Ovalização em Soldagem

Research article Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Received: 1 June 2016 Revised: 29 November 2016 Accepted: 29 November 2016 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 24 March 2017
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jib.398
The impact of pipe geometry variations on

hygiene and success of orbital welding of
brewing industry equipment
T. A. Mamvura,1* A. E. Paterson2 and D. Fanucchi3
Brewery industry processing plants are made-up of tanks, heat exchangers and columns, which are factory-built, interconnected
by thin-walled pipes and bends, assembled together on-site. However, pipes are inaccessible from inside so onsite welding is
more difficult to control, leading to poor or inadequate welded joints that can compromise product quality for correctly designed
plants. One factor leading to poor welds is pipe geometry as pipes are manufactured to outer diameter (OD), wall thickness and
ovality tolerances that affect the alignment of pipe ends. A mathematical algorithm was developed to assess interconnecting
pipes and bends from a brewery fabrication site to achieve a minimum of 80% area overlap around the pipe circumference.
The 80% was simply a reference point based on a 90% overlap ±10%. 316 L stainless steel pipes of different OD were tested
together with 53 mm OD 90° elbows. It was discovered that well-performing welds were difficult to achieve with random orien-
tation of pipes. Better results were achieved by aligning major axes of pipes as there was an increase from 51 to 91% after major
axis alignment on welds for straight pipes. There was an increase from 22 to 59% and from 58 to 85% for manufacturers 1 and 2,
respectively, for straight pipes-to-bends welds. The higher chances of success for manufacturer 2 were attributed to better OD,
wall thickness and ovality control. Whilst the welder is unable to control manufacturer tolerances, they are able to manage
orientation of pipes to achieve better welds. Copyright © 2017 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Keywords: simulation; Monte Carlo; brewery; welding; ovality; pipes
Introduction previously masked by mass (1). Deflection and distortion, which

are functions of the Young’s modulus, are more or less constant
for specific groups of materials as stronger materials do not
The engineering intent has always been and is to meet client
improve their deflection or distortion properties.
needs both effectively and efficiently (1). The challenge of
In brewing process plants, brewing equipment like fermenters,
metallurgy is that of designing and producing materials that are
tanks, distillation columns and heat exchangers is factory-built.
stronger, lighter and cheaper and also are fit for purpose as
However, many of the small-bore pipes and their interconnections
solutions to specific operating conditions. In many cases this
are bought from manufacturers and joined on-site. These pipes are
includes joining by welding, an enabling technology that facilitates
inaccessible from the inside so site welding is more difficult to
stress alignment, resulting in lighter structures. Whilst the focus has
control. Inadequately welded joints can compromise product
always been structural integrity, the issue of hygienic welding,
quality in an otherwise hygienically designed plant. Poorly welded
which has gained focus in the last three decades, has introduced
joints encourage biofilm formation and this may lead to microbial-
new challenges. Hygiene requirements, which may prove more de-
induced corrosion (MIC) (1). Several factors lead to inadequate
manding to achieve than structural integrity, are an addition to
welded joints; one of these is pipe geometry (4). Pipes are
other operational requirements that process plants now face (2,3).
manufactured to outer diameter (OD), wall thickness and ovality
Over the last quarter of the twentieth century, there have been
tolerances that affect the matching and alignment of pipe ends
several achievements gained in material science and fabrication.
Some of the achievements are:
* Correspondence to: T. A. Mamvura, Department of Civil and Chemical
• development of stronger materials; Engineering, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of
• development of more predictable manufacturer’s production South Africa, Christian de Wet and Pioneer Avenue, Private Bag X6, Florida,
processes, i.e. greater repeatability; 1710, Johannesburg, South Africa. E-mail: mamvuta@unisa.ac.za
• powerful numerical models that have been used to assist in the 1
Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering, College of Science,
analysis, design and manufacture of materials. Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Christian de Wet
and Pioneer Avenue, Private Bag X6, Florida, 1710, Johannesburg, South Africa
For any structure, standard plates, pipes and shapes are formed,
and then welded together using orbital welding into systems that 2
School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
meet prevailing or future perceived operating environments. the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3Wits,
Process plants are one such example. With better and stronger 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
materials, the focus has moved to greater fabrication challenges 3
School of Computational and Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
like structures fabricated from thinner and lighter sections, which University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3Wits, 2050, Johannesburg, South
introduce concerns such as deflection and distortion which were Africa
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J. Inst. Brew. 2017; 123: 81–97 Copyright © 2017 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
