expect to succeed no matter how hard you work, your motivation towards that
goal will be low. On the other hand, if you value a goal and expect to achieve it, your motivation
to work hard towards it will be high. For example, if a learner wants to become a doctor and
knows that he/she cannot score the grade required for admission to that course in the university
his/her motivation towards this goal will be low and vice-versa. Thus, our motivation towards
various goals depends greatly on our expectations on whether it is possible to achieve them or
not.
Attribution Theory
This theory looks at motivation in terms of how we ascribe (perceive) the causes of our success
and failure. The way we perceive the causes of our behaviour affects our later behaviour and
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motivation towards a certain goal. Causal attribution can be understood or explained in various
dimensions:
 When success is attributed to internal and stable factors (such as ability, effort, task
difficulty) that are relatively fixed, the individual will expect to succeed later at the same task
the next time it is presented. In such a case motivation will be high and the person will
continue to strive.
 When success is attributed to external or unstable factors (such as favouritism, luck etc) the
individual will have little or no expectation of success later and his/her motivation towards
the goal may be low. The expectation may be that, without those factors success may be
impossible and therefore there is no need to work hard.
 If failure is ascribed to stable or uncontrollable factors (such as low ability) the expectation
of future success and motivation will be low.
 If failure is ascribed to unstable or controllable factors (such as illness, lack of
preparedness) the expectation of future success and motivation will be high and the person
will tend to work harder (Lefrancois, 1997). Thus, the factors we attribute to our success or
failure determines how motivated towards the goal we will be in future.
The Motivational Hierarchy Theory
Learning Activity:
Explain why some people buy expensive cars, clothes and live in very expensive houses when
they can be comfortable with cheaper ones.
Maslow’s theory accounts for both biological and psychological needs and integrates many of
the motivational concepts discussed earlier. This theory is based on the belief that we all have
numerous needs that complete for expression.
Maslow made an attempt to categorize and prioritize motives. According to him, needs differ
primarily on the basis of prepotency, or relative strength and the stronger needs such as hunger
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and thirst must be satisfied before one can move on to higher needs such as safety, belonging and
self-actualization. If the lower needs are not fully satisfied, they must be at least partially
satisfied before higher needs can influence behaviour. Therefore, according to Maslow some
needs are more basic or more powerful than others. Maslow also noted that we are constantly
striving to satisfy our basic needs. When one set of needs is satisfied we turn our attention to the
next set of needs.
Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs with basic physiological needs at the bottom and self-
actualization at the top (see figure 16).
Figure 16: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow saw the higher needs as weaker than the more prepotent biological needs that are
essential for survival. Once freed from the lower needs, we are drawn to satisfy those needs that
will help us to grow and develop psychologically. Let us look at the various categories of needs
and see how they influence behaviour.
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Categories of Maslow’s Needs
The original version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs proposed seven sets of needs that included
cognitive and aesthetic needs (not indicated in figure 17). The more common version argues that
human needs can be organized hierarchically into five sets as indicated in figure 17.
The lower-order needs, which are also referred to as deficiency needs include physiological
needs, safety needs and love needs. These needs arise in response to lack or deficiency in the
person’s life. The higher-order needs include self-esteem and self-actualization and are often
referred to as growth needs which implies the psychological growth that occurs as we satisfy
these needs.
i) Physiological needs: These include the need for food, water, oxygen, shelter, pain
avoidance, temperature regulation, sex etc. These are the most proponent needs and are
necessary for our survival. As mentioned earlier, the need for sex does not contribute to
the survival of the individual person, but it is necessary for the survival of the species.
Its deprivation unlike the other needs will not lead to the death of the individual but to
the extinction of the human species.
Deprivation of these needs causes physiological imbalance that causes a person to

respond to the environment. According to Maslow, when these needs are deprived for a
long time, other needs fail to appear or recede in the background. If you are deprived of
these needs you will be motivated to do something and you will be preoccupied by ideas
on how to satisfy them. Maybe you have heard the saying that “one cannot love God or
his/her neighbour on an empty stomach.” When physiological needs are met, safety
needs become the next dominant force.
ii) Safety needs: Safety needs are concerned with maintaining order and security. They
include the need to feel secure and safe. People feel the need for structure, law and
order which give them a feeling of safety. Some people by their own nature are unable
to go beyond safety needs and are stuck at this level. They are very much concerned
about safety and they hoard money, purchase buildings and land to make sure that their
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future is safe. Among the needs for marrying in Africa is to have children who will take
care of you when you are old and weak. Certain events such as family fights,
separation, divorce, illness or death of a family member can make a person’s concern
for safety paramount and affect concentration in land behaviour.
iii) Belonging and love needs: These include needs of making intimate relationships with
other members of the society, being an accepted member of a group, needing a familiar
environment as a family and so on. Basically, it is the need to be close to others and to
be loved. Love needs help to satisfy the sex and maternal drives. These needs explain
why we affiliate ourselves to social groups, such as, churches, clubs, societies, welfare
associations and so on. For example, you may be aware of people who regularly go to
church but do not strictly practice the Christian faith. Their behaviour is motivated by
the need to associate with others but not what they belief.
iv) Self-esteem needs: When belonging needs are satisfied, esteem needs take centre stage.
They include the need for recognition, self-respect, reputation, status, self-regard, social
success, fame, prestige, appreciation and so on. When these needs are satisfied, we get
a feeling of self-confidence and worth and a sense of adequacy. If they are not satisfied,
we get a feeling of inferiority, weakness, inadequacy and helplessness. For example, a
person who is quite secure in the satisfaction of his/her lower needs may be
discriminating about the kind of work he/she gets. The quality of work fulfils the need
for self-respect and the need to feel good for himself/herself. Supposing you get a job
as a teacher with a basic salary of Kshs 20,000 and another one as a toilet cleaner with a
non-government organization (NGO) with a basic salary of Kshs 100,000, which one
will you settle for. Your choice may depend on the level at which you are operating.
Self-esteem needs explain why some people settle for very expensive and luxurious
items such as cars, houses and clothes that give them a feeling of prestige. Status
symbols that give a feeling of self-esteem are things such as the possession of money,
land, a house, titles of honour and so on.
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v) Self-actualization: Self-actualization involves the desire to become what one is
capable of becoming or the desire to fulfil one’s potential. When a person who is
talented in something like music, art or athletics does not attain perfection he/she will
experience psychological tension if his/her lower needs have been satisfied. Examples
of self-actualized people are great politicians (e.g., Nelson Mandela, Indira Gandhi),
musicians, scientists, human rights activists (e.g., Martin King Luther Jnr .) and so on.
Maslow estimated that, self-actualization is attained by only about one percent of the
population. This is because, in most cases our lower needs remain unsatisfied and
because growth needs are delicate and not easy to nurture. Growth needs require an
environment in which people can express themselves freely and explore. In addition,
whereas the satisfaction of lower needs reduces tension and stress, the satisfaction of
higher needs may increase tension and stress. For example, it is easier to be a follower
than to be a leader which is more challenging.
Maslow’s theory is not well supported by evidence. Murrel (1979) points out that very little
research has been carried out to test Maslow’s theory. This implies that the choice of needs was
somehow arbitrary (based on personal opinion). The order of progression is not universally
fixed, that is, it is not followed all the time and sometime fulfilment of the needs may overlap.
The higher needs may not always wait until the lower needs are satisfied. Some people aim for
self-actualization even when their physiological needs are not fully met. People who are
hungry, sick or living in war torn areas still show strong social ties and high self-esteem
(Huffman et al., 1995).
There is no real and objective way of measuring self-actualization. Muchinsky (1993) states
that Maslow’s theory is more philosophical than empirical, which means that it is extremely
hard to test. However, despite the shortcomings, Maslow’s arrangement of needs gives us a
general overview of the major motives and explanation to motivated behaviour.
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9.7 Summary
 A drive is a motive or force within the individual that activates behaviour.
 Motivation is the process of activating, maintaining and directing behaviour toward
a particular goal.
 Primary motives depend on internal physiological needs, such as the need for food
and water.
 Secondary motives are motives that are acquired as the individual interacts with
the environment such as the need for money, love and self-esteem.
 Intrinsic motivation originates from within the individual whereas extrinsic
motivation is based on external rewards.
 Different theories of motivation give different explanations concerning the factors
that motivate behaviour.
 Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs in which the basic physiological
needs must be satisfied before a person can attempt to satisfy higher needs.
1. Define the term drive and motivation.

2. Briefly explain what motivated you to enrol in this course.
3. Giving examples relevant to your profession differentiate between primary and
secondary motives.
4. List all the needs that you think are important to you.
5. (a) Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
(b) Explain how you can use intrinsic and extrinsic motives to enhance a certain
behaviour.
6. Describe the instinct and drive-reduction theories of motivation.
7. Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and explain how it combines both biological and
psychological aspects of motivation.
8. What is the major premise of Maslow’s theory of motivation?
9. Explain how motivation is based on human physiological needs.
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10. Describe the incentive and the value/expectancy theories of motivation Explain how
adequate are need theories in explaining motivation behind behaviour.
11. List the reasons why you think should motivate people to work.
12. How is the sex drive different from other motives?
13. Why did Maslow organize his hierarchy of needs in the way he did?
14. Explain the methods used to motivate Teachers in their workplace.
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LECTURE 10
HUMAN LEARNING
10.1 Introduction
Human behaviour is largely as a result of. Therefore, it is vital for any prospective Teacher to
have a good knowledge about how behaviour including criminal behaviour is learned and how
the learning takes place. In this lecture we will examine the major theories of learning and how
it takes place. We will also look at the implications of the various theories of learning on the
learning-teaching process.

 Define learning.
 Discuss various theories of learning.
 Explain the implications of various theories of learning on the learning process.
 Explain how reinforcement can be used effectively to enhance learning.
10.3 Definition of Learning

Learning is a key process in human behaviour. It plays an important role in everything we do.
It plays a key role in the language we speak, our attitudes, customs, our beliefs, our personality
traits and so on. Learning is the primary reason for the existence of schools and a means
through which socialization takes place. Man, and learning are inseparable. Without learning
or the capacity to learn you would not be able to speak, read this information, know your name
and where you live. Thus, much of our behaviour is a product of the learning process.
In general, learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of practice or experience. (Morgan et al., 1986). This definition emphasizes
three important elements.
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 Learning is a change in behaviour, good or bad.
 Learning is a change in behaviour that takes place through practice or experience. This
means that there are certain behaviours that may not be the result of learning. For example,
temporary changes caused by fatigue, disease, drugs, injury or motivation. Changes due to
growth or maturation are also not learning. Although all these can alter behaviour, none of
them qualifies as learning because the observed change cannot come as a result of practice.
In other words, the change is not subject to training. Maturational behaviours such as the
standing or walking of a baby are as a result of physiological maturation and emerge
naturally.
 The change in behaviour must be relatively permanent to qualify as learning. In other
words, it must last for a fairly long time.
Learning Activity:
How can you differentiate learned and similar behaviours?
One important question we need to ask ourselves is how do we know whether learning has
occurred. The definition of learning indicates that the evidence of whether learning has
occurred is in terms of change in behaviour. By observing a person after a learning experience,
you would not be able to tell whether learning has taken place or not because it is not directly
observable. A person’s behaviour can be compared on the basis of what the person knows at
point A before any learning activity had been presented to him/her and what he/she knows at
point B after he/she has been exposed to a learning experience. If a difference is observed
between point A and B, it can be inferred that learning has taken place. For example, before
you proceed on with lecture look at the review questions at the end and find out whether you
can answer them or not. After going through the lecture look at the questions again. If you are
able to answer them correctly then that is enough evidence that some learning has occurred.
What you did not know at point A is known at point B.
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10.4 Types of Learning
Learning can mean different things to different people although we have given a general
definition of what it is. Learning for the behaviourist means associating a new stimulus with a
new response. Learning from a cognitive point of view can mean forming new connections in
memory or building a network of new associations in memory (Brain, 2002).
For learning purposes, curriculum developers have often found it useful to distinguish between
types of learning. Bloom identified three main types:
 Cognitive learning (to do with thinking)
 Affective learning (to do with feelings)
 Psychomotor (to do with movement skills)
These types are important and are applied in the development of a curriculum.
Education at higher levels focuses mainly on cognitive learning. Bloom subdivided the
cognitive domain into six areas: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation. Gagne et al., (1988) argued that intellectual skills can be separated into
knowledge skills and understanding skills.
A distinction can also be made between verbal learning and motor learning. Verbal learning
involves the use of language and symbols. Motor skills are largely non-verbal. Motor skills
can be defined as a sequence of habitual responses; the order of which is partially or wholly
determined by sensory feedback from preceding responses. They tend to be retained
considerably better than the verbal learning. Perhaps you might have observed how well you
can play football, swim, ride a bicycle or draw, after years without practice. In contrast, you
may not be able to recall much of what you learned in secondary school (Omulema & Sindabi,
1999).
Although a general knowledge of various types of learning may be necessary, for the purpose of
this course we shall confine our discussions to the behavioural and cognitive domains of
learning. We will discuss these under various theories of learning.
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10.5 Theories of Learning
Different psychologists have developed different theories in an attempt to explain how learning
takes place. A theory can be defined as an interrelated set of concepts or statements developed
in an attempt to explain a body of data and generate testable hypotheses. A theory explains
what we already know or suspect. Theories are useful in giving us a basis for making
predictions. Learning theories will provide you with knowledge on the various types of
learning and how learning takes place.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist developed a learning theory known as classical
conditioning. The word “classical” means of the first type. Pavlov’s (1927) theory is one of
the first theories of learning and therefore is referred to as classical. Classical conditioning as
we are going to see in our explanation of the theory is a learning procedure in which a neutral
stimulus (that does not elicit a response) is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits a
response until the originally neutral stimulus elicits that response.
Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his laboratory began to salivate when they were about to be fed,
even before they could see or smell the food. Some even salivated at the sight of the pan where
their food was kept or at the sight of their keeper or even when they simply heard his footsteps.
This suggested to Pavlov that these stimuli had somehow become signals for the food itself.
The dogs had learned that when the signals are present, food will soon follow.
This observation led Pavlov to carry out a series of experiments. The experiments involved
ringing a bell or sounding a buzzer – neither of which ordinarily led to salivation – and then
immediately presenting the dogs with food, a stimulus that naturally leads to salivation. Pavlov
found that after the procedure is repeated many times, the bell or the buzzer alone began to
elicit salivation. This demonstrated that learning has occurred, since the dogs were able to
respond to a neutral stimulus that they had not responded to prior to its repeated pairing with
food. The basic principle is to associate an existing and established behaviour with a new one
for effective results.
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Let us look at the technical terms used in classical conditioning. The food presented to the dog
is referred to as the unconditioned stimulus (US). It is called unconditioned stimulus because
it involves no learning. The salivation which occurs in response to the food is called the
unconditioned response (UCR). It is called the unconditioned response because the dog does
not have to learn to respond to the food by salivating. Salivating is a natural or an instinctive
behaviour for the dog. The neutral stimulus (sound of the bell or buzzer) which lost its
neutrality after conditioning is referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS). It is called a
conditioned stimulus because the dog has been conditioned/trained to respond to the sound of
the bell. The salivation that occurs in response to the sound of the bell is called the
conditioned response (CR). This information is summarized diagrammatically in figure 17.
Before Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (bell) --------------- No Response

