INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY • Food

- provides necessary nutrients

Anatomy – the study of the structure of the human - supplies energy
body. - supplies raw materials
Physiology – the study of the function of the human • Oxygen (gas)
body. - one-fifth of air
- used to release energy from nutrients
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION • Heat
• Subatomic Particles – electrons, protons, and - form of energy
neutrons - partly controls rate of metabolic
• Atom – hydrogen atom, lithium atom, etc. reactions
• Molecule – water molecule, glucose molecule, etc. • Pressure
• Macromolecule – protein molecule, DNA molecule, - application of force on an object
etc. - atmospheric pressure – important for
• Organelle – mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, nucleus, breathing
etc. - hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood
• Cell – muscle cell, nerve cell, etc. flowing
• Tissue – epithelia, connective, muscle and nerve
• Organ – skin, femur, heart, kidney, etc. HOMEOSTASIS
• Organ System – skeletal system, digestive system, etc. * Maintaining of a stable internal environment
• Organism – the human • Homeostatic Control Mechanisms – monitors
aspects of the
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE internal environment and corrects as needed.
• Movement – change in position; motion Variations are within
• Responsiveness – reaction to a change limits. There are three (3) parts:
• Growth – increase in body size; no change in shape • Receptor - provides information about the
• Reproduction – production of new organisms and new stimuli
cells • Control Center - tells what a particular value
• Respiration – obtaining oxygen; removing carbon should be
dioxide; (called the set point)
releasing energy from foods • Effector - elicits responses that change
• Digestion – breakdown of food substances into conditions in the internal environment
simpler forms
• Absorption – passage of substances through HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISM
membranes and into body fluids
• Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids
• Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances into
chemically different forms
• Excretion – removal of wastes produced by metabolic
Reactions