T. A. Mamvura et al.
Institute of Brewing & Distilling
which may have been otherwise correctly cut. Ovality may be due Figure 1 shows yeast cells, bacteria and the fimbriae that feed on
to manufacturer inputs related to rolling, slitting, forming, seam organic matter to form biofilms. Under favourable conditions
welding and cutting to length operations. In addition to these, microorganisms grow very rapidly and in most circumstances lead
fabricator centroid misalignment may be an important factor. to the formation of biofilms. Consequently any conditions which
When pipes are manufactured, the fabricators assume that they favour growth must be assessed and avoided if possible. Steps
are perfect circles with a centre. When joining two pipes with the involved in biofilm formation are discussed in (10,11) and are listed
same dimensions, the centres will coincide. However, if the pipes below in sequence and illustrated in Fig. 2:
are not perfectly circular, it means that their centres will not
coincide, leading to centroid misalignment, which may lead to 1 attachment of small organic molecules to surface (step 1 in
poor welds. Poor alignment and welding lead to dead areas on Fig. 2);
joined pipes that encourage biofilm formation (5,6). 2 microbial cells deposited on and adsorbed into forming layer
Good orbital welding requires matched pipes which are (steps 2–4 in Fig. 2);
correctly aligned and a minimum overlap of 95%, preferably in 3 production of hair-like exo-polymers (fimbriae) by cells which
the range 90–100 ± 10%. This gives an overlap target of 80 or feed on organic matter (step 5 in Fig. 2);
100%. The tacit assumption is that pipes are all elliptical (oval) to 4 growth of biofilm layer, which includes bacteria (steps 6–8 in
a greater or lesser degree as ellipses are defined in terms of a major Fig. 2);
and a minor outer diameter. Mismatched, this ovality may affect 5 degradation of product flow of some of the formation (step 9 in
achievement of minimum overlap requirement (80% in this study). Fig. 2);
Processing plants which serve the food, pharmaceutical, 6 formation of an equilibrium layer of depth δ – this depth
brewing, beverages and the dairy sectors not only require increases with increased surface roughness, increased
structural integrity but also need to adhere to hygienic standards temperature and lower flow speeds including occluded or dead
and guidelines, which significantly affect them. The legislation areas (culmination of all steps).
limits beer spoilage organisms, e.g. bacteria, brewing yeast and
wild yeast cells, in the final product such that hygienic fabrication
and operation are required to guarantee food safety to meet final
product specifications. For hygienic fabrication, whilst good design Literature review
standards exist, major gaps are found in the lack of practical
Effect of welding on biofilm formation – link between weld
guidelines, education and skill training and development together
quality and biofilm formation/growth
with appropriate supervision. The beer spoilage organisms result
from the development of biofilms inside contact surfaces. This There have been studies on the impact of welding on biofilm
both encourages their growth and can lead to MIC and/or health formation in different fields. These studies can more or less be
problems (3,7,8). extrapolated to the brewing industry as formation of biofilm
follows a similar procedure. Anzai et al. (13) investigated the effect
of biofilm adhesion behaviour on four SUS304 test coupons: base
Biofilms metal (BW) – a coupon used with no welding; GTAW without filler
metal (FW) – a coupon welded using gas tungsten arc welding
To ensure hygienic process plants will perform as expected,
(GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding procedure
cleanliness is critical and ingress of microorganisms into products
but without using filler metal; GTAW (AW) – a coupon welded
must be avoided. To prevent microbiological problems, plants
using GTAW procedure using filler metal; and polishing after
should be designed to avoid conditions that lead to biofilm growth
GTAW (PW) – a coupon welded using GTAW procedure using filler
(Fig. 1). Plants must be easy to maintain, i.e. equipment must be
metal and then polished afterwards to reduce surface roughness.
easy to clean to protect the products from contamination.
These coupons were immersed in raw water for upto 550 days.
Equipment that is difficult to clean needs procedures which are
The authors observed that base metal had the least biofilm loading
more severe and require more aggressive chemicals and longer
as compared with welded surfaces. However, there was no
cleaning and decontamination cycles. These strategies result in
significant difference on the biofilm loading of all welded surfaces.
higher costs, reduced plant availability for production, reduced
This shows that, after a surface has been welded, its biofilm
lifetime of brewery equipment, and increased effluent (7,8).
loading capacity increases irrespective of any treatment process
that follows. These findings were also echoed in the literature
(14–16). Hilbert et al. (16) has images that show corrosion attack
on welds and heat affected zone (HAZ) for different cases they
observed.