During conditioning Neutral stimulus (bell) + Food (UCS) ----- Salivation (UCR)
After conditioning Neutral stimulus (bell becomes CS) ----- Salivation (CR)
Figure 17:Summary of classical conditioning
The essential feature of classical conditioning is that a previously neutral stimulus acquires the
capacity to elicit a certain response. Pavlov assumed that many physiological and emotional
reactions are acquired this way. Let us consider another example of classical conditioning taken
from human learning. When you take an infant to the hospital for the first time, it may show no
response towards the nurse or it may respond happily to the nurse. After getting an injection, the
baby will respond by crying. After a number of visits to the hospital the baby will cry on seeing
the nurse or any other medical staff in white overalls.
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Learning Activity:
Give other examples of classical conditioning
Classical conditioning has been used to explain phobic behaviour, such as, the fears or reluctance
to learn a certain subject, or a feeling of being unable to learn a certain subject, or a feeling of
being unable to do so. For example, many students suffer from Math anxiety because of having
had unpleasant experiences, such as failing when learning Mathematics.
For effective conditioning to occur, the conditioned stimulus (CS) should precede the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) very closely. This is necessary for the new association to be
established. Several trials are necessary for conditioning to occur. However, some responses
may be learned with only one trial. For example, an intensely painful response like getting burnt
does not require many trials before you get conditioned to fear fire.
Characteristics of Classical Conditioning

It is necessary to be familiar with the following characteristics of conditioning which may also
be termed as principles of learning since they tend to occur in other types of learning as well.
i) Reinforcement: Reinforcement is anything or event which, when presented
immediately after a behaviour increases the frequently of that behaviour in the future.
A CS – UCS pairing constitutes reinforcement in classical conditioning. The
unconditioned stimulus (food) will strengthen the association between the
conditioned stimulus (bell) and the response (salivating). Hunger to the dog is a
reinforcer to the response; otherwise, it may be difficult for conditioning to occur if
the dog is not feeling hungry.
ii) Extinction: Is the weakening and disappearance of a learned response when

reinforcement is withheld. If reinforcement is withheld, that is, if the conditioned
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stimulus is presented alone repeatedly, it loses its power to elicit the conditioned
response. When you ring the bell several times without giving the dog the food, there
will come a time when it will not respond. The conditioned response becomes
extinct.
iii) Spontaneous recovery: Is the reappearance of a previously extinguished response.

When the conditioned stimulus is presented alone repeatedly, it loses the power to
elicit the conditioned response; however, after a delay period (hours or days) the CS
regains its power to elicit the CR. Thus, it is difficult for a learned response to
disappear completely.
iv) Generalization: Generalization refers to a process in which a conditioned response

to a stimulus is generalized to similar category of stimuli. For example, the fear of
nurse by infants may be generalized to anybody in a white overall. The fear of
mathematics by some students may be generalized to other subjects that involve
calculations such as physics, economics and so on. The fear of gun sound may be
generalised to similar sounds.
v) Discrimination: This is a process whereby a subject learns to respond to only one

stimulus and not to others. Discrimination takes place when the target stimulus is the
only CS that is paired with the UCS. In Pavlov’s experiment, each time a specific
tone was sounded the dog was presented with the meat powder. Whenever a similar
but different tone was sounded, no UCS was presented. Eventually the dog learned to
discriminate between tones and salivated only to the target tone.
Learning Activity:
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Read the following scenarios. Try and identify which items are the conditioned or
unconditioned stimuli or responses
1. In order to treat bedwetting, a pad that is sensitive to dampness is placed under the
sheets. When this pad becomes wet, it sounds an alarm and you wake up.
Eventually you do not need the alarm to wake up and your full bladder will wake
you up.
2. The sight of food makes you hungry. Soon every time you go into the kitchen,
you feel hungry.
3. A teacher drinks several beers while eating nyama choma. After becoming sick,
she refuses to eat nyama choma.
Operant Conditioning
What makes behaviours, desirable or undesirable, to persist? The answer to this question lies in
operant conditioning whose major proponent was B.F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is a
mode of learning in which the frequency of a behaviour is increased or decreased depending
upon its consequences.
Unlike classical conditioning, in which the original behaviours are the natural, biological
responses to the presence of some stimulus such as food, water or pain, operant conditioning
applies to voluntary responses, which the organism performs deliberately in order to produce a
desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this point. The organism operates on its
environment, producing certain outcome/results that determine whether the behaviour will recur
or not. It is also called instrumental conditioning because the behaviour of the organism is
instrumental or facilitative in achieving a certain outcome or a goal. The organism is
instrumental or responsible for generating reward for its activity or behaviour.
Skinner’s experiment
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In developing his theory, Skinner conducted many experiments using animals such as rats and
pigeons. In one experiment a rat was placed in what is known as a Skinner box or an operant
chamber. Within the box was a food delivery mechanism with a press bar and some food pellets.
The food deprived rat is free to move within the confined area. In search of food, the rat would
move within the box and accidentally or out of curiosity presses the bar and as a result some food
pellets drop out. After gaining this outcome the rat would continue with its apparently random
activity and sooner or later it would press the bar again and obtain more food pellets. As time
passed, the rat pressed the lever more and more frequently and finally it learned to consistently
operate the lever to obtain food.
According to Skinner, what stimulated the bar-pressing behaviour of the rat was not very
important. What is significant is that the rat pressed (response) the bar and as a result received
food (reinforcement). Whether or not the rat will repeat the behaviour is determined by the
consequences of the behaviour. If the consequences are negative, the chances are that the
behaviour will be avoided. On the other hand, if the consequences are pleasant, the behaviour
will be repeated and sustained for as long as it is reinforced.
There are many real-life examples of operant conditioning. Some of these are summarized in
Table 18.
Table18: Examples of operant conditioning

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Stimulus Operant Consequence Implication
(reinforcement/pu
nishment)
Teacher promises Students misbehave Trip cancelled/ Students are less
trip for good Withdrawn likely to misbehave
behaviour before field trips
Teacher announces Student studies Student scores an A Student is likely to
a test diligently study harder in
future
Invitation for a job Carries a charm in Passes interview Charm carrying
interview interview and gets a job behaviour increases
Teacher Students talk in Teacher shortens Students are less
Class students’ break likely to talk in class
Now that you know what operant learning is, let us look at reinforcement which is probably the
most important aspect of this type of conditioning.
Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement: This is possibly the easiest, most effective consequence for a trainer to
control (and easy to understand, too!). Positive reinforcement means starting or adding
something good, something the organism likes or enjoys. Because the organism wants to gain
that good thing again, it will repeat the behaviour that seems to cause that consequence.
Examples of positive reinforcement:
 The worker gets a pay cheque for working.
 The dog gets a piece of liver for returning when called.
 The cat gets comfort for sleeping on the bed.
Primary and Secondary positive reinforcers
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A primary positive reinforcer is something that the organism does not have to learn to like. It
comes naturally, no experience necessary. Primary positive reinforcers usually include food,
water, sex (the chance to mate), the chance to engage in instinctive behaviours, and for social
animals, the chance to interact with others.
A secondary positive reinforcer is something that the organism has to learn to like. The learning
can be accomplished through classical conditioning or through some other method. A pay cheque
is a secondary reinforcer.
Schedules of Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement determines how often a behaviour is going to result in a reward.
There are five kinds: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio, and random.
 A fixed interval schedule means that a reward will occur after a fixed amount of time.
For example, every five minutes. Pay cheques work on this schedule - every two weeks,
you get one.
 A variable interval schedule means that reinforcers will be distributed after a varying
amount of time. Sometimes it will be five minutes, sometimes three, sometimes seven,
sometimes one. The e-mail account works on this system - at varying intervals you get
new mail (assuming that getting an email is generally a Good Thing!).
 A fixed ratio schedule means that if a behaviour is performed X number of times, there
will be one reinforcement on the Xth performance. For a fixed ratio of 1:3, every third
behaviour will be rewarded. This type of ratio tends to lead to lousy performance with
some animals and people, since they know that the first two performances will not be
rewarded, and the third one will be no matter what. Some assembly-line production
systems work on this schedule – you get paid for every 10 items you make. A fixed ratio
of 1:1 means that every correct performance of a behaviour will be rewarded.
 A variable ratio schedule means that reinforcers are distributed based on the average
number of correct behaviours. A variable ratio of 1:3 means that on average, one out of
every three behaviours will be rewarded. It might be the first. It might be the third. It
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might even be the fourth, as long as it averages out to one in three This is often referred
to as a variable schedule of reinforcement or VSR.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases a behaviour by ending or taking

away something bad or aversive. By making the animal's circumstances better, you are
rewarding it and increasing the likelihood that it will repeat the behaviour that was occurring
when you ended the bad thing. For example, the car buzzer turns off when you put on your
seatbelt.
Learning Activity:
Using examples, differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement
Trainers seldom go to the trouble of associating a particular cue with negative reinforcement.
You can still go ahead and do it.
Positive Punishment: Positive punishment is something that is applied to reduce a behaviour.

The term "positive" often confuses people, because in common terms "positive" means
something good, upbeat, happy, pleasant, rewarding. Remember, this is technical terminology
we are using, though, so here "positive" means "added" or "started".
Examples of Positive Punishment:

 The driver's speeding results in a ticket and a fine.
 The baby's hand is burned when she touches the hot stove.
In all of these cases, the consequence (the positive punishment) reduces the behaviour’s future
occurrences.
Cautions in using Positive Punishment
 Behaviours are usually motivated by the expectation for some reward, and even with a
punishment, the motivation of the reward is often still there. For example, a predator
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must face some considerable risk and pain in order to catch food. A wild dog must run
over rough ground and through bushes, and face the hooves, claws, teeth, and/or horns of
their prey animals. They might be painfully injured in their pursuit. In spite of this, they
continue to pursue prey. In this case, the motivation and the reward far outweigh the
punishments, even when they are dramatic.
 The timing of a positive punishment must be delicate. It must correspond exactly with the
behaviour for it to have an effect. (If a conditioned punisher is used, the positive
punishment must occur precisely with the behaviour). If you catch your dog chewing on
the furniture and you hit him when he comes to you, you are suppressing coming to you.
The dog will not make the connection between the punishment and the chewing (no
matter how much you point at the furniture).
 The aversive must be sufficient to stop the behaviour in its tracks - and must be greater
than the reward. The more experience the animal has with a rewarding consequence for
the behaviour, the greater the aversive has to be to stop or decrease the behaviour. If you
start with a small aversive (mild electric shock or a stern talking-to) and build up to a
greater one (strong shock or full-on yelling), your trainee may become adjusted to the
aversive and it will not have any greater effect.
 Punishments may become associated with the person supplying them. The dog who was
hit after chewing on the furniture may still chew on the furniture, but he certainly will not
do it when you are around!
 Physical punishments can cause physical damage, and mental punishments can cause
mental damage. You should only apply as much of an aversive as it takes to stop the
behaviour. If you find you have to apply a punishment more than three times for one
behaviour, without any decrease in the behaviour, you are not "reducing the behaviour",
you are harassing (or abusing) the trainee.
Negative Punishment: Negative punishment is reducing behaviour by taking away Something

Good. If the animal was enjoying or depending on something Good, it will work to avoid it being
taken away. They are less likely to repeat a behaviour that results in the loss of a Good Thing.
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This type of consequence is a little harder to control. For example, a policeman is put on a half
salary for soliciting for bribes.
Learning Activity:
Using examples, differentiate between positive and negative punishment
Shaping
Operant conditioning has been extensively used in behaviour shaping. Shaping involves
reinforcing an organism every time its behaviour comes close to the desired behaviour until such
a time when it masters the desired behaviour. This means reinforcing the progress towards
desirable behaviour, the teacher can use shaping by breaking down the final complex behaviour
that the pupil is expected to master into steps or sub-skills until the whole chain is mastered
(Mwamwenda, 1995:194).
The principles of operant conditioning can also be used to weaken undesirable behaviour. This
can be done through non-reinforcement or by ignoring the behaviour. It can also be done by
reinforcing the desired behaviour which is intended to replace the undesirable one.
Learning Activity:
Give a relevant example of behaviour modification.
The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Learning