MAINTAINANCE OF LIFE
• Life depends on five (5) environmental factors:
• Water
- most abundant substance in body
- required for metabolic processes
- required for transport of substances
- regregulates body temperature
 • There are two (2) types:
• Negative feedback mechanism
> Prevents sudden, severe changes in the
body
> Corrects the set point
> Causes opposite of bodily disruption to
occur, i.e. the ‘negative’
> Most common type of feedback loop
>Examples: body temperature, blood
pressure & glucose regulation
• Positive feedback mechanisms
>Increases (accelerates) the actions of the
body
>short-lived
>do not require continuous adjustments
>Examples: blood clotting and child birth
THE CELL MEMBRANE, FUNCTIONS AND CELL
TRANSPORT
NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
Plasma Membrane
• Also known as Cell Membrane
• Membrane in cells that separates inner part from
the exterior cell
• composed of a lipid layer—semipermeable
CONSTRUCTION OF CELL MEMBRANES
• S. J. Singer & G. Nicolson (1972)
→ proposed that membrane proteins are inserted into
the phospholipid bilayer
“Fluid Mosaic Model“
- the membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules
bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
Plasma Membrane is composed of:
>Phospholipids
>Cholesterol
>Proteins (Integral; Peripheral)
>Carbohydrates
2 MAJOR MEMBRANE PROTEINS
• Integral proteins – penetrate the hydrophobic interior
of the lipid bilayer
* transmembranes: majority of integral proteins
spanning the membrane
• Peripheral proteins – not embedded in the bilayer at all,
loosely bound to the to the to the surface of the membrane
often to expose other parts of the integral proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS
 Transport
 Enzymatic Activity
 Signal Transduction
 Cell-to-cell recognitiom
 Intercellular joining
 Attachment to cellular matrix
FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF PLASM
MEMBRANE
• Cell membrane separates the components of a cell from
its environment—surrounds the cell
• “Gatekeeper” of the cell—regulates the flow of materials
into and out of cell—selectively permeable
• Cell membrane helps cells maintain homeostasis—stable
internal balance
CONSTRUCTION OF CELL MEMBRANES
• Phospholipids:
• Amphipathic → has hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
• Membrane Carbohydrates
• Play a key role in cell – cell recognition
• Ability of a cell to distinguish neighboring cells from
another
• Important in organ & tissue development
• Basis for rejection of foreign cells by immune system
• Can be:
• Glycolipids (carb + lipid)
• Glycoproteins (carb + protein)
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
• Construction of membrane allows for some substances to
pass through membrane without resistance.
• Nonpolar molecules (hydrocarbons, CO2, O2) →
hydrophobic; can dissolve in lipid bilayer
• Polar molecules (ions, H20) → core of membrane stops
passage
• Large polar molecules (glucose) → passes very slowly
• Fluidity of Membranes
• Due to the types of hydrocarbon tails at the tip of each
phospholipid
• Saturated hydrocarbon tails -packed tightly together &
less fluid
 • Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails - have kinks in
molecule which keeps molecules from being tightly
packed → enhanced fluidity
• Have cholesterol embedded in cell membranes
- which further changes fluidity by restraining
phospholipid movement
- 37°C (body temp) → resists fluidity
• Membranes need to be permeable
to:
• Bring in all materials a cell needs
• Excrete out all cellular (metabolic) waste
• Export out all products a cell makes
• Proteins act as channels to move molecules
WHY MEMBRANES MUST BE FLUID?
Membranes must be fluid to work properly; fluidity of a
membrane affects both its permeability and the
ability of membrane proteins to move to where their
function is needed.
CELL TRANSPORT
• Key components of cell that function in cell transport
>Cell membrane- phospholipids bilayer
>Cytoplasm- aqueous solution that contains materials
>Mitochondria- powerhouse of cell (glucose→ ATP)
>RBC- carries protein hemoglobin that transports oxygen
and carbon dioxide to and from cells
WHY CELL TRANSPORT IS NEEDED?
>Homeostasis- maintaining a steady state.
>Metabolism- chemical reactions that convert “food”
into energy
>Helps cells achieve equilibrium- when concentrations of
molecules of a substance are the same everywhere
TYPES OF CELL TRANSPORT
1. Passive transport
- Cell transport that does not require energy
2. Active transport
- Requiring energy to move and transport molecules
across
cell membrane
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• Movement of molecules through the membrane with
the concentration gradient (from high to low
concentration)
• Does not use energy
• Movement continues until equilibrium is reached
Types of passive transport:
Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – DIFFUSION
• Diffusion: movement of particles or solutes from high
→ low concentration
• follows 2nd law of thermodynamics
• Diffusion of multiple substances:
• Each substance diffuses down its own concentration
gradient (at different speeds)
• Independent of each other
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Movement of sugar through a protein channel
• Facilitated Diffusion: movement of larger particles and
ions
across the cell membrane aided by protein channels
• Channel proteins→ corridors for specific molecules
• Water Channels → Aquaporins
• Ion Channels → gated channels to regulate ion
movement; open upon electrical stimulus
• Carrier proteins → has a shape interaction that binds
substrate to protein to cross membrane
TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROTEIN
• Channel proteins are embedded in the cell membrane
& have a pore for materials to cross
• Carrier proteins can change shape to move material
from one side of the membrane to the other
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – OSMOSIS
• Osmosis: diffusion of water from high to low
concentration across a semi-permeable membrane
• Direction of osmosis is determined by comparing total
solute concentrations
• Hypertonic = more solute, less water
• Hypotonic = less solute, more water
• Isotonic = equal solute, equal water
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
•Isotonic Solutions: contain the same concentration of
solute as another solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm).
When a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, the water
diffuses into and out of the cell at the same rate. The
fluid that surrounds the body cells is isotonic.
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
• Hypertonic Solutions: contain a high concentration of
solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's
cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in a hypertonic
solution, the water diffuses out of the cell, causing the
cell to shrivel.
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
• Hypotonic Solutions: contain a low concentration of
solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's
cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution,
the water diffuses into the cell, causing the cell to swell
and possibly explode.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Cells may need to move molecules against the
concentration
Gradient
• From low to high concentration
• Need a protein pump to move molecules
• REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Example: Pumping Na+ (sodium ions) out and K+
(potassium ions) in—against concentration
gradients.
• Called the Sodium-Potassium Pump
• Has many models and mechanisms
ENDOCYTOSIS/EXOCYTOSIS
• Movement of large molecules into and out of cell
- Through vesicles and vacuoles
ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
• Phagocytosis = “cellular eating” via lysosome
• Pinocytosis = “cellular drinking”
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis → triggered by ligand
signal
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION AND THE CELLULAR RESPONSE
• Intracellular events that enable a cell to respond to a
signaling molecule that binds to a cell surface Receptor
• In most cases, the binding of a signaling molecule to its
receptor stimulates a signal transduction pathway.
CENTRAL DOGMA
Central dogma of cell biology
• a theory stating that genetic information flows
only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to
protein, or RNA directly to protein
DNA Replication
• DNA replication is the process by which the genome’s
DNA is copied in cells.
• Before a cell divides, it must first copy (or replicate) its
entire genome so that each resulting daughter cell ends
up with its own complete genome.
Enzymes involved in DNA replication
ENZYME FUNCTION
DNA Helicase Unwinds the double helix at the
replication fork
Primase Provides the starting point for DNA
polymerase to begin synthesis of
the new strand
DNA Polymerase Synthesizes the new DNA strand;
also proofreads and corrects some
errors
DNA ligase Rejoins the two DNA strands into a
double helix and joins the Okazaki
fragments of the lagging strand
Topoisomerase Relaxes the super coiled DNA
Transcription
• the process by which an RNA sequence is produced
from a DNA template
• RNA polymerase separates the DNA strands and
synthesises a complementary RNA copy from one of the
DNA strands
• When the DNA strands are separated, ribonucleoside
triphosphates align opposite their exposed
complementary base partner
• RNA polymerase removes the additional phosphate
groups and uses the energy from this cleavage to
covalently join the nucleotide to the growing sequence
• Once the RNA sequence has been synthesised, RNA
polymerase detaches from the DNA molecule and the
double helix reforms
Translation
• the process of protein synthesis in which the genetic
information encoded in mRNA is translated into a
sequence of amino acids on a polypeptide chain
Includes three process:
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
Peripheral Nervous System: Classification
•Sensory (afferent) division
➢Nerve fibers that carry information to the central
nervous system
•Motor (efferent) division
➢Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the
central nervous system down to the muscles and glands
Two subdivisions:
➢Somatic ns – voluntary actions
➢Autonomic ns- involuntary actions