Another study attempted to compare welded surfaces against
normal surfaces in their capacity to support biofilm formation. This
work is similar to that conducted by Anzai et al. (13). The authors
measured surface roughness using parameters Ra, Rq, Rskw and Rkur
for normal surfaces and surfaces welded with different welding
techniques (laser welding; cold metal transfer – CMT – and
TIG/MIG) and correlated the roughness to bacterial loading (17).
The data concluded that there is a relationship surface roughness
and biofilm formation. In particular, it was evident that welded sur-
Figure 1. Micrograph of a biofilm on the inner surface of a dispensing line (9). [Colour faces attract more biofilm on their surfaces than normal surfaces.
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] MIG is gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by
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wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jib Copyright © 2017 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling J. Inst. Brew. 2017; 123: 81–97
Impact of pipe geometry on hygiene and success of welding
Figure 2. Process governing biofilm formation (12). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas weld nugget as distinct from a wrought structure and gradually
(MAG) welding. changes towards the wrought structure of the parent material.
Jullien et al. (18) investigated the effect of surface finish and Some welding techniques like laser do not result in distinct HAZ,
grade on 14 stainless steel coupons on biofilm adhesion in dairy so it is due to the heat generated during welding not the welding
industry. The surface finishes were 2B (six coupons), 2R (six technique used (24,25).
coupons) and electropolished (six coupons). The stainless steel
grades used were 304, 316 and 430. The authors observed that
the effect of stainless steel grade (304, 316 or 430) and to a lesser Pipe manufacturing and fabrication
extent surface finish (2B, 2R or electropolished) was proved to be
highly significant, i.e. stainless steel grade and finish were shown Pipe can be manufactured in two distinct ways – as welded pipes
to be related to stainless steel hygienic status. Flint et al. (19) also or seamless pipes. In both methods, the steel is first cast into a
observed similar results but they included glass and silicone- more workable starting form. It is then made into a pipe by
coated glass together with stainless surfaces with similar surface stretching the steel out into a seamless tube or forcing the edges
finishes to Jullien et al. (18). Geesey et al. (20) also came to the same together and sealing them with a weld (26,27).
conclusion as (18,19). Welded pipes are formed from a rolled sheet which is slit, then
Garcia et al. (21) investigated the susceptibility of welded formed to the required outer diameter and induction welded to
austenitic stainless steel joints (AISI 304 and 316 L) to pitting form a pipe. The welded seam is then passed through a high
corrosion. The authors observed that weldments of AISI 304 and pressure roller which helps create a tight weld. On the other hand,
AISI 316 L showed a dendritic structure in the HAZ, i.e. in the seamless pipes start out as square billets. These are heated and
HAZ where there were heat effects but there was no moulded to form a hollow cylindrical shape. The hollow cylinder
recrystallization afterwards, some precipitation of chromium-rich is heated until white-hot and then rolled with great pressure. This
carbides developed, reducing corrosion resistance on the surface high-pressure rolling causes the billet to stretch out and a hole to
and leading to localized corrosion in those regions. Corrosion form in the centre. Since this hole is irregularly shaped, a
will then lead to biofilm entrapment and formation and there- bullet-shaped piercer point is pushed through the middle of the
fore cleanability problems that are observed on such treated billet as it is being rolled. After the piercing stage, the pipe may still
surfaces. be of irregular thickness and shape, hence the need for tolerances.
To correct this it is passed through another series of rolling and
drawing mills (26,27).
The impact of biofilms on cleanability Commercially, pipes are sold with manufacturing tolerances in
As a result of the formation of biofilms, microorganisms increase ovality and wall thickness. Manufacturing measurement deviations
and local galvanic activity leads to MIC attacks on the inert surface result from (1,23,26,27):
forming Fe(OH)2 tubercles. This process occurs faster when it is • rolling operations – rolling tolerances related to the difficulty of
occurring on a weld or close to the weld on the HAZ as surface keeping the sheet either at a precise thickness or perfectly flat,
roughness is increased sharply at these areas (2,22). Biofilm is and rolls not set flat but bulge slightly at the centre;
exacerbated by increased surface roughness (roughness increases • slitting operation – width differences resulting from setting or
on welds and HAZs as compared with normal steel surface), wear owing to prolonged use of tools;
increased temperatures (temperature increases during • pipe forming operation – seam alignment, gap, seam welding
operation/fermentation) and lower flow speeds (speed of effects and spring back;
water/beer reduces at dead areas like before a weld, on bends or • pipe cut to length operation – difference in pipe lengths cut
on misaligned pipes) (10,23). using machines;
Welding and HAZ are considered as discontinuities which tend • transport effects – possible transport effects related to welding
to affect product surfaces, leading to increased biofilm formation stress relief and packaging.