The cognitive-development approach to learning looks at how thinking develops and how this
development is related to learning. Some kinds of learning must involve higher-order processes
in which people’s thoughts and memories and the way they process information account for their
behavioural responses. One of the most recognized scholars within this approach is Jean Piaget.
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Piaget proposed that there are qualitative differences in reasoning among children in different
levels of cognitive development. Children at various developmental stages think differently and
have varied abilities to process information. In his cognitive development theory of children,
Piaget studied how children think, develop their notion of time, space, mathematics and reality.
His ideas have been applied in curricula development and classroom instruction.
Cognitive Development
Learning rests on development and Piaget argues that the school’s main task is to promote
thinking and reasoning. You may be aware of the age limits set by various primary schools for
admitting children to class one. In many public schools the age is seven years. Among other
reasons, this is because at this age children are assumed to be mentally mature enough to cope
with learning. Development is defined by four principle factors which we are going to discuss.
i) Maturation: Maturation refers to the unfolding of the genetic plan of
life.
This master plan acts as a time-table that determines when certain changes/events will
occur. Maturation is important in learning. For example, the child must be mature to
learn how to walk, talk and process information mentally.
ii) Experience: Development is facilitated by the active interaction of the child with
his/her environment.
iii) Social transmission: Social transmission refers to the information and customs that
are transmitted from parent and other people in the child’s environment. This is what
is commonly meant by education and learning.
iv) Equilibration: This is the process by which children seek balance between what
they know and what they are experiencing. When children are faced with information
that calls for a new and different analysis or activity, they enter a state of
disequilibrium (imbalance). When this occurs, they must change the way they deal
with the information to establish a new, more state of equilibrium.
Piaget believed that as our brains mature, they develop concepts, which he called schemas.
Schemas are ways of looking at the world and they develop as we interact with the world. A
baby’s schemas are very basic, but as the baby manages to interact with the environment it
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assimilates new information. We organize past experiences and provide a framework for
understanding subsequent experiences.
At first, schemas are physical and include sucking, looking and touching. Later, schemas
become more symbolic, internal and mental. By adulthood, we have built a limitless number of
schemas that range from, how to make a meal, to what it means to be in love.
The process of building schemas is an adaptive one in which our schemas are continually being
refined as a result of our experiences. Adaptation can be understood in terms of adjustment. As
the forces in the environment change, so must the individual’s ability to deal with them.
Adaptation involves assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process of
absorbing new information into existing schemas. For example, a child who sees a carton box
and uses it as a motor van has assimilated the carton box into his/her structure and knowledge of
a motor van.
The process of accommodation involves modifying internal existing schemas to fit new
information or to meet the requirements of the new experience. For example, a child who is
used to picking light objects with one had is faced by the task of picking a heavier one, he/she
will accommodate and use his/her two hands. It is through these processes that a child learns,
according to Piaget.
Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget argued that children’s cognitive development could be understood as occurring in four
major stages, each of which is qualitatively different from the others. Children develop their
cognitive abilities in stages, and each stage represent a different way in which they reason and
deal with the world.
In the first stage (0-2 years), that is, the sensorimotor period, infants explore their world
through the senses and motor activities. To the child, objects are real when they are being
experienced, when they are out of site they cease to be. As they develop, they gradually develop
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a sense of object permanence that is, the idea that things do not disappear when they are out of
view.
In the second stage, the preoperational stage (2-7 years), children can use symbols and
language. A child can use something to represent or symbolize another, for example, a piece of
wood to symbolize a motor vehicle. This ability is evident in pretend play. The greatest
achievement in this stage is the use of symbolic thought.
Children at this stage cannot classify, serrate, solve problems that require knowledge of
conservation or reverse process. They concentrate on only one dimension at a time and judge
everything based on its appearances. They are egocentric, that is, they believe that everyone
sees things from their point of view. At the beginning of the stage, they are animistic, that is,
they believe that everything is animate or has life. This animism becomes less evident as they
reach the age of four or five.
The third stage is the concrete operational stage (7-11 years), during which many of the
limitations of the preoperational stage slowly fades. Children at this stage can observe reverse
operations, classify and serrate. They deal with concrete objects rather than abstractions. In
their thinking, they must be able to see or imagine objects. For example, terms like democracy
and justice are too abstract for them, although they may understand democracy in terms of
voting and majority rule, and justice in terms of fairness (that is, in terms of concrete things).
They become less egocentric, that is, they begin to understand that other people see the world
differently than they do. This is because they interact with others and share thoughts and verify
their views of the world. They can take the perspective of the other person and imagine what
others think of them and feel.
In the fourth stage, formal operations (from 11 or 12 years onwards) teens gradually develop
the ability to use scientific logic, deal with abstractions and separate what is real from what is
possible. They develop the ability to use hypothetical deductive logic, that is, the ability to form
a hypothesis, scientifically test it and draw conclusions using deductive logic. Piaget’s ideas on
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cognitive development will be discussed in more details in the next module, but what we have
said is adequate for the purpose of this lecture.
Learning Activity:
Prepare a table with four columns. In each column, indicate the stage of development and the
cognitive abilities achieved.
Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory suggests that we learn through imitation and modelling. Social
learning is also known as observational or imitation learning. Most of our behaviour such as
speech patterns, beliefs, values and eating habits are acquired through watching and imitating
other people. Young children are able to use language fluently even before they go to school.
This happens without any explicit effort by parents to teach them their mother tongue. Their
social interaction with parents, peers and adults facilitates learning through imitation. Someone
without Teacher training can use a gun after observing it being used by someone else. The
psychologist who is mostly associated with this theory of learning is Albert Bandura.
Learning Activity:
Explain the role of media in modelling.
Social learning may take place in any context and it may concern social, emotional, moral
intellectual or physical behaviour. Children pick up behaviour, consciously and unconsciously
every day by watching parents, peers, teachers and others. Every behaviour observed by
children has the potential of being modelled. Bandura carried a lot of experiments in this area
and concluded that, we learn through; direct reinforcement (for example, praise), direct
imitation and vicarious conditioning or reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement happens
when we see others rewarded or punished for a particular action and then we increase or decrease
our behaviour as if we had received the consequences ourselves. For example, a teacher may
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work very hard after observing another one being rewarded for good work. You might have
heard judges say that they want to give criminals a very severe sentence so that it can serve as a
deterrent to others who may be contemplating such crimes.
In his studies, Bandura demonstrated that children were more aggressive after watching an
aggressive model, a film of an aggressive model or a cartoon depicting violence than they were
after viewing a non-aggressive model, or no model at all (Bandura and Walters, 1963). Now
that you have known what social learning is and how it takes place, let us look at some of the
factors that facilitate social learning.
Factors Facilitating Social Learning

Some of the factors that promote the occurrence of social learning are:
 Attention: We must pay attention to the model to be able to learn the behaviour. However,
to a lesser degree social learning may take place on the basis of incidental or subconscious
attention.
 Memory: The behaviour being observed must be processed mentally and stored in long term
memory. Once stored in memory information can be easily retrieved. If the observed
information is not successfully processed and stored in memory, then the observed behaviour
cannot be reproduced.
 Mental Skills: Practice/rehearsal may be necessary for the observed behaviour to be
reproduced perfectly. For example, skills like driving, riding, typing, drawing and so on
require practice.
 Reinforcement: If a model is rewarded for a particular behaviour, the chances of the
behaviour being modelled are higher, since the observer shares the model’s reward
vicariously (Mwamwenda, 1995).
 Identification: A child must feel the need to identify with someone who may be the parent,
a figure of authority, a peer, a hero and so on for modelling to be effective. Usually, people
like to identify themselves with certain individuals in the society, and as far as possible
behave like the person being imitated.
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 The status of a model: Models of high social status are more likely to be copied. A senior
Teacher is modelled more frequently than an ordinary Teacher is. Subordinates model an
officer more frequently than they model fellow Teachers.
 Nurturant Model: The behaviour of a model who is perceived to be warm, friendly,
considerate and caring is more likely to be modelled than that of a model who is uncaring
and indifferent (Mwamwenda, 1995).
 Consistency of behaviour: If the behaviour is consistent, it is more likely to be imitated.
The Latent Learning Theory

This theory is associated with Edward Tolman. Tolman felt that a significant amount of learning
consists of latent learning, that is, learning that takes place in the absence of any reward and
remains hidden until some future time when it can be retrieved. For a moment think about how
much you know about your immediate environment. You may not be conscious about this
knowledge until a stranger asks you for direction to a specific place. Latent learning occurs in
the absence of any reward and remains hidden until it is needed. This kind of learning is
cognitive in nature since there is no reward or purpose for learning (Huffman et al., 1995).
Tolman proposed that people and animals learn to navigate in their environment by creating
cognitive maps (mental images of an area that a person has navigated) of the area. Thus, we
learn information that remains latent until there is sufficient reason to retrieve it. For example,
we read newspapers, watch television and read novels and later use the information in exams,
assignments and discussions.
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10.6 Summary
 Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from practice or
experience.
 Classical conditioning is a learning procedure in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a
stimulus that naturally elicits a response until the originally neutral stimulus elicits that
response. A neutral stimulus does not normally cause any particular reflex or response. In
classical conditioning it is paired with a stimulus that naturally causes a response.
 Operant conditioning is a mode of learning in which the frequency of a behaviour is
increased or decreased depending upon its consequences.
 Reinforcement is any action or event that increases the probability that a response will be
repeated.
 Positive reinforcement occurs when something desirable is given or added to increase the
response rate.
 Negative reinforcement occurs when something bad or aversive is removed to increase the
response rate.
 Positive punishment is anything that is likely to cause a decrease in a response.
 Positive punishment occurs when something bad or aversive is given to decrease the
response.
 Negative punishment occurs when something good/pleasant is removed to decrease the
response rate.
 Continuous schedule of reinforcement consists of subjects being given reinforcement for
each response.
 Partial schedules of reinforcement consists of subjects being reinforcement for some, but
not all responses.
 Social learning is a type of learning that takes place through observing and imitating the
behaviour of a model.
 A model is a person who serves as an example to another.
 Latent learning is a type of learning that takes place in the absence of any reward and
remains hidden until some future time when it can be retrieved. It occurs without a specific
intention/purpose. 121
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1. Define the term learning.
2. Using examples, explain the criteria used by psychologists to distinguish between
behaviour resulting from learning and other behaviours.
3. Give definitions of the following terms: Positive reinforcement, Negative
reinforcement, Punishment, Schedules of reinforcement, Behaviour shaping
4. Discuss the usefulness of operant conditioning to learning.
5. Describe classical conditioning
6. Define extinction and spontaneous recovery.
7. Explain generalization and discrimination for classical conditioning.
8. What is the cause of learnt helplessness?
9. Explain how superstitious behaviour such as carrying charms whenever one is going
for a job interview develop according to the operant theory of learning.
10. Discuss the developmental-cognitive view of learning.
11. Explain the processes involved in learning through observational learning.
12. Explain how the latent learning theory accounts for learning.
13. Giving relevant classroom examples, distinguish between classical and operant
conditioning.
14. Using the social learning theory, explain how trainees develop negative attitudes
towards instructors.
15. Explain how the operant learning theory can be used to modify undesirable behaviour
among Teachers.
16. Define and give a relevant example of generalization.
17. Make a list of the reinforcers used in the Teaching fraternity that you know.
18. Which schedules of reinforcement are the most effective? Which are the most
common in your society?
19. Compare the effect of reinforcement and punishment in controlling behaviour.
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LECTURE 11
MEMORY AND FORGETING
11.1 Introduction
In the previous lecture, we looked at learning. In this lecture we will discuss memory which is
part and parcel of the learning process. This is partly because unless past experience can be
remembered, it is not possible to conclude that learning took place. Memory is very important in
our lives because without it we will not be able to get to places, make progress in school work,
remember our names and so on. We think and reason using remembered facts (Mwamwenda,
1995). Without memory you will not be able to pass the examination after reading this module.
By the time you work through this module you will notice that there are three types of memory
that operate in different stages/levels and discover why we remember some things and why we
forget others.

 Differentiate between sensory, short term and long-term memory.
 Explain how information is processed in the three levels of memory.
 Explain the role of memory in learning.
 Discuss various theories of forgetting.
 Explain how memory is measured.
 Explain how memory can be enhanced.
11.3 Stages of Memory
How is information processed before it is permanently stored in our memory? You may have
noticed that there is no day that passes without forgetting something, such as where you placed
your keys or pen, a telephone number you wanted to call, learnt material during an examination
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and so on. You may be also amazed by how sometimes you are able to vividly remember
experiences you had very many years ago, such as, your first day in school, the name of an old
friend, the streets of a town and so on. The knowledge on different levels of memory and why
we fail to access memorized information will make you understand why sometimes you are able
to remember information and some other times to forget. Researchers have identified at least
three distinct stages of memory; sensory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Let us
now look at these stages of memory.
Learning Activity:
Try to compare your memory of experiences of many years and recent events. How come you
can easily recall your childhood experiences and not things that you learned recently?
Sensory memory
This is memory at the level of our senses. Our sensory organs are capable of retaining what
impinges on them, but only for a very short time, perhaps for a fraction of a second or more.
Immediately after we experience something, our sensory system contains for a brief moment an
image of the incoming information, even after the stimulus has disappeared. If you look at an
object within your vicinity and close your eyes immediately, you will notice that you are seeing
an image of the object. The information in sensory memory is temporary, lasting for about a half
a second. It involves a continued excitement of the sense organ itself. Any information that is
registered in sensory memory is available to be selected for attention and for processing into a
more permanent type of memory, that is, short-term memory (STM) or long-term memory
(LTM). Figure 19 shows how information is processed for purposes of retention.
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Environment Sensory Short-term Long-term
Stimuli register/senso memory memory (LTM)
(input) (STM)
Discarded Forgotten
Information information
Figure 8: Information processing for retention
Any information encountered in the environment enters the sensory register, so called
because it is believed that the information is stored as it is received, without any major
changes in its form. Many of the sensory stimuli that enter the sensory register are not
processed and only those which are processed, proceed to the next chamber, which is the
short-term memory.
Short-term Memory
Information received from the sensory register in its raw form is processed in the short-term
memory, in which it is retained for a short while. The STM consists of what is in our immediate
awareness at any given time. For this reason, STM is often called working memory. It is a
working memory in the sense that it consists of what you have in mind at the present time.
Information that enters the STM is either processed for further storage in a more permanent way
or is ignored.
In STM, new materials are evaluated, organized and combined with new information and
previous one taken from storage places. STM has a very limited capacity. According to Miller
(1956) most of us can retain seven separate items (plus or minus two) at a given time. Items here
can be numbers, words or letters. Our immediate consciousness is limited to this capacity and as
additional items of information come in; they push out some that are already there.
Unless the new information is very vivid and simple, we need rehearsal to keep it in STM. In
rehearsal, the information is practiced in one way or another. For example, the event is repeated
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several times like saying a telephone number again and again. The aim of rehearsing is to keep
the material available until it can be used or until it can be stored in some integrated fashion.
Long-term Memory
The long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and duration. Information in LTM can be
stored for as long as we live. LTM is the final storage for information. The transfer of material
to LTM requires a process known as encoding, which involves the preparation or organization of
information in a useful and meaningful way so that it can be easily remembered. The
information needs to be organized so that it can be easily available for future reference and can
be updated by new information.
During the transfer of information from STM to LTM, incoming information is “tagged” or
encoded to be filed in the appropriate place. If it is not properly encoded and stored in may not
be accessible later. Some of the work of memory organization and filling apparently occurs
during sleep in which our recent additions to LTM are reviewed, improved and systematically
tagged (Crick and Mitchison, 1983).
In addition to any specific memory organization processes that occur during sleep, sleep and rest
may also enhance our ability to recall what we have learned because there is less interference
from addition from new information. You may have noticed that when you revise for an
examination and have a good rest/sleep you are able to recall better than when you revise
throughout the night or up to the last minute.
Because of the nature of LTM, our memories can include additions to, omissions to and
revision of the original event. What we remember is not a perfect copy of the original event.
When the information is being stored, the meaning of the item is more important than its exact
physical form. For example, at the end of this lecture you will be able to answer any question on
STM and LTM correctly without recalling the exact wording in the module.
In the organization of information in the LTM, material seems to be filed in categories and sub-
categories as a network with several pathways to reach a piece of information. The organized
material is thus easily remembered. For example, an attempt to remember a piece of information
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may trigger memory of related information because related material appears to be filed together
(Huffman et al; 1995).
Learning Activity:
In a table format compare and contrast the three levels of memory.
11.4 Memory Retrieval

Memory retrieval is the process of returning LTM contents to STM for analysis or awareness.
Sometimes a cue may be necessary in the memory retrieval. A cue is a stimulus or hint that can
trigger/begin a retrieval process from LTM. For example, you might have walked to the
bedroom to pick something only to forget after getting there, but when you return to the sitting
room you remember because you get the necessary cue.
Research has found that when thinking or the retrieval process is left unfinished, the brain will
keep on working on the problem unconsciously until an answer is obtained, psychologists call
this the Zeigarnik effect (Bonello, 1982 & Zeigarnik, 1927). The unfinished problem motivates
us to find a solution. Unconsciously, perceptual processes continue to select things that give us
further information about the problem and we continue to search the categories of our memories
until we find the information we need. For example, you may have met somebody whom you
thought you knew his/her name very well, only to fail to recall, but days later you recall his/her
name effortlessly.
Learning Activity:
What cues do you need to recall the events of a scene of crime?
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11.5 Theories of Forgetting
Why do we forget what we have learned? Forgetting is the inability to recall, recognize or
relearn at an improved rate. Forgetting may be due to storage failure, in which the memory trace
was never satisfactorily created or consolidated initially. It may also be due to retrieval failure,
in which the memory trace is present but an adequate cue for evoking it is lacking. Several
theories have been formulated to explain how it occurs let us now look at some of these theories.
Decay Theory
This theory assumes that memory disappears or deteriorates with the passage of time. There
appears to be decay or fading of memory traces of information due to the continuous metabolic
processes of the brain. The traces of information that were learned slowly disintegrate and
become extinct as time lapses. Because we have a limited capacity for processing information
rehearsal can prevent decay. However, as we may agree with this theory, it doesn’t explain
why sometimes we are able to remember things we learned long time ago.
Consolidation Theory
This theory assumes that memory trace needs undisturbed period of time to be firmly fixed.
Certain conditions occurring soon after an experience can eradicate the memory before it
becomes permanent. Physical and emotional shock can cause forgetting of recent events
possibly due to the disruption of normal neural functioning. For example, people who suffer
brain injury may not remember what happened before an accident even though their memory of
the distant past is normal. The accident disrupts immediate memories before they have a chance
to consolidate.
Interference Theory
This theory proposes that forgetting occurs because of what happens between point A, when the
information is learnt and point B, when the person is required to recall what he/she learned a
while ago. We forget something because other information blocks its retrieval. This type of
forgetting is common with similar materials. There are two types of interference effect, namely
retroactive inhibition and proactive inhibition.
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Retroactive inhibition: Retroactive inhibition involves forgetting something because
information learned afterward interferes with it. For example, when a child goes to school and
starts to learn a second language say, Kiswahili he/she may have difficulties in remembering
his/her mother tongue.
Proactive inhibition: Proactive inhibition involves forgetting something because information

learned previously or earlier interferes with it. For example, if you learn the gospel of Luke and
afterwards learn the gospel of John, you may have difficulties recalling the contents of the latter
which may be very similar to that of the first one. The pronunciation of a second language are
sometimes heavily interfered with learning of a first language.
Motivated Forgetting Theory