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

About the Nervous System:
• Anatomy and Organization
• Function: How it Controls and Communicates

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Sensory Input (gathering information)
• To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the
body;
Integration (processing information)
• to process and interpret sensory input and decide if
action is needed; what should be done
Motor Output (response to information)
• A response to integrated stimuli
•The response activates muscles, glands and other
parts of the body

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System (CNS) Nervous Tissue: Support cells in CNS

• Receives, interprets and sends signals to PNS Astrocytes
2 main parts: • Abundant, star-shaped cells
➢Brain – main control center • Brace neurons
➢Spinal cord – connects and relays nerve impulses
• Form barrier and responsible for for exchange of
to the brain materials between capillaries and neurons
 • Control the chemical environment of the brain (CNS) ➢ high metabolic rate, need constant and huge
➢Microglia amount of supply of glucose and oxygen
• Spider-like phagocytes
• Immune defense of CNS; Dispose of debris Axons and Nerve Impulses
➢Ependymal cells •Axons end in axonal terminals
• Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord •Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
• Create, secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid neurotransmitters
➢Oligodendrocytes •Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron
•Produce the insulating barrier in neurons called the by a gap
myelin sheath •Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
•Synapse – junction between nerves
Neuroglia vs. Neurons
• Neuroglia divides. Functional Classification of Neurons
• Neurons do not. • Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Most brain tumors are “gliomas.” • Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
• Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not •Cutaneous sense organs
the neurons. •Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
• Consider the role of cell division in cancer! • Motor (efferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the central nervous system
Nervous Tissue: Support cells in PNS • Interneurons (association neurons)
➢Satellite cells •Found in neural pathways in the central nervous
•Protect, surround and support neuron cell bodies system
➢Schwann cells • Connect sensory and motor neurons
• Form myelin sheath
Structural Classification of Neurons
Nervous Tissue: NEURONS •Multipolar neurons
•Neurons = nerve cells • Many extensions from the cell body
•Highly specialized cells made to transmit information •Bipolar neurons
and messages • Has one axon and one dendrite
• Major regions of neurons •Unipolar neurons
•Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell • Has short single process leaving the cell body
•Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
(dendrites and axons)
•Neurons life support is found in the cell body
•Nucleus, other Materials needed to function
•Dendrites – “listeners” of neurons; picks up
information
•Conduct impulses toward the cell body
•Axon– “talker” of neurons; long extension fiber
transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body to
the other cells
Nervous Tissue: NEURONS
•Neurons are some of the longest-lived cells in your THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
body Functions of Muscle tissue
•Neurons are IRREPLACEABLE. Muscle tissue is responsible for movement and
➢Amitotic-does not divide locomotion
•Neurons have huge appetite in animals.
Muscles rely on contractile fibers to create motion.
❖ In vertebrate animals and arthropods, muscles • the ability to recoil or bounce back to the muscle's
attach to a original length after being stretched.
skeletal system to produce locomotion. ❖Excitability
• the ability to respond to a stimulus, which may be
Muscle Tissue delivered from a motor neuron or a hormone.
• Muscle tissue is composed of these muscle fibers ❖Contractility
• Functions will depend on the type of structure it has • the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten. For
instance, in order to flex (decrease the angle of a joint)
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES your elbow you need to contract (shorten) the biceps
❖Cardiac Muscle brachii and other elbow flexor muscles in the anterior
• Branched with straitions (straight) arm.
• One nucleus per fiber • Notice that in order to extend your elbow, the
• Intercalated discs found at the end of each fiber – posterior arm extensor muscles need to contract. Thus,
involve in contractions! muscles can only pull, never push.
• Found in the heart – INVOLUNTARY
❖Smooth Muscle Skeletal muscle
• Smooth with no stripes ❖Tendons
• One nucleus per fiber • Tough, fibrous cords of connective tissue that link
• Each fiber is SPINDLE shape skeletal muscles to bones.
• Found in the digestive system, arteries & veins, gall • Tendons in the hands and feet are enclosed in self-
bladder and eyes (iris) lubricating sheaths to protect them from rubbing
• also INVOLUNTARY against the bones.
❖Skeletal Muscle • From the hand bones, tendons extend upwards to
• Muscle related to your biceps, triceps muscles near the elbow.
• Attached to the bone, skin etc for MOVEMENT
• Long and straited, multinucleated How do muscles contract?
• VOLUNTARY, can be consciously controlled ❖Actin - protein found in muscle tissue
- forms the thinner filaments (7nm in diameter)
Summary of Classification ❖Myosin – protein in muscle tissue - forms thick
filaments (15nm in diameter)
❖Myofibrils – long thread-like structures