and ultimately to MIC (22,23). The HAZ is the heat affected zone
resulting from the heat required for welding. It spreads well The net results of these deviations are pipes and tubes which
beyond the immediate weld. The HAZ has a cast structure in the are neither circular nor of even wall thickness. In the case of
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J. Inst. Brew. 2017; 123: 81–97 Copyright © 2017 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jib
thin-wall pipes related to hygienic fabrication, the impact of after welding to become smooth and, therefore reduce biofilm
tolerances can be significant in terms of increased clean-in-place formation.
(CIP) operations required to maintain an acceptable product One way of overcoming this problem is automatic orbital
(1,23). In addition, the associated loss of productivity and water welding, which is preferred for pipework and is capable of produc-
use are further considerations. In industry it is widely believed that, ing consistently high-quality welds (39). Process plants require a
if beer spoilage organisms or biofilms are detected on food-grade significant level of on-site assembly welding of small-bore thin wall
surfaces during operation using swabbing techniques, a CIP pipes in particular and orbital welding is preferred (40,41).
procedure is conducted at that time. The CIP will be conducted However, on-site welding is inherently more difficult to control,
at increased water and chemicals flowrates than the normal more difficult to monitor and more difficult to repair. Realistically,
flowrates using chemicals at higher concentrations/dosages hygienic welded fabrication will be more challenging and more
and at higher temperatures (28–30). It is believed that the or- costly. This tends to put capital budgets under pressure but should
ganisms or biofilms stuck on the food-grade surfaces of equip- ease operational cost in the long run. Figure 3 shows an ideal
ment will be removed. This philosophy is put forward by the welded pipe joint that should be attained during fabrication or
European Hygienic Engineering and Design (EHEDG) group repairs.
backed by experimental studies in industry. Unfortunately, no From Fig. 3, it can be concluded that an ideal weld should
academic papers have sought to investigate and validate this contain:
proposal fully (31).
• a minimum HAZ from TIG orbital weld on 316 L electro-
polished stainless steel (SS) pipe;
Welding and weld imperfections affecting cleanability • a fully penetrated weld with a uniform crevice-free inner weld
Welding is an enabling technology as its primary purpose is to bead showing good pipe-to-pipe alignment;
provide a joint of sufficient integrity to meet the operating circum- • a internal diameter purged with argon; however, in this figure
stance needs. In order to achieve the set standards and guidelines argon gas used contained 8 ppm of oxygen which resulted in
from the EHEDG in terms of cleanability, permanent contact joints slight discolouration of the HAZ (discolouration is not clearly
on the product contact side should be continuously welded and portrayed on the image).
be free of imperfections (31). The EHEDG group have highlighted This would be an acceptable weld for most food, dairy and
that surfaces in contact with product be free of dead legs, gaps pharmaceutical applications. To achieve this type of weld: (a) the
and crevices, where microorganisms can be trapped and multiply, pipes should be dimensionally matched within 20% wall thickness;
if favourable conditions for microorganisms to grow exist (1,32,33). (b) the pipes should be aligned against major axes; (c) they should
However, welds on the non-product contact side must also be be fit up; (d) orientation and cleanliness should be correct; (e) the
continuous and they must be smooth enough to allow proper welding procedure to be used should be aligned with the sulphur
cleaning only (31). content of the pipes; (f ) the tungsten geometry should be ground
Autogenous orbital welding has become routine in the biophar- and correct; and ( g) a minimum HAZ procedure should be used
maceutical, brewery and related industries, while orbital welding (23,31,36,42,43).
with the addition of filler wire is generally unfamiliar (34,35). However, this is not always the case so bad welds tend to be
In-place welding in the field using manual TIG welding with the achieved. Figure 4 shows an example of an unacceptable weld, if
addition of filler wire is very unlikely to achieve a smooth inner any one of the above procedures are not correctly followed. The
weld bead. Smooth inner weld beads are necessary for the weld on the left has defects which include lack of penetration,
cleanability of high-purity tubing systems which are used in these misalignment, a huge crevice and discolouration owing to poor
industries. However, orbital TIG welding with the addition of wire is internal diameter purge (5,23). This weld would be considered
a viable option (36). unacceptable by any sanitary standard and it encourages the
Autogenous welding is welding performed without using a formation of biofilms on contact surfaces. The weld on the right
welding filler, i.e. the material is melted into itself. On the other shows pitting corrosion on the HAZ that starts to occur and this
hand, GTAW, also known as TIG welding, is an arc welding process can lead to contamination of the food product in contact with
that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the
heat for the weld. The filler material is added separately to the heat
input (36).