This theory assumes that we wish to forget something unpleasant or something that would cause
pain, anxiety or embarrassment. In such cases the information is not forgotten because it is still
in the LTM and could be remembered if the protective mechanism were overcome. In short, we
forget certain experiences as a matter of choice.
Retrieval Failure Theory

This theory assumes that memories stored in LTM are never forgotten but rather are shortly
inaccessible as a result of interference, emotional state and lack of adequate cues. Sometimes
we may require the setting in which we learnt to be able to recall. For example, Teacher
trainees may recall better if they are tested in the room or field they were trained. We may fail to
recall something at a particular moment, but when conditions are different the information comes
back more or less automatically. Research shows that you may be able to remember information
when you are in the emotional state in which the learning occurred (Gordon Bower, 1981). This
is what is called state-dependent memory. For example, subjects who had been sad during
learning may remember better when they are sad during recall.
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Thus, forgetting is a temporary rather than a permanent phenomenon according to the retrieval
failure theory. It is like being unable to find something but not losing it. This type of forgetting
can be explained best by what is known as a tip of the tongue (TOT) experience, that is, an
understanding that you know something but you cannot get to it.
Learning Activity:
In a table format give the similarities and differences between the various types of memory
Exceptional Memories
Some people are able to remember things so vividly that they are said to have a photographic
memory. The technical term for this ability is called eidetic memory. This ability is rare and is
inborn. Instead of using a selection process that concentrates on the most important aspects of
incoming information, the person with a photographic memory store all the information.
11.6 Methods for Measuring Memory

i) Recall: This method requires a person to reproduce correctly what he/she has
previously learned.
ii) Recognition: Recognition is discrimination between seen and unseen materials, items
and objects. This is common in multiple choice tests in which you are required to
identify the correct answer out of the distracters.
iii) Relearning: The difference between the number of trials or opportunities required to
learn the material initially and the number of trials required to relearn is considered to
be an index of retention. The index is often referred to as a saving score. For example,
relearning material that was once learnt may require 10 trials while learning the material
afresh may require 20 trials. Thus, 10 is the index of retention. However, improved
ability may account for the improved score.
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11.7 How to Improve Memory
Various methods can be used to improve our ability to retain information in LTM. Let us briefly
look at these methods.
i) Recitation: This method involves repeating to yourself what you have learnt.
Recitation forces you to practice retrieving information as you learn.
ii) Summarizing and paraphrasing of the major points helps to enhance memory.
iii) Overlearning: overlearning means practicing beyond the point of mastery. Degrees of
overlearning are expressed as percentages. For example, if it takes 10 trials to learn
(master) a task and you practice for five more trials, this is 50 percent overlearning, 10
extra trials is 100 percent overlearning. However, overlearning will depend on the one’s
ability, motivation, interest and subject matter. Overlearning is beneficial with material
that must be remembered for a long time. More and more practice make whatever is
learned to become more and more automatic, for example, riding or driving.
iv) Chunking: Chunking means grouping a set of items into subgroups for easy recall.
This reduces the number of items to be remembered. For example, trying to memorize
the telephone number –0721205873, you may reduce the chunks to be recalled as 0721,
205, 873 or as 07,21,20,58 and 73.
v) Spaced Practice: Spaced practice is superior then massed or continuous practice. We
should have breaks instead of studying continuously. This allows the mind to process
and store the information.
vi) Sleep/rest: Sleeping or resting after studying reduces interference and enhances
memory consolidation. Thus, study schedules should have ample breaks between
subjects.
vii) Review: Reviewing of learned material involves going over the major concepts again.
viii) Organization: If the material you are learning is well organized, it will be easy to
remember. One way of organizing information is by breaking it into smaller units and
trying to link these to each other in the way they relate to each other so that
remembering one unit can lead to remembering yet another unit.
ix) Cueing: Cues such as, highlighting the key concepts or terms can help in recall.
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x) Mnemonic device: These are strategies used to aid memory. They involve organizing
information visually or verbally for easy remembering. They can be special phrases or
symbols, which may be used to group information. For example, trying to recall the
order of the colours of the rainbow by relating them to a person’s name Roy G. Biv (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue , indigo and violet) or putting the information to be
remembered in a story narrative, for example, if you were to recall the days in each
month, you will do it easily using the narrative, “Thirty days have September, April,
June and November, all the rest have 31 days, except February which has 28 days and
29 in each leap year.”
Learning Activity:
Using some of the methods of improving memory, try to revise what you have learned in the
previous lectures.
11.8 Summary
 Memory is the process by which we encode, store and retrieve information.
 Human beings have three different kinds of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory
(STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
 Sensory memory is the memory that occurs within our senses while incoming messages are being
transmitted to the brain and lasts for only a fraction of a second.
 Short-term memory involves memory for current thoughts. It can hold about seven items for
about 30 seconds or so.
 Long-term memory is more permanent memory where information is stored for future use.
 Retrieval is the process of getting information out of long-term memory.
 Forgetting can be caused by decaying, interference, distortion, repression, failure of consolidation
of information or retrieval failure.
 People with eidetic (photographic) memory can retrieve a detailed copy of the original image
from LTM.
 132 periodic review, rehearsal and so on.
Forgetting can be minimized by overlearning,
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1. Describe the three stages of memory.
2. Explain how information is processed in the three levels of memory.
3. What is state-dependent memory?
4. Discuss the following theories of forgetting.
 Decay theory.
 Consolidation theory.
 Interference theory.
 Motivated forgetting theory.
 Retrieval failure theory.
5. What is eidetic memory?
6. Explain three ways of measuring memory.
7. Explain the methods you can advise Teacher trainees to use to improve their ability to
retain information in long-term memory.
8. Discuss what you can do as a teacher to improve your memory on teaching.
9. What are some things we can do to reduce the influence of inhibition on memory?
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LECTURE 12
HUMAN PERSONALITY
12.1 Introduction
What is more important in determining your behaviour - your personality or the situation in
which you are in (the environment)? Are you a "nice" person? If you said yes, are you always
nice? The answer, if you are being honest, is no. The question then is, if you are a "nice" person
(and thus that is part of your personality), why are you not nice all the time; how can you not be
nice all the time if that is your personality? According to personality theorists, the human
personality is enduring and the determining factor in human behaviour.
1. Explain the process of personality development according to various theories.

2. Identify and explain the basic factors contributing to the development of human personality.
3. Explain the structure and traits of human personality.
4. Explain the basis of different types of personality.
12.3 Definition of Personality
Personality is not easily defined. Basically, ‘personality’ refers to our attempts to capture or
summarize an individual’s ‘essence’. Personality is the science of describing and understanding
persons. No two people are exactly the same - not even identical twins. Some people are anxious,
some are risk-taking; some are indifferent; some are confident, some are shy; and some are quiet
and others are talkative. This issue of differences is fundamental to the study of personality.
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The word ‘personality’ derives from the Greek word ‘persona’ which means ‘mask’. The study
of personality can be understood as the study of ‘masks’ that people wear. These are the personas
that people project and display, but also includes the inner parts of psychological experience,
which we collectively call our ‘self’.
Learning Activity:
"I am" exercise
i. Write 10 honest endings to "I am..."
ii. Share them with someone.
iii. Does this sum up your personality? Why or why not?
An additional distinction can be made between personality and temperament. Temperament is
the “raw material” from which personality is formed. Temperament refers to the physique and
the hereditary aspect of one’s emotional nature: sensitivity, strength, and speed of response,
prevailing mood, and fluctuations in mood. In this lecture, we are going to define Personality as an
individual’s unique, relatively consistent pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
12.4 Theories of Personality
Theories of personality help us to predict how someone is going to behave on the basis of the
prevailing personality characteristics and the situation a person is in. A personality theory is a set
scientific facts, propositions and principle that tries to explain personality. Each personality
theory has made a significant contribution to the understanding of human personality by
meaningfully organising observation of human behaviour.
Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

Sigmund Freud believed that most of our behaviours originate from the unconscious parts of our
psyche. According to him, there are three levels of consciousness:
 Conscious (small): this is the part of the mind that holds what you are aware of. You can
verbalize about your conscious experience and you can think about it in a logical fashion.
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 Preconscious (small medium): this is ordinary memory. So although things stored here
aren’t in the conscious, they can be readily brought into conscious.
 Unconscious (enormous): Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly accessible
to awareness. In part, he saw it as a dump box for urges, feelings and ideas that are tied to
anxiety, conflict and pain. These feelings and thoughts have not disappeared and
according to Freud, they are there, exerting influence on our actions and our conscious
awareness. This is where most of the work of the id, ego and superego take place.
Material passes easily back and forth between the conscious and the preconscious. Material from
these two areas can slip into the unconscious. Truly unconscious material cannot be made
available voluntarily, according to Freud. You need a psychoanalyst to do this!
Learning Activity:
List behaviours that you engage in, for which you do not have a good explanation. Do you think
that they originate from the unconscious part of your psyche?
Iceberg metaphor for the mind’s layout

We can use the metaphor of an iceberg to help us in understanding Freud's topographical theory.
 Only 10% of an iceberg is visible (conscious) whereas the other 90% is beneath the water
(preconscious and unconscious).
 The Preconscious is allotted approximately 10% -15% whereas the Unconscious is
allotted an overwhelming 75%-80%.
 This can be seen in figure 20 below:
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Figure 9:Freud's View of the human mind
Sigmund Freud conceived of personality as a dynamic system of energies directed by three

structures: the id, the ego and the super ego. Each is a complex system in its own right, and
behaviour in most situations involves the activity of all three.
The Id
The id is the first part of personality to develop and is made up of inherited biological instincts
and urges present at birth. It is “self-serving”, irrational, impulsive and totally unconscious. The
id operates on the pleasure principle, meaning that pleasure-seeking impulses of all kinds are
freely expressed. Newborn infants are sometimes described as “all id,” since they desire
immediate satisfaction of their needs. Most id energies are directed towards discharge of
tensions associated with sex and aggression.
The Ego
The ego, sometimes described as the “executive”, draws its energies from the id. It is the second
part of personality to develop. The id can only produce mental images of things it desires called
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“primary process thinking”. The ego wins power to direct the personality by matching the
desires of the id with external reality.
In contrast to the id, which operates on the pleasure principle, the ego is directed by the reality
principle (which involves delaying action until it is appropriate). The operation of the reality
principle results in “secondary process thinking”, which is basically realistically problem
solving. The ego is thereby a system of thinking, planning and deciding. It is in conscious
control of the personality.
Super Ego
The super ego acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts or actions of the ego. One part of the
superego, called the conscience, represents all actions for which a person has been punished.
The “ego ideal” represents all behaviour one’s parents approved or rewarded. The “ego ideal” is
a source of goals and aspirations. When its standards are met, pride is felt. By these processes
the superego acts as an “internalized parent”, to bring behaviour under control. In Freud’s view,
a person with a poorly developed super ego may exhibit a delinquent, criminal or anti-social
personality. In contrast, an overly strict or repressive super ego will cause inhibitions, rigidity or
intolerable guilt.
Learning Activity:
Try to compare your current behaviour with your early childhood parental discipline. Do you
think you have a strong or weak super ego?
Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Sigmund Freud’s theory of human development provides a clear picture of how a person’s
personality develops from childhood up to adulthood. The cumulative treatment and interaction
subjected to a person, right from birth through the growth stages until one attains adulthood,
influences the kind of personality that a person develops.
Oral Stage (0-1 year)
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During the first year of life, most of the infant’s pleasure comes from stimulation of the mouth.
If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits may be created. Adult expressions of oral needs
include, gum-chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing, overeating and alcoholism.
Anal Stage (1-3 years)
Between the ages of one and three years, the child’s attention shifts to the process of elimination.
When his/her parents attempt to toilet-train him/her, the child can gain approval or aggression by
“holding on” or “letting go”. Therefore, harsh toilet training may establish such responses as a
personality trait. Freud characterized the “anal retention” (holding on) personality as obstinate,
stingy, orderly and compulsively clean. The “anal expulsive” (letting go) personality is
disorderly, destructive, cruel or messy.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Freud theorized that between the ages of three to six years, increased sexual interest causes the
child to become physically attracted to the parent of the opposite sex. In males, this generates
the “Oedipus conflict”, in which the boy feels rivalled by his father for the affection of the
mother. Freud felt the father threatens the male-child. To alleviate his anxieties, the boy must
identify with the father. Identification causes him to take the father’s values and to form a
conscience. The counterpart to the Oedipus conflict, the “Electra-conflict,” the girl loves her
father and competes with the mother. According to Freud, the girl’s identification with the
mother is more gradual and less effective in creating a conscience. Failure to resolve this crisis
may result a person who has difficulties relating with the opposite sex.
The Latency Stage (6 – 12 years)
Sexual drives are temporarily quiet during this period. Children avoid relationships with opposite gender
peers and become intensely involved with peers of the same gender. This is a time when they concentrate
on learning various social skills.
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Learning Activity:
List and discuss the personality traits that emanate from each of the first three stages of
psychosexual development.
Genital Stage (12 years and beyond)

The genital stage begins at puberty and is marked by a growing capacity for mature and
responsible social and sexual relationships. This stage lasts through adulthood. The genital stage
culminates in heterosexual love and the attainment of full adult sexuality.
Learning Activity:
Give examples of adulthood behaviours that are a manifestation of the genital stage.
Adult Personality
Freud’s developmental theory has been influential for several reasons. It pioneered the idea that
the first years of life help shape adult personality. It identified feeding, toilet training and early
sexual experiences as critical events in personality formation. Freud was also among the first to
propose that development proceeds through a series of stages.
Behaviouristic Theory of Personality Development