How do Actin and Myosin work?

• Actin and myosin work together to produce muscle
contractions and, therefore, movement. First, a motor
neuron delivers an electrical signal to the muscle cell
from the brain. This triggers the release of a chemical
called acetylcholine. Acetylcholine causes calcium ions
to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Next, the calcium ions bind to a protein called troponin.
CHARACTERISTICS of Muscle tissues
Troponin is attached to another protein, called
❖Extensibility
tropomyosin, and is found between the actin filaments
•the ability of a muscle to be stretched.
in muscle tissue.
•Example: elbow flexing motion. In order to be able to
• When calcium ions bind to troponin, the shape of
flex the elbow, the elbow extensor muscles must extend
troponin changes. This moves tropomyosin from the
in order to allow flexion to occur. Lack of extensibility is
myosin-binding sites on the actin filament and
known as spasticity.
‘unblocks’ them, making it possible for the myosin
❖Elasticity
heads to bind to the actin filament.
 - Squeeze scapula's together
MUSCLES SHAPES • Adduction
a) Pennate muscles - Add back to the body
•Unipennate muscle • Abduction
•Bipennate muscle - Away from the body/midline
•Multipennate muscle • Flexion
b) Parallel muscle - Decreasing the angle of the joint; to bend
c) Circular muscle • Extension
d) Convergent muscle - Increasing the angle of thejoint; to straighten

TERMS TO KNOW
 Origin- where the muscle originates from.
- least moveable end.
 Insertion- where the muscle attaches to.
- most movable end.
 Action - the type of response the muscle creates
when contracted.
- flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,
etc.

Birds Muscular Structure

- Most birds have approximately 175 different
TERMINOLOGY muscles.
- The skin muscles help a bird in its flight by
adjusting the feathers. Pygostyle (tail muscle)
- The pectorals, or the breast muscles and others
*The supracoracoideus works using a pulley
like system to lift the wing while the pectorals
provide the powerful downstroke.

•Dorsiflexion
- Upward bending of the foot
THE
- Pulling toes SKELETAL
• Plantar Flexion SYSTEM
- Downward bending of the foot What are
- Pointing toes the
• Protraction functions of
- Anteriorly rounded shoulders the Skeletal
- Retraction System?
•Support
• Locomotion
• Protection
• Storage