According to behaviourists, childhood is a time of urgent and learning drives, powerful words
and punishment, and crushing frustrations. Also important is social reinforcement based on the
effects of attention and approval from others. These forces combine to shape the core of
personality.
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Learning theorists John Dollard and Neal Miller, consider habits the basic structure of
personality. As for the dynamics of personality they believe that habits are governed by four
elements of the learning process: drive, cue, response and reward.
Learning Activity:
Try to explain the behaviour of a typical Teacher. How many of those behaviours are as a result
of learning or inheritance?
If a child is fed when he cries, he is encouraged to actively manipulate the environment. The
child allowed to cry without being fed learns to be passive. Thus, a basic active or passive
orientation towards the world may be established by early feeding experiences. Feeding can
also affect later social relationships, since the child learns to associate satisfaction and pleasure
or frustration and discomfort, with the presence of others.
Personality trait focuses on the stability and permanency which in turn, implies that an
individual’s behaviour is consistent over time and from one situation to another. Guilford (1959)
defined a trait as any relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another. A
trait can be viewed as a determining tendency or predisposition to respond.
Personality viewed from the behaviouristic point of view presupposes a person’s typical response
to a situation or different situations in a consistent, predictable mode or pattern. Mischel (1968)
has postulated the view known as situationalism, which explains behaviour as a function of
situational factors. People are usually reinforced for behaving in particular ways – in particular
kinds of situations. You would expect them to behave consistently in the particular ways so long
as the situations, which determine the behaviour, persist. Behaviour is learned through
conditioning. Consequently, behaviour can change through learning new behaviour.
The same situation can be perceived differently by different individuals and therefore, their
response will differ, based on past learning experiences. Individuals select, evaluate and
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interpret stimuli differently, and hence particular stimuli will affect behaviour in a specific
manner.
An individual’s collective and consistent responses to situations, in addition to other traits

constitute his or her personality.
Gender Identity Development

From birth onwards, children are identified as boys or girls and encouraged to learn appropriate
gender behaviour. Socialization and acculturation play a role in the shaping of gender specific
behaviour. Two processes that contribute greatly to personality development in general and in
particularly to gender training are identification and imitation. Identification refers to the
child’s desire to be like adults he or she admires, or is dependent on. Many of a child’s “male”
or “female” traits come from conscious or unconscious attempts to pattern behaviour after that of
the same-sex parent. Identification in other words encourages imitation.
Humanistic Theory of Personality Development

Carl Rogers holds the view that positive and negative evaluations by others cause a child to
develop internal standards of evaluations called conditions of worth. Learning to evaluate some
experiences or feelings as “good” and others as “bad” is directly related to a later capacity for
positive self-regard. Rogers believes that many adult adjustment problems are caused by an
attempt to live by the standards of others. He believes congruent and self-actualizations are
encouraged by substituting organism valuing for conditions of worth.
Learning Activity:
List the things that parents, teachers and significant others have ever said about you. How many
of these things do you think are true? How have the comments of others about you influenced
your current personality?
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Humanists reject the Freudian view of personality as a battleground for biological instincts and
unconscious forces. They view people as unique and set apart from the rest of the animal
kingdom. Humanists consider self-image a central determinant of behaviour and personal
adjustment.
To Carl Rogers the theory of personality centres on the concept of the self, a flexible and
changing perception of personal identity that emerges from the phenomenal field. The
phenomenal field is the person’s total subjective experience of reality. Much of human
behaviour can be understood as an attempt to maintain consistency between one’s self- image
and actions. For example, an individual who thinks of himself/herself as a kind and considerate
person will act accordingly in many situations.
Trait Theories of Personality

The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality.
The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed of broad dispositions. Trait
theorists maintain that a unique pattern of traits existing within each person determine that
person’s behaviour. They define trait as relatively permanent and consistent dispositions to
behave in characteristic ways. Trait theories disagree on how many personality traits there might
be.
Consider how you would describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would
list a number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered. A trait can be thought of as a
relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.
Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the
trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. The combination and
interaction of various traits forms a personality that is unique to each individual. Trait theory is
focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics.
Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory

Allport argued that although behaviour is variable, there is also a constant portion for each
person. The notion of traits assumes that personality is rooted very much within the person.
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Allport defined personality as the "dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought." According to
this view, each person has unique, key qualities.
According to Gordon, personality traits can be categorized into different levels:
 Common Traits: Traits that people in a population share as a basic dimension. Allport
used the term proprium to refer to the core of personality - one's self. By this he meant
that there are layers within the human psyche.
 Cardinal traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point that
the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such personalities
often become so known for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these
qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the following descriptive terms: Freudian,
Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal
traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.
 Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of
personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major
characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent,
honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.
 Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or
preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.
Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while
waiting in line.
Learning Activity:
Give a list various ethnic groups in Kenya and explain their common characteristics
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Eysenck’s Three Dimensions of Personality
British psychologist Hans Eysenck (1916 - 1997) developed a model of personality based upon
just three universal trails:
1. Introversion/Extraversion:
Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates
to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in
introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might
be sociable and outgoing.
2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability:
This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-
temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or
emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.
3. Psychoticism:
Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a
personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high
on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile,
non-empathetic and manipulative.
Eysenck’s trait theory is summarized in the 360° gradation below:
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Figure 21 Eysenck’s trait theory
Evidence suggests that such basic personality characteristics as introverted-extroverted and
emotionally stable-unstable are greatly influenced by genetic factors. However, specific
personality traits such as assertiveness, optimism, and rigidity are largely the result of learning
and experience.
Raymond Cattell Trait Theory

Cattell (1967) was dissatisfied with merely classifying traits. Instead, he wanted to reach deeper
into personality to learn how traits are organised and interrelated. Cattell began by studying
characteristics making up the visible portions of personality. He called these surface traits.
Through use of questionnaires, direct observation, and life records, Cattell assembled data on the
surface traits of a large number of people. He then noticed that the surface traits often appear in
clusters or groupings. By use of a sophisticated statistical technique, Cattell narrowed surface
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traits down to a list of sixteen underlying source traits. Cattell considers this the number of traits
necessary to adequately describe an individual personality.
Cattell 16 Personality Factor Profile

The Cattell 16PF (16 Personality Factor) model is probably the most-widely used system for
categorising and defining personality. The 16PF defines our basic, underlying personality,
without regard to how we apply it or the environment in which we apply it.
Therefore, our underlying personality is there all the time, but the way we see it is affected by
our intelligence, and by our upbringing and education, which may have taught us either to
emphasize or suppress aspects of our personality. However, if you can understand what your
personality is, you can then make better use of the strengths it gives you, and make allowances
for the resultant weaknesses. Because personality is relatively unchanging through adult life,
this understanding will be of long-term value to you.
Each factor can be measured on a scale, determined by completing a questionnaire, and the word
pairs below indicate the extremes of each scale. The letter codes were ascribed to each scale as a
shorthand notation as shown on table 18 below.
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Table 18: Cattell 16 Personality Factors
Factor Descriptors
1 Warmth Reserved Outgoing
2 Reasoning Less Intelligent More Intelligent
3 Emotional Stability Affected by feelings Emotionally stable
4 Dominance Humble Assertive
Learning5Activity:
Liveliness Sober Happy-go-lucky
6
Rule of
Consciousness Expedient Conscientious
From the 16 dimensions personality identify the ones that adequately describe your
personality. 7 Social Boldness Shy Venturesome
Using all 8 Sensitivity Tough-minded Tender-minded 16

Factors, and a
9 Vigilance Trusting Suspicious
more
10 Abstractedness Practical Imaginative
11 Privateness Straightforward Shrewd
12 Apprehension Self-Assured Apprehensive
13 Openness to Change Conservative Experimenting
14 Self-Reliance Group-dependent Self-sufficient
15 Perfectionism Self-conflict Self-control
16 Tension Relaxed Tense
comprehensive set of descriptions than we have given here, you can create a pretty accurate
picture of someone's personality. Combinations of factors also give a more detailed picture, and
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with the help of a competent adviser, you can begin to recognise the "real you" that lies beneath
the outward self-created by your upbringing and environment.
Using a personality profile is a tricky process. The 16PF and its variants give a powerful
interpretation of your personality which you can use to great personal benefit. It does not matter
at all what your profile is: the real benefit comes from understanding what it means for your
personal and professional life, and play to your strengths.
12.5 Personality Types

In this lecture we are going to look at how different body types and type A and B personalities
influence our behaviours. As we go through the lecture, think of how your personality fits with
the descriptions.
Body Types and Personality
In the 1940s, Sheldon carefully analysed body dimensions of thousands of male college students
and concluded that physique would describe a combination of three basic components:
endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy as shown by figure 22, 23 and 24 below.
Endomorphic Body Type
Body Type Associated personality traits
i. soft body i. love of food
ii. underdeveloped muscles ii. tolerant
iii. round shaped iii. evenness of emotions
iv. over-developed digestive system iv. love of comfort
v. sociable
vi. good humoured
vii. relaxed
viii. need for affection
ix. corresponds to Viscerotonia temperament
tolerant, love of comfort and luxury,
extravert
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Figure22: Endomorphic body type
Mesomorphic Body Type

i. hard, muscular body i. adventurous
ii. overly mature appearance ii. desire for power and dominance
iii. rectangular shaped iii. courageous
iv. thick skin iv. indifference to what others think or want
v. upright posture v. assertive, bold
vi. zest for physical activity
vii. competitive
viii. love of risk and chance
ix. corresponds to the Somatotonia
temperament courageous, energetic, active,
dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker.
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Figure 23: Mesomorphic body type
Ectomorphic Body Type:

i. thin i. self-conscious
ii. flat chest ii. preference for privacy
iii. delicate build iii. introverted
iv. young appearance iv. inhibited
v. tall v. socially anxious
vi. lightly muscled vi. artistic
vii. stoop-shouldered vii. mentally intense
viii. large brain viii. emotionally restrained
ix. corresponds to Cerebrotonia temperament
artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert
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Figure 24: Ectomorphic body type
Learning Activity:
In a group, discuss your body type and your personality characteristics.
Type A and Type B personalities

During the 1950s Meyer Friedman and his co-workers defined what they called Type A and
Type B personality types. Type A individuals are described as ambitious, aggressive, business-
like, controlling, highly competitive, impatient, preoccupied with their status, time-conscious,
and tightly-wound. People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving "workaholics”
who multi-task, push themselves with deadlines, and hate both delays and ambivalence.
In his 1996 book, Type A Behaviour: Its Diagnosis and Treatment, Friedman suggests that Type
A behaviouris expressed in three major symptoms: free-floating hostility, which can be triggered
by even minor incidents; time urgency and impatience, which causes irritability and
exasperation; and a competitive drive, which causes stress and an achievement-driven mentality.
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The first of these symptoms is believed to be covert and therefore less observable, while the
other two are more overt.
Because of these characteristics, Type A individuals are often described as "stress junkies".
Many successful business and political leaders have Type A personalities. Those of Type B are
people who tend to be relaxed, generally patient, relaxed, easy-going, and at times lacking an
overriding sense of urgency, uncompetitive, and inclined to self-analysis. They have clear goals
and stressors just roll off of them. Because of these characteristics, Type B individuals are often
described as apathetic and disengaged.
There is also a Type AB personality type, which is a profile for people who cannot be clearly
categorized as either Type A or Type B. The person on the outside looks like Type B, relaxed
and unstressed, but inside they are Type A's where they are unsure of their goals and are
stressing about things.
Learning Activity:
What type of a personality are you? Explain why.
12.6 Summary
 Human personality is made up of a person’s unique and permanent behaviour patterns. The
character of a person is his/her behaviour evaluated. Temperament refers to the hereditary
and physiological aspects of one’s emotional nature.
 Various theorists have categorized human personality into types. Sheldon has linked body
shapes to personality types that is endomorphs, Mesomorphs and ectomorphs.
 The trait approach categorizes personality depending on qualities of personality that are most
enduring or characteristic of a person. Allport makes distinctions between common traits and
individual traits, and among cardinal, central and secondary traits.
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1. Explain the relationship between personality and behaviour.
2. What constitutes human personality according to the psychodynamic theory?
3. Explain the meaning of ‘personality traits.
4. How does personality develop according to the behaviouristic view?
5. Describe types of personality according to Sheldon’s Theory. Which typology characterises
most Teachers?
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LECTURE 13
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR
13.1 Introduction
Abnormal psychology is the scientific study of psychological disorders. These disorders affect the way
people feel, think, speak, and behave. The field of abnormal psychology is also known as
psychopathology.
Standards of normal and abnormal behaviour differ from society to society and change as social
conditions and customs change. For example, the practice of severely beating children to discipline them
was considered normal behaviour for many centuries. Today, many people consider such behaviour
abnormal and cruel.
Learning Activity:
How many mentally abnormal people are there in your neighbourhood or your local market?
Studies in abnormal psychology are conducted mainly by clinical psychologists, psychiatrists and social
workers. These experts collect data by such means as personality and intelligence tests, experiments, and
case studies. One kind of case study, an idiographic study, describes the behaviour and thought patterns of
one person. Another type, called a Nomothetic study, examines the behaviour and thought patterns
common to many people who suffer the same disorder.
Psychiatrists are doctors specializing in the field of mental illness - they are medically trained and can
prescribe medicine while clinical psychologists are not medically trained and cannot prescribe medicine.
Clinical psychologists have a background in neuroscience and psychology.
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 Define abnormality
 Describe the DSM classification system
 Discuss different mental disorders
 Distinguish between different therapeutic approaches to mental
disorders
13.3 Definition of Abnormality

Abnormality means anything that is not normal. This definition covers a wide range of abnormalities.
Clinical psychologists are interested in particular abnormalities. It is hard to define what we mean by
“abnormal” because:
 There is no absolute distinguishing line between normal and abnormal

 No single definition is enough to take into account all the different types of behaviour that might be
called abnormal
 There is no shared characteristic of all that we call abnormal - things that are abnormal can have
nothing at all in common.
There are several ways in which people have tried to define abnormality. Some of the approaches are
discussed below:
Statistical Deviation
Anything that happens infrequently can be defined as abnormal. What is normal is what usually
happens. This means that any behaviour that does not conform to established standards is abnormal.
For example, a child whose IQ is significantly low or high can be considered as abnormal. A single
figure can be used as a cut-off point. Any individual falling below the figure can be diagnosed as
abnormal.
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Learning Activity:
Give examples of abnormal traits using the statistical deviation approach.
Social Deviation
Deviation from social norms is another way of defining abnormality. For example, if a teacher who has
behaved normally starts to behave strangely (such as becoming obsessively religious) then he/she can be
referred to a psychiatrist. The problem with this definition is that, what may normal in one social setting
may be abnormal in another one. For example, gay marriage.
Learning Activity:
Give examples of behaviours that are considered normal in your community while in other communities
are considered abnormal.
Subjective Distress
If someone feels that they have a problem, and is so serious that it is disturbing their day-to-day living,
this can be used to diagnose abnormality. For example, if you are suffering from anxiety, then someone
can say the anxiety is unnecessary. The sufferer is in need of help. Thus, if the person suffering
psychologically or physically and is in need of help then he/she can be said to be abnormal.
Disability or Dysfunction
If a behaviour is causing a problem, it can be diagnosed as abnormal. If it were causing a dysfunction,
then treatment would be needed. The key feature is that the behaviour prevents normal functioning.
Abnormality as the Absence of Normality
If “normality” is defined, then abnormal means not fitting that definition. It is estimated that 20% of
people have a psychological disorder (Myers et al., 1984).
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Learning activity
Cite five examples of abnormality in your community
13.4 Approaches and Therapies of Abnormal Behaviours
Many different treatments and therapies are used to tackle mental problems, see figure 6. There
are many different paradigms in psychology. A paradigm is a set of basic assumptions about
how something is thought about, how data is gathered, and what influences there might be.
Paradigm in psychology is sometimes called an approach.
Table 19
Causes of Psychological disorders
Theoretical Approach Focus

Cognitive Thinking process
Social approach cultural factors, roles and norms
Cognitive developmental approach Maturational process
Learning approach Environment, Conditioning
Psychodynamic approach inner forces
Physical approach biology, genetics
The Medical/Biological Approach

Assumes that there is a disease to be treated. It includes aetiology – the study of what causes the
disease – as well as the underlying genetic and biochemical factors. It assumes that there is an
illness, comparable to a physical illness.
It looks at the disease and the disruption of biological functioning. For example, depression is
thought to arise sometimes from-problems in neural transmission, and anxiety disorder from a
problem in the autonomic nervous system.
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Behaviour Genetics involves study of genes and how genes account for differences in behaviour.
Some disorders may come from a genetic predisposition.
Biochemistry: the assumption is that abnormal behaviour can stem from problems in
neurotransmitter activity.
Biological Approaches to Treatment

Treatment will have a biological basis if it is thought that abnormal behaviour is caused by either
a genetic predisposition or a biochemical imbalance. Altering bodily functioning may correct the
problem or alleviate the symptoms. Drugs can be administered to alter the neurotransmitter
balance or to mimic a neurotransmitter that is deficient. A good example is administering
Diazepam (Valium) to reduce tension in anxiety disorders or using other drugs such as lithium to
treat bipolar disorder.
The Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic Approach
Figure 25: Sigmund Freud

According Sigmund Freud, problems come from unconscious conflicts and forces. Defence
mechanisms are used (unconsciously) to allow the individual to avoid facing up to their
unconscious conflicts.
Mental illness occurs when the energy used in maintaining defence mechanisms is giving an
individual problems. The main method of treatment is to release the unconscious conflicts,
getting behind the defence mechanism, and making thoughts and memories conscious. The idea
is that when they have come to conscious awareness there will be no problem because the
individual will learn more open ways of working through their problems and coming to terms
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with them, and as a result will have freed themselves. Treatment is by psychoanalysis that
includes transference and counter transference. Transference is where the person undergoing
treatment (the analysand) transfers their feelings on to the therapist; counter transference is
where the therapist may transfer feelings on to be analysed.
The Behavioural Approach

Assumptions
 Learning comes from surroundings and environment.
 Experiences shape a person’s behaviour, attitudes and beliefs.
 Mental illness can be understood in terms of a person’s learning and experiences.
 Treatment of mental illness is about changing the person’s behaviour, that is re-learning
new ways of acting.
 Mental health problems are maladaptive behaviours accruing as a result of inappropriate
learning experiences.
 If behaviour is changed, mental health will improve.
 Behaviour can be changed through behaviour modification and behaviour therapy.
The Cognitive Approach

Assumes that mental problems come from inappropriate attributions, beliefs, and bad
thoughts or maladaptive thinking.
Cognitive- Behavioural Therapy
Cognitive-behavioural therapy involves the use of cognitive restructuring to change the
way the person thinks about life
Rational–Emotive Behaviour Therapy

According to Ellis (1962) irrational beliefs cause maladaptive behaviour. People have
mistaken assumptions and, therefore, put pressure on themselves to achieve things they cannot
achieve. For example, a woman might think everyone must like her, or a man might think he
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must always be perfect. Rational-emotive behaviour therapy aims to get people to think more
rationally. For example, to admit that they can make mistakes.
Cognitive Therapy
Beck (1967) put forward a form of cognitive therapy, emphasizing how people distort their
experience. For example, someone who is depressed is likely to remember or notice only the bad
things that happen in a day, and to ignore or discount the positive ones. Beck developed a form
of therapy that aimed at encouraging people to change the way they see themselves and the way
they interpret what happens to them. Thus, cognitive therapy is concerned with the attributions
and explanations that people use to explain what is happening to them.
The Humanistic Approach (Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow)

Focuses on personal growth, and not so much on mental disorder. Mental disorder occurs when
personal growth is interrupted or stopped for some reason. The humanistic paradigm:
 Emphasise free will.
 See the most important part of someone’s world as being their own view of it.
 Focus on an individual’s strength, and not their weaknesses.
 Encourage personal growth rather than relieving distress.
For the humanists:
 Human nature is basically good.
 Everyone has a need to self-actualise, that is, to realise his or her full potential, or strive to do
so.
 Mental problems arise when the striving to self-actualisation becomes blocked in some way.
Humanistic therapies have generally been regarded as more appropriate for people with neurotic
or anxiety disorders than for those with psychotic problems such as schizophrenia.
Client-Centred Therapy
Assumes that healthy people are innately good, effective and can become aware of their
behaviour as goal directed and self-directive.
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therapists should create a situation where the individual can become healthy.
To do so people need to become effective, aware of their behaviour, and able to direct their own
goals. The therapist has three core qualities:
 Genuineness, which means no façade: the therapist must act normally and honestly.
 Unconditional Positive Regard, which means there are no conditions attached by the
therapist to the client, in terms of how the therapist sees him/her. This can be achieved
by:
o Suspending all critical judgement concerning the client.
o Encouraging clients to express themselves freely.
o Identifying and calling clients by their names and remembering the details shared
with them earlier.
o Speaking in modulated warm tones.
o Concentrating on both verbal and non-verbal messages in order to understand the
person.
o Creating a conducive atmosphere, which will promote the client’s self-worth.
o Communicating to the clients your faith and confidence in their ability to solve
their own problems.
o Being courteous (Kenya Institute of Education, 2003).
 Accurate
 empathetic understanding. This means being able to see through the eyes of the client
and share in their feelings.
 When empathizing the therapist should not:
o Get to the empathetic trap whereby he/she forgets that the client is the focus of the
therapy e.g., by saying, I know how you feel, that happened to me as well.
o Deny the client his feelings by saying, many people have had that problem, you
will soon settle down.
o Show lack of understanding. Ability to empathize is what makes therapy different
from a conversation. This enables the client to explore himself and understand the
problem at a deeper level (Kenya Institute of Education, 2003).
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Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy covers all treatments involving psychological techniques, such as talking,
listening and exploring thinking.
The fact that someone pays attention to the individual is what helps rather than the therapy itself.
This is like a placebo effect, where someone is given a sugar pill instead of the drug they think
they are taking, but they still improve, presumably because of psychological reasons. The
warmth, trust and encouragement do have a lasting effect, and this is more than a simple placebo
effect. Although some clients may improve with psychotherapy, others may deteriorate.
Learning Activity:
1. Explain how patients of mental illness were treated in your communities in the past.
2. How are mental patients treated today in the country?
13.5 Specific Mental Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
They are classified as neuroses. These are mental disorders where there is dysfunction. The
dysfunction takes the form of an exaggeration of certain behaviours or symptoms which occur
normally in just about everyone. The person is still in touch with reality, and knows that they
have a problem.
Anxiety disorders are closely associated with stress. Anxiety is comparable with fear which is a
response to something specific. Anxiety is more general unease. It is non-specific. Some
anxiety is normal-up to a point. It becomes a problem when it interferes with the person’s
normal everyday functioning. Symptoms of anxiety disorders include; tension, nervousness,
sweating, heart palpitations, dizziness, trembling and concentration problems.
Anxiety disorders and symptoms
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 Generalized anxiety disorder. Excessive anxiety that occurs on most days for a period of
months. The anxiety usually centres on issues like work and school. Symptoms include
fatigue, difficulty in concentrating, muscle tension and sleep disorders.
 Simple or specific phobia. This is persistent, excessive, unreasonable fear about an
object.
 Social phobia. Anxiety in response to social situations
 Panic attack, is a feeling of overwhelming fear that occurs suddenly and unexpectedly.
Symptoms include; sweating, fear of losing control, trembling, shaking and shortness of
breath.
 Agoraphobia – fear of being in open places, or places where escape is difficult. It often
includes fear of the fear itself.
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Obsessions are recurrent, persistent,
inappropriate thoughts, and compulsions are repetitive acts the person feels obliged to
perform.
 Post-traumatic stress (PTSD)-persistent experiencing of a traumatic event. Symptoms
include sleep disturbances, difficult in concentrating and an exaggerated startle response
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is classified under psychosis. Psychoses are mental disorders where the
individual is not in touch with reality. Schizophrenia is a specific sort of psychosis,
characterized by thought, language and behaviour disturbances. There is more than one type of
schizophrenia. Blenler (1911) introduced the term “schizophrenia” split (schism) of the mind
(phrenos). It implies splitting of cognition from emotion.
Table 20
Schizophrenic disorders and symptoms
Disorders Symptoms
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Affective disturbances apathy, lack of pleasure, inappropriate feelings and
emotions
Perceptual disturbances heightened sensations, hallucinations
Behavioural disturbances peculiar mannerisms, facial expressions, reduced
movements, inappropriate social behaviours, lack of
motivation
Disturbances of language and thought Loose association of ideas, lack of coherence,
conceptual difficulties with thinking, poor speech, etc
Source: Brain (2002)
Different people with schizophrenia present different symptoms. Patients do not recognize that
they are ill or that what they are doing is wrong and therefore they cannot communicate their
feelings. Speech is disorganized. Five different kinds of schizophrenia have been identified:
Paranoid, Catatonic, Disorganised, Undifferentiated or simple, and Residual schizophrenia.
Paranoid
 Preoccupation with one or more delusions or frequent auditory hallucinations
 Absence of prominent schizophrenic symptoms such as disorganised speech or
behaviour, catatonic behaviour, or flat or inappropriate affect.
Catatonic
 Immobility (including waxy flexibility or stupor)
 Excessive motor activity (seemingly purposeless)
 Extreme negativism (resistance, rigidity of posture) or mutism
 Posturing (peculiar voluntary movements, bizarre positions)
 Repetition of speech sounds.
Disorganized
 Disorganized speech and behaviour
 Flat or inappropriate affect
Undifferentiated
 Meets criteria for schizophrenia but does not meet criteria for catatonic, paranoid or
disorganized sub-types.
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Residual
 No longer active symptoms of schizophrenia, and does not meet criteria for any sub-type.
 Continuing evidence of disturbance indicated by two or more symptoms of schizophrenia in
mild forms.
Mood Disorders
These are disorders of feeling, also known as affective disorders. There are two main types of
affective disorders.
 Unipolar depression
 Bipolar depression
Unipolar depression is where the person has one consistent, recurrent state-generally that of
being depressed.
Bipolar disorder is where the person experiences more than one emotional state as part of their
problem. For example, they are sometimes manic and sometimes depressed. Bipolar means
having two extremes, or “poles” so manic depression is two-sided and known as bipolar, whereas
straightforward depression is one-sided, and known as unipolar.
Depression involves resistant negative moods, depleted energy, the altering of sleep habits, and
altered motivation and behaviours. Depression becomes a problem when it leads to
dysfunctional behaviour and persists. Major depressive disorders include:
 Psychotic depression, where there is departure from reality
 Melancholic depression, where there are several physical symptoms
 Seasonal affective disorder, where depression occur because of persistent environmental
conditions such as cold weather.
Learning Activity:
Differentiate between anxiety disorders, schizophrenia and mood disorders.
Eating Disorders
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There are two main types of eating disorder: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa that
generally start before adulthood. In rare occasions, adults develop eating disorders for the first
time.
Anorexia nervosa is an illness that stems from an intense fear of becoming fat, and a distorted
body image. Symptoms include:
 Dramatic weight loss
 Obsessions and neuroses
 A need for personal control
 Depression
 Low oestrogen levels
 Negative attitudes towards sexual activity
Anorexics see themselves as fat, and refuse to maintain their normal body weight. Anorexia
nervosa is more common in females than in males. It is a serious mental problem that in extreme
cases can cause death (Brain, 2002). The most likely age for the onset is between 14 and 18
years.
Bulimia nervosa is characterized by binge eating, where there is little control over how much is
taken in. Typically, these binges will be followed by self-induced vomiting, fasting, vigorous
exercise, or excessive use of laxatives as the bulimic person tries to prevent weight gain by
getting rid of the calories. It is common among young people. For bulimia to be diagnosed as a
disorder in need of treatment, the general criteria operated by clinicians is that there should have
been at least two binges (eating sprees) a week, over a period of three months.
Anorexia and bulimia seem to be related and about half of those with anorexia show some sign
of bulimia, as they often use bingeing and purging techniques rather than simple fasting.
Bulimia occurs more in women than in men and the average age for onset is 18 years.
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13.6 Summary
 Abnormal behaviour is one that:
 Deviates from the social norm
o Happens infrequently
o Causes a problem to the individual
 For proper treatment of mental disorders, diagnosis is necessary
 Anxiety disorders are disorders in which there is no dysfunction
 Schizophrenia is a mental disorder in which the individual is not in touch with reality.
 Mood disorders involve disordered feelings and other affective disorders. There are two
main types, bipolar and unipolar.
 Two eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
 Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which a person becomes so obsessed with weight
control that she starves herself to death (note that it affects mainly females).
 Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves periodic bingeing, alternated with
purging to avoid gaining weight.
1. Differentiate between a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist
2. Discuss the term abnormality
3. List mental disorders as identified in the DSM IV
4. Briefly explain the following mental disorders:
(i) Anxiety
(ii) Schizophrenia
(iii) Mood disorders
(iv) Eating disorders
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LECTURE 14
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND GROUP DYNAMICS
14.1 Introduction
As social beings, much of what we do is influenced by our interactions with other people. Our
values, attitudes, preferences, morals, decisions and so on are not completely independent of our
social relationships with others. Teaching involves working with members of the society. The
social environment in which Teaching take place affect the behaviour of the Teachers. For this
reason, it is necessary to conclude this module by looking at the lecture on social behaviour and
group processes.
Social behaviour is studied under social psychology, which is the scientific study of how
interactions among people affect the individual’s behaviour and thought. On the other hand,
group dynamics refers to the various social processes that take place when people are acting or
working in groups. They include the ways that social roles and group norms affect how we
behave, issues concerning conformity, co-operation, cohesiveness and so on.

 Explain how behaviour is influenced by group situations.
 Explain social perception.
 Discuss leadership and power.
 Discuss social conformity.
 Explain how attitudes are formed and changed.
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14.3 Group Norms
Group norms are rules governing group behaviour. Such rules are established and enforced by
the group. Norms also refer to the common beliefs on the group regarding appropriate behaviour
for members. They specify how members are expected to behave. Each group has norms that
develop over the time of the group’s interaction. Norms determine group effectiveness and they
help to maintain cohesion (togetherness). All groups have norms, set either formally or
informally.
Learning Activity:
Explain some of the norms in your family. What happens in case of nonconformity?
Norms also include a description of the sanctions or punishment to be applied when behaviour
does not coincide with them. Sanctions regulate the performance and functions of individual
members in a group. Norms may be formally stated or held by members at an unconscious
level. At all levels there are implicit (unstated) and explicit (stated) norms.
Types of norms
i) Written rules: Some norms are codified as in bylaws and code of ethics. Rules
are formally written statements intended to be taken as group regulations and
enforced by organizational sanctions.
ii) Explicitly stated norms: These are stated verbally and are easily recognized by
members. They are not in written form. For example, as a new employee, you may note
that workers dress in a suit and a tie and you behave accordingly.
iii) Non-explicit or informal norms: These are silent norms that influence members’
behaviour. For example, the sitting order in a meeting, the chairperson sits in a
particular area and so are the other members. As a social group, teenagers dress in a
particular way.
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iv) Norms beyond awareness: These are norms that are unconsciously represented. For
example, we say hello to new comers and in many African communities, you do not visit
your close friends empty handed; you carry something in your basket.
Learning Activity:
Explain some of the common norms the Teaching fraternity. What happens in case of
nonconformity?
Now that we have looked at norms that govern social behaviour in-group situations, we are going
to discuss conformity (going along with group norms or the behaviour of others), some of the
factors that influence conformity and different types of conformity.
14.4 Conformity
Conformity means to act in accordance with the norms of the group and to be in harmony and
agreement with the members. Conformity involves the way we are influenced by others on the
basis of what they do. The assumption is that similar behaviour will elicit approval and
dissimilar behaviour will elicit disapproval from members. In a group, members share similar
goals, have compatible needs and follow the group’s procedure.
In a typical group, not all members conform to the same degree, because not all members hold
identical commitments to the group. The degree of conformity is influenced by the following
factors:
 Personality characteristics: In most cases, women tend to conform more than men, the less
intelligent more than the more intelligent, the submissive more than the dominant and the
apprehensive more than the aggressive.
 Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the attraction of the group for its members. Members of
cohesive groups conform more than members of groups that are less attractive to members.
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 Continued desired membership: If membership to a group is desired you are more likely
to conform to the group’s norms.
 Expectation of sanctions: Sanctions expected will influence conformity to group norms.
For example, if punishment is expected from non-conformity, then conformity will be high.
Expectation of isolation by peers may greatly increase the desire to conform.
 Group size: If the group membership is too large cohesiveness decreases and you may have
splinter groups.
 Crisis situations: Any crisis may increase conformity. For example, during a strike,
students may be more united than even before. Any attacks or threat from outside makes the
group tight and reduces deviant behaviour.
Different types of conformity have been identified:

 Normative conformity/influence, in which you agree with the group because you think that
others will laugh at you or because you feel threatened if you do not conform. In this case,
you are responding to the pressure to conform to the group’s social norms (Brain, 2002)
 Informational conformity/influence, in which you agree with the group because you
believe that the group is more knowledgeable than you are. In this case, you are responding
to informational pressure – the information the group gives is the right information.
 Compliance, in which you conform to achieve favourable reaction or reward from the group
and to avoid a negative reaction or punishment. You may comply in the presence of the
group but deny support and complain about the group’s activity in private.
 Identification, in which you act in accordance with the group’s desires even though you do
not believe in what is being done. In this case you conform because you obtain satisfaction
by doing so. For example, you may go to church because parents or the society expects you
to and because it makes you happy even though you do not believe in God. Another
example, you may identify with the University you have enrolled for this course in Teacher
science although you may not be happy with most of the things going on.
 Internalization is the situation where you have strong commitment to the group norms.
Internalization represents both public conformity – for the good of the group and private
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conviction of what you believe. This type of conformity agrees with your personal value
system. For example, you may go to church because you believe in Christianity and what
Christians do.
14.5 Obedience
Just like conformity, obedience is another form of social influence. It involves going along with
a direct command, usually from someone in a position of authority. In obedience, you comply
with the demands of an authority figure. While conformity deals with the psychological need for
acceptance by others and going along with them, obedience has to do with the social power and
status of an authority figure in a hierarchical situation. Obedience is affected by direction from
somebody in higher authority. A good example is where a subordinate in the Teaching fraternity
has to go along the commands or instructions of a superior officer.
14.6 Group Cohesiveness

Identify groups, which you are a member and think of how strongly you feel attracted to them.
You may notice that you feel more attracted to some than others. Group cohesiveness is the
attraction of a group for its members. The greater the attractiveness, the higher the cohesion.
Group cohesiveness is an important aspect of group effectiveness. Members of cohesive groups
conform more to group norms than members in groups that are less attractive to members. When
a group is cohesive, the positive forces of attraction outweigh the negative forces of repulsion
away from the group.
Attraction towards a particular group is affected by various factors:

 Individual needs: When a group does not satisfy your needs, it will no longer be attractive
to you.
 Change of needs: When needs change and the group cannot fulfill the new and old needs, it
will no longer be attractive. For example, if you join a church so that you can have a
Christian marriage, membership thereafter may be undesirable after attaining the goal. Thus,
any reduction in the ability of a group to meet a member’s needs will decrease the
attractiveness of the group to him or her.
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 Changes in the group: If there are changes in the group that enhance its ability to meet the
needs of the members, the attractiveness of the group is increased. For example, increased
financial status may make a group more attractive to its members.
How to Increase Cohesiveness
To increase group cohesiveness, the group should:
 Be more need satisfying

 Increase interaction among members. For example, having lunch together and going for a
trip together. Less interaction may lead to decrease in cohesiveness.
 Develop a strong identity. For example, discussion groups can name themselves, have a
group symbol, and so on.
 Take time to deal with personal needs of individual members. For example, members of a
group can visit and help a sick member.
 Encourage both agreement and disagreement to create an atmosphere of openness.
 Recognize contribution of the members towards the group’s goals and then reward
individual members.
 Increase its prestige to bring to each member a feeling of higher status. For example,
doing community work may give a group high status.
Cohesiveness and Productivity

More cohesive groups are more productive than less cohesive groups. The more attractive the
group is to members, the more membership is valued, the more members can influence each
other, and the more committed members will be. In short, group solidarity implies efficiency.
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Learning Activity:
When is a group more cohesive – when dealing with an easy or difficulty task? Explain.
Group Task and Cohesiveness

When is likely for a group to be united, when dealing with an easy or difficulty task? Conformity
increase as the task becomes more difficult. However, it increases to a certain point. When the
task becomes too difficult, conformity decreases and the group’s attractiveness lessens. Members
may argue that they are not getting anywhere and as a result give up.
To easy tasks may be too boring to members making them to lose interest. When the task is too
easy it can be handled by one member instead of the whole group. If the task is complex and
requires an expert knowledge, an expert should do it. However, this decreases the participation
of members. All members should be able to play a part in a group task for it to remain cohesive.
14.7 Group decision-making

Instead of an individual decision, we tend to opt for a committee, since we assume that any
group decision will be more cautious, conservative and “middle of the road” than an individual
one.
Group Polarization
Group polarization refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme
than the decision each individual would have made. Groups will tend to make more daring and
risk decisions than an individual. This is because of the attitude that, if anything goes wrong it
will not be the individual to blame but the entire group. Group polarization results from sharing
similar information that strengthens your views and arguments about the issue at hand.
Groupthink
Groupthink refers to a situation in which a group does not go through the evaluative process of
considering alternatives when coming to a decision, but acts hastily and without discussion.
Groupthink tends to occur in highly cohesive groups where it is generally the norm to arrive at
an early premature decision (Brain, 2002). In groupthink, there is deterioration of mental
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efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment that result from in–group pressures. It is
characterised by strong pressure to change the views of those who refuse to support the group’s
ideas. Defective or erroneous decisions are likely to result from groupthink. In groupthink, you
are pressurized to conform if the majority holds a different opinion. Sometimes the majority
opinion may not be right. To deal with this problem, outsiders can be brought in to put an
alternative viewpoint. Another strategy is to have one or more members playing the role of
“devils advocate”, which means that they voice an alternative view even if they do not believe
it.
Symptoms of groupthink include:
 Illusion of invulnerability, in which as group members we see ourselves as invincible (too

strong to be wrong). We have faith in the group and so ignore possible disastrous
outcome of our decisions.
 Illusion of morality, in which we see the group as morally correct and see ourselves as
the “good guys” against “the rest”.
 Shared negative stereotypes, in which there is less likelihood of contradicting views in
the group because members have developed similar beliefs.
 Collective rationalization. In which members explain away anything that goes against
what is being decided.
 Self- censorship, in which members suppress their own doubts.
 Illusion of unanimity, in which members think that the decision is a consensus even when
held opposing views are not voiced. When opposing views are not voiced members think
no one disagrees.
 Direct conformity pressure, in which direct pressure is put on a person with opposing
view to agree with the majority.
 Mudguards, in which particular members insulate the group from any negative input.
Attribution
Perhaps your performance in the form four Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE)
examinations was below your expectations. If this was so, what reasons did you have for the low
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performance? Attribution refers to the way we give a cause to something like failure in an
examination. Internal attribution means we see the cause as coming from within us. For
example, we might see failure as being caused by our low ability. External attribution means
giving an external cause for something. For example, we might see failure as being caused by
bad luck or lack of preparation.
Attribution theory looks at the way in which we evaluate our success and failure. The causes that
we attribute to our failure or success can affect our performances, our hopes for the future, our
actual achievement, our motivation and our future participation. We attribute causes not only to
our own behaviour but also to that of others. This in turn can affect our behaviour. Weiner
(1972) developed a model involving four categories of casual attributions – ability, effort, task
difficult, and luck
Ability and task difficulty are seen as relatively stable/permanent attributions, whereas effort and
luck are unstable/changeable. The four casual attributions can also be categorized into either
internal or external. Ability and effort are internal, whereas task difficult and luck are external. In
1986, Weiner added further dimensions called “Locus of Control,” which considers how far an
individual feels that the cause was within their control. For example, if you think that your
success was due to the task being simple and because you had luck then your satisfaction will be
low. On the other hand, if you think you did well by trying hard at a difficult task, then your
satisfaction will be high. Thus, if you attribute success to external control, your satisfaction is
reduced. If you attribute failure to internal control you will tend to blame yourself.
Learning Activity:
Think of situations in which you have succeeded or failed. How did you attribute your success or
failure?
In learning we may attribute our success or failure to both internal and external factors. High
achievers think that they are successful because of personal disposition and high ability (internal
177
factors), and are motivated to continue. They attribute failure to external factors such as
difficulty and are motivated to continue. Low achievers attribute failure to external factors such
as luck and ascribe failure to internal factors such as lack of ability and are less motivated to
continue.
Deindividuation
Deindividuation is the loss of individuality that occurs when we become submerged in a group
and feel relatively anonymous. It generally occurs in large groups. In a crowd, responsibilities
for actions and the consequences of actions can be shelved because the individual cannot be
identified and held responsible. Deindividuation implies that behaviour become impulsive,
irrational, and inhibited. Deindividuation can lead to more aggressive antisocial behaviour. Thus,
in crowds we may behave in a way we would not behave when alone.
14.8 Leadership
What is leadership? Leadership is the ability to lead a group towards the attainment of its goals
(Brain, 2002). Thus, a leader is someone who uses his or her influence to help the group to reach
its goals. This is the person with the greatest amount of power and social influence who
contributes the most towards group goals. Some leaders emerged from within the group, and
others are leaders because of their role, such as the Chief of General Staff, the supervisor of a
work group, or manager. The style of leadership is of great importance to the decision and
success of the group. Sometimes appointed leaders are not the true leaders of the group, because
their leadership is not effective. Now that we have defined leadership, let as look at some of the
approaches that have been advanced about leadership.
The Trait Approach

This approach assumes that leaders are born and not made. It holds that all great leaders possess
similar personality traits of characteristics that are responsible for the leader’s ability to lead
effectively and that people who do not have these leadership characteristics cannot be good
leaders. The approach talks of “a natural leader” and views leadership as part of one’s
personality that differentiates those who have it from those who do not.
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This view is a bit controversial because training may make one a more effective leader.
According to Klopf (1989), there is lack of consistency in the finding of researches done to
account for this approach. However, there is research evidence to show that effective leaders
tend to be a bit taller, more intelligent, have a strong dominance need, are sociable, are more
enthusiastic, are more fluent, and have greater self-confidence. Although these traits are
necessary, they may not determine who can lead effectively and therefore it may be impossible
to predict or select a leader using them. To select a leader, we should focus on the task at hand
and skills and a good working relationship with members. In short, there is not one specific trait
that characterizes leaders and therefore this approach may not have a very strong support.
The Styles Approach

This approach focusses on the behaviour of a person in leadership position, that is, the manner of
style in behaving when one is acting or functioning as a leader. There are different styles:
authoritarian, strict supervisory, democratic, permissive, laissez-faire, and leaderless. Each of
these styles represents a different degree of influence or control.
Authoritarian style: this is a style in which as a leader you dictate and others follow. Using
this style implies that you have little faith on group members to act responsibly. Techniques of
reward and punishment become necessary since members will not find satisfaction in a goal,
they have not been involved in selecting, the members are dependent upon the leader because
they have no opportunity to express initiative, creativity, or responsibility. Without the leader,
the group is likely to fall apart because it is dependent on him.
The limiting of personal freedom will result in hostility, resentment, dislike, and anxiety.
Members may have little interest in the group’s activities and will work as long as they have to
do it.
The leader who uses this style:

 Dominates and directs
 Decides all issues
 Encourages no participation
 Assumes all responsibility
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 Maintains wide social distance from members
 Defines goals and imposes them to the members
 Initiates all activity
 Manipulates members to do his/her wishes
 Makes major plans alone
 Serves as the ultimate agent and judge of rewards and punishments for the individual
members and hence the fate of each member within the group.
 Encourages segregated group structure with minimum intercommunication.
(i) Strict supervisory style: This is a milder version of the authoritarian style. As a leader
using this style, you are likely to be more friendly and considerate than a person using
the authoritarian style. The leader believes strongly in the personal responsibility
attached to his or her role and gives orders and direction to a lesser degree than the
authoritarian leader.
(iii) Democratic style: This style represents less control and more freedom than the two
styles just described but not complete freedom and subsequent absence of control. The
difference is not in terms of the amount of power but, rather, in the nature of the leader’s role in
the group structure. Leaders who use the democratic style:
 share control with group members
 ask for contribution from participants
 make objective and constructive criticism
 encourage group initiative and allows the group to diagnose its own needs and plan its
own experiences
 delegate responsibility
 participate in group activity
 has close relationship with members
 does not make decisions for the group
 believe that every member can make a sound decision and positive contribution
180
 help to provide a sense of direction for the group
 allow expression of individual differences because no one’s opinion is considered
ultimate or final with this style of leadership. If the leader is absent the group can carry
on efficiently because there is high interest in group goals. Members learn to operate
independently without strict supervision.
(iv) Laissez-faire style: This style is also known as the permissive style. The leader’s
participation is minimal. The leader leaves the group wholly on its own to create its own sense
of direction. This results to little work output due to lack of co-operation. The emphasis in
group participation is upon the enjoyment of group activity rather than upon production. There is
little personal involvement or concern with the goals. A leader who uses this style:
 operates as an observer
 allows complete member freedom
 do not impose restrictions on members
 does not participate with the group
(i) Leaderless style: The leaderless style represents the absence of any control
by any one person. A leaderless group has no single person fulfilling the leadership role.
Different members may play the role of a leader at various times. Instead of having a single
leader, leadership is widely shared among members. Very few groups become leaderless. Such
groups may accomplish very little.
Learning Activity:
Explain the leadership skills manifested by Teachers in the cause of their duty.
As the leader of a class you can apply any of these leadership styles depending on the situation
and the task being undertaken. The question should not be which style of leadership is best but
rather, when a particular style of leadership is best.
181
The Functional Approach
This approach defines leadership as the performance of functions that help the group to reach its
goals, maintain itself in good working order, and adapt to changes in the environment. This
approach makes several assumptions:
 Any member may become a leader by taking actions that serve group functions.
 A leader in one group does not automatically emerge as a leader in another group. If the
purpose, activities, or membership changes, the leader may change.
 Groups are unique and therefore a leader in one group may not fit in another group.
 The leadership function may be fulfilled by different members performing a variety of
relevant behaviour functions.
 Leadership functions should be distributed so that relevant expertise can emerge and be
used.
Thus, a group would require a leader who is best suited to the task at hand. For example, as a
teacher you may be an effective leader in the classroom but not in games or in your local church.
The Interactional Approach

This approach assumes that leadership is an aspect of group interaction rather than a
characteristic possessed by few individuals. Leaders arise from group members and they become
leaders because they represent a more effective means of meeting the group’s goals than do other
group members. The approach mainly focuses on leadership behaviours and can interpret
leadership to mean communication behaviour of any individual that activates a group towards a
goal (Klopf, 1989). Thus, leadership is part of a group’s interactional process as is membership.
A leader should be a person who has the knowledge and skills that can help the group to meet its
goals. This may require change of leadership from situations to situation depending on the
problem faced. Thus, leadership can be assumed by anyone. A new leader can emerge if the
group faces a new problem. According to this approach, leadership may reside in more than one
person and can be shared among more than one person depending on the tasks to be performed.
182
In this way the single leader may be more than a person-in-charge and not always performing the
leadership role. In the Teaching fraternity, different members can lead different activities
depending on their personality characteristics and how knowledgeable they are in different areas.
The Contingency Approach

The contingency approach looks at how environment, leadership styles, and situations interact.
There are two theories that fall within the contingency approach – Fieldler’s contingency model
and House’s path-goal theory of leadership.
Fieldler’s contingency model of leadership effectiveness: According to fielder (1967),

effective leadership depends on how far the situation gives the leader control and, on the
leader’s, behavioural style. What the leader does must fit with the situation. Fielder held that
there are two main styles – task oriented and relationship oriented. He believed that these
were relatively stable traits – a leader would either always be task oriented (focusing on getting
the job done) or always relationship oriented (focusing on maintaining good relationship with the
working group).
Task-oriented leaders are effective if the work situation is either highly favourable or highly
unfavourable. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective when the situation is neither
highly favourable nor highly unfavourable. A situation that is favourable for a leader would
involve good position power (leader’s power over subordinates), good leader-member relations,
and a clear task structure. On the other hand, unfavourable situations would involve bad position
power, poor leader-member relations, and an unclear task structure (Brain, 2002).
In favourable situations, relationships are already good so a task-oriented leader can succeed. In
unfavourable situations, a task-oriented leader has nothing to lose, and will get the task done in a
difficult situation. However, in the middle situation, a relationship-oriented leader can persuade
the members to perform better, and will be a better choice of a leader. It is in the middle
situations that problems between individuals may arise, so the relationship-oriented leader is best
equipped to deal with the situation.
183
14.9 Power
What is power? Power is the ability to successfully influence others. Power is influence. It
involves the ability to influence one or more persons in some way. As a leader in the Teaching
fraternity, you may have the power to influence staff under your office in one way or another.
There are different types of power, which such a leader can use to exert this influence.
Types of Power
Reward power: One has reward power over other group members if he/she has the ability to
deliver positive consequences or remove negative consequences in response to their behaviour.
The control of resources valued by others confers power on the possessor. Resources here
include money, praise, grades, control of promotions, control of access to a desired position, and
so on. Members believe that the person can dispense the reward. For example, a leader in the
Teaching fraternity who can promote has this reward power over his subordinate. In some
conditions the reward power can backfire. Too many rewards may make group members to
become suspicious that they are being bribed or conned so that they can conform and then they
will turn against the source of the power.
Coercive power: The ability to punish others constitutes coercive power. You have this type of
power if you can mete out negative consequences or remove positive consequences in response
to the behaviour of group members. Rather, you have control over resources that cause
unpleasant or aversive experiences. For example, withholding acceptance and approval, using
social punishments such as, blaming, scolding, ignoring and rejecting, and applying actual
punishment.
Much of the influence that comes from coercion is in the form of threat. To be effective, the
possessor of power has only to threaten to punish, and not actually punish. However, one has to
punish eventually or in some occasions. Coercive power causes the group to avoid the possessor
and to dislike him/her. Sometimes it may lead to increased resistance and therefore does not
always work.
184
Expert power: This is power based on expertise or knowledge. It involves the capacity to
influence others through the possession of certain knowledge or skills. Its effectiveness depends
upon the feeling that the possessor does have the special knowledge or skills. Members of the
group must perceive the knowledge as useful. For example, teachers, doctors, lawyers,
electricians, Teachers and politicians have expert power. By the virtue of being a teacher, you
have this type of power to influence people who are not Teachers.
Referent power: This is power based on characteristics or traits that are attractive to others.
Referent power implies admiration or charismatic power. Group members respect and desire to
identify with the possessor of referent power. They want to be like him/her and therefore do
what he/she wants out of respect, liking, and want to be liked. Charisma is a term used to refer
to the appeal exuding from physical attraction/personality traits, beauty, fame or status (Klopf,
1989). For example, Kenyatta the first president of independent Kenya had this type of power.
This type of power is important because the possessor does not have to be present or even
attempt to use it in order for it to be effective. It is more natural. Some leaders in the Teaching
fraternity may possess this type of power.
Legitimate power: This is the formal power invested in a particular role (e.g., teacher,
principal, president, prime ministers, Teacher commandant, the commissioner of Teacher or a
parent) regardless of the personality of the particular occupant. The possessor of legitimate
power is accepted as an agent of an establishment. It usually involves a code or standard that
permits the possessor to influence others. Such codes/laws give the possessor legitimate power
over group members. For example, the commandant of administration Teacher has legitimate
power to give instructions and to administer reward and punishment among his juniors. This type
of power may be effective within the establishment only, if one is out of the establishment power
has to come from elsewhere.
185
A leader in the administration Teacher may notice that a combination of several of these types of
power may work best depending on the situation. Sometimes rewards may work while at other
times expertise, legitimacy, or threats may work best.
Learning Activity:
Discuss the most prevalent types of power exercised in the Teaching fraternity.
14.10 Attitudes
What are attitudes? An attitude is a disposition (tendency) to respond favourably or
unfavourably toward some person, thing, place, event, idea, or situation (often called an attitude
object) according to Wortman et al. (1999). In other words, attitudes are feelings and thoughts
that encourage us to act as if we like or dislike something. We all have attitudes towards just
about everyone and everything. Attitudes are hypothetical constructs, which cannot be directly
measured or observed but must be inferred from behaviour. Attitudes are learned through
interaction with our social environments.
Learning Activity:
List some of the attitudes people have about Teachers.
Explain the general attitude of the general public on the Teaching fraternity.
Attitudes have three components: What we think or believe about something (the cognitive
component), how we feel about it (the emotional component), and how we act toward it (the
behavioural component).
Sometimes the three components may be consistent with one another whereas in some other
times they may not. For example, although many people know and believe that AIDS kills, not
all practice safe sex.
186
Why are people’s thoughts and feelings sometimes at odds with their behaviour? If we know
something is dangerous, why do we sometimes do it? Although attitudes can exert a strong
influence on behaviour, many other factors such as, social norms and values as well as specific
circumstances can pressurize us to act in a particular way. For example, many teenagers may
believe in safe sex but feel embarrassed to acquire or carry condoms. The result of this may be
unprotected sex, sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies.
Adequate knowledge about something enhances clarity and strength of beliefs and feelings.
When we are adequately knowledgeable about something we are more likely to act in ways that
match our views. When knowledge has been gained from first-hand experience, it is more likely
to influence our behaviour. Kraus (1995) identified a number of factors that predicted attitude-
behaviour consistency. He found that attitudes are better predictors of behaviour when they are:
 Stable over time
 Held with a high degree of certainty
 Consistent with the person’s affect (emotional reaction) toward a behaviour
 Formed as a result of direct experience
 Easily remembered
Attitudes are acquired through:

 Direct contact with the object of the attitude – like participation in a political party that
does not practice the political ideals you cherish.
 Interaction with others holding the attitude. For example, if you live with drug abusers,
you are likely to become one of them.
 Child rearing practices. For example, if your parents belong to a particular religious
group, you are likely to adapt the same religion.
Attitude Change
Every day advertisers spend thousands and thousands of Kenya shillings in an attempt to change
our attitudes as consumers towards various products. What factors make us change our
187
attitudes? Persuasive communication is one of the approaches used to attitudes. Persuasive
communication is a message consciously intended to persuade or to make us change our promote
attitude change. There are four steps in the process of persuasion:
 Attention (the message must be attended to)
 Comprehension (the message must be understood)
 Acceptance (the message must be accepted)
 Retention (the message must be retained and remembered)
According to various studies quoted by Brain (2002) and Wortman et al. (1999), various factors
affect how well attitudes are changed by persuasive communication:
 Experts are believed more than non-experts.
 Rapid speakers are believed more than slow speakers.
 Messages that are not thought to persuade us are better believed.
 Popular and attractive speakers are better believed.
 People with low self-esteem are more easily persuaded.
 Messages involving fear persuade people more easily.
 Simple messages persuade more easily if someone is not paying full attention.
 Presenting both sides of a message is more effective if the audience is hostile.
 People are more easily persuaded if the speaker is similar to the receiver in some way,
especially if the message is about likes and dislikes. When the message is about facts,
speakers that are dissimilar are believed more.
 Messages coming from someone who seems honest and sincere are more persuasive.
 People who desire attention and approval of others are more susceptible to messages that
they believe promote a desirable self-image.
 People who hold contradicting or clashing thoughts are likely to change one or both to
reduce the inconsistency.
In short, we can conclude by saying that although attitudes are relatively stable dispositions, they
are subject to change especially through persuasive communication. Examples of attempted
188
persuasion are many in our society today. For instance, advertisers, politicians, educators,
religious organizations and others actively seek to alter our attitudes and opinions.
Learning Activity:
Explain how the negative attitudes towards Teachers can be changed.
10.11 Summary
 The study of how interactions among people affect the individual’s behaviour and thought is called social
psychology.
 Group dynamics refers to the various social processes that take place when people act and work
together. Some of the social processes include issues concerning conformity, cooperation, cohesiveness,
social roles, and so on.
 Group norms are rules governing group behaviour. They specify how members are expected to behave.
 Conformity refers to changes in behaviour in response to real or imagined pressure from others or acting
in accordance with the norms of the group.
 Obedience involves giving in to a command from others.
 Group cohesiveness is the attraction of a group to its members. Attraction towards a group is affected
by; individual needs, change of needs, and changes in the group.
 More cohesive groups are more productive than less cohesive ones.
 Group polarisation refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than each
individual would have made alone. Groups tend to make more risk and daring decisions than an
individual.
 Groupthink is a dangerous type of thinking that occurs when the group’s desire for agreement overrules
its tendency to critically evaluate information. In groupthink there is deterioration of mental efficiency,
reality testing, and moral judgment that result from in-group pressures.
 Attribution refers to the way we give a cause to behaviour. Internal attribution means we see the
cause of the behaviour as coming from within us while external attribution means giving an external
cause for something.
 Social facilitation refers to the effect others have on our performance. Being in the presence of others
may activate us to do better in tasks we are confident in doing or worse if we are not confident.
 Social loafing refers to the way an individual can refuse to cooperate in a group, and contribute less when
in a group than when acting as an individual.
189
 Deindividualism is the loss of individuality that occurs when we become submerged in a group and
feel relatively anonymous.
 Leadership is the ability to lead a group towards the attainment of its goals. A leader is someone who
uses his/her influence to help the group to reach its goals. The various perspectives to leadership
include the trait, styles, functional, interactional, and contingency approaches.
 Power is the ability to successfully influence others. There are different types of power that include;
reward power, coercive power, expert power, referent, and legitimate power.
 An attitude is a tendency to respond favourably or unfavourably toward a person, thing, place, event,
idea or situation (often called an attitude object).
 Attitudes have three components: the cognitive, the emotional, and the behavioural.
 Persuasive communication is one of the approaches used to change our attitudes.
1. What is a group?
2. Define conformity and explain the factors that influence members of a group to conform
to group norms.
3. Explain the factors that affect group cohesiveness.
4. Define the term groupthink and explain its symptoms.
5. What are attitudes?
6. Explain the concepts of
a. social loafing
b. social facilitation
c. deindividuation
d. power
7. Explain the following approaches of group leadership:
a. Trait approach
b. Styles approach
c. Functional approach
d. Interactional approach
190
8. Discuss the various types of power that you can apply as a leader in the administration
Teacher to exert influence among subordinates.
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TOM MBOYA UNIVERSITY

1.2 Learning Outcomes

1.3 Definition of Psychology

As a science, psychology is empirical, that is, it is based on experimentation and observation

Research in psychology follows scientific procedures to collect, analyse, and interpret

1.4 Goals of Psychology

1.5 Historical Perspective of Psychology

1.6 Importance of Psychology to a Teacher

 Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and experience.

METHODS OF STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Differentiate between various methods of studying behaviour.

What is experimental research? Weiten (1989:38) defines experimental research as a “Method in

Research in psychology begins by formulating a hypothesis which is an educated or informed

2.4 Non-Experimental Research Methods

Survey Research Method

Case Study Method

 level of training and efficiency of the Teaching fraternity.

On the other hand, a negative correlation may be expected between:

 Low morale and the efficiency of the Teaching fraternity.

2.5 Ethics in Psychological Research

Some of the ethical considerations are:

3.2 Learning Outcomes

Structuralists inaugurated psychology as a science and established the importance of studying

Functionalism had an impact on the development of psychology although it is no longer

iii. Psychoanalytic Perspective

iv. Gestalt Psychology

vi. Humanistic Psychology

ix. The Eclectic View

A branch of psychology is an area of specialization in psychology. Since psychology became a

4.2 Learning Outcomes

4.3 Major Branches of Psychology

ii. Developmental Psychology

iii. Social Psychology

iv. Personality Psychology

vi. Counselling Psychology

viii. Consumer Psychology

ix. Educational Psychology

xi. Environmental Psychology

xiii. Criminological Psychology

BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BASES OF BEHAVIOUR

5.3 Genetic Influence

Heredity shapes behaviour and development by providing a framework of personal potentials

5.4 Environmental Influence

Today psychologists support an interactionist model or approach. From a Teaching point of

5.5 The Nervous System

 It integrates the electrical information coming from the dendrites.

Figure 1: Structure of a neuron

Peripheral nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant when a person is in a relaxed, non-stressful

Peripheral nervous system

Autonomic nervous system (Regulates

motor information – voluntary)

Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous system

Figure 2: Subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system

The Central Nervous System