It is necessary to consider a welding process owing not only
to the nature of the surface it will produce, but also the HAZ it
will form. The HAZ that results from welding operations should
be minimized. In addition, protection of both the tool side and
the opposite side of the weld by an inert gas is required to
avoid sensitization. Sensitization is the loss of alloy integrity dur-
ing welding when chromium is depleted in the vicinity of car-
bides precipitated at grain boundaries. This causes the
stainless steel to become susceptible to intergranular corrosion
or intergranular stress corrosion cracking. If carried out properly,
the need for post-welding treatments such as grinding,
polishing, pickling and passivation will be minimized as these Figure 3. The ideal welded pipe joint (42). The weld has a minimum heat affected
zone (HAZ) from TIG orbital weld on 316 L electro-polished stainless steel pipe, fully
increase surface roughness (1,37,38). For small bore pipework penetrated with a uniform crevice-free inner weld bead showing good pipe to pipe
grinding and polishing are affected by limited access and this alignment, with internal diameter purged with argon. [Colour figure can be viewed
can encourage biofilm formation as the surfaces are not treated at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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Figure 4. Bad weld with defects (42). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
the weld (23,29). When each defect is analysed one at a time, Fig. 5 of inert gas shielding usually for initial tacking tends to result
is the result. in such imperfections.
• Porosity – this is weld metal contamination in the form of
a trapped gas. Shielding gases or gases released as a result
Welding imperfection concerns affecting hygienic
of the torch being applied to treated metal are absorbed
performance
into the molten metal and released as solidification takes
There are many factors that influence welding resulting in imper- place. This results in dead areas that trap beer spoilage
fections that will affect hygienic performance. Some of the aspects organisms.
are discussed in the literature (5,17,32,35,37–39,42,44–48) and • Misalignment of pipes owing to manufacturer or fabricator
include: effects as this results in occluded areas – a change in the dimen-
sions and wall thickness of the base metal being replaced
• Inadequate penetration owing to inaccessibility and no results in this form of imperfection.
treatment after welding – this means that the inner weld profile • Cracks on the weld root that can trap beer spoilage organisms.
leaves crevices (dead areas) that can trap beer spoilage • The flow rate and pressure of the purging gas, which affects the
organism leading to biofilm formation (5). internal penetration if stainless steel pipes are being welded.
• Over-penetration, cauliflowering – usually this results when • The shape of the tungsten electrode as it influences the
there is no back purge and results in the inner weld profile penetration.
being proud (or producing dead areas), which can trap beer • The travel speed and higher amperage which influences the
spoilage organisms, leading to biofilm formation. Poor or lack extent and fluidity of the weld metal.
Figure 5. Acceptable and unacceptable weld profiles for pipe/tube welds (39,42).
85
• Sometimes a wrong material is specified. A material with in weldability. Sulphur is usually an undesirable impurity in
different carbon content or with high sulphur content is used stainless steel rather than an alloying element. In amounts
instead of a material with low sulphur content. If there is a exceeding 0.05% it tends to cause brittleness and reduce
change in the base metal that is being replaced because it is weldability (50–52). Alloying additions of sulphur in amounts from
worn-out or corroded, sometimes this may be replaced with a 0.10 to 0.30% will tend to improve the machinability of steel. Such
material with a different sulphur or carbon percentage, and this alloys are referred to as ‘resulphurized’ or ‘free-machining’.
can affect welding quality and maintenance. However, free-machining alloys are not intended for use where
• Welding process effects on the width of the HAZ – usually the welding is required. The element sulphur produces dramatic
HAZ is smaller for laser welding followed by CMT followed by differences in the weld pool shape and penetration, and these
TIG/MIG (laser < CMT < TIG/MIG). Depending on the welding changes occur in the concentration range specified for type 316
process used, the imperfections can be more pronounced or stainless steel (Fig. 7) (39,45,50–52). If a pipe with sulphur concen-
less pronounced (17). tration at the lower end of the sulphur range, i.e. below
• The pickling and passivation process has an effect as well, i.e. 0.005 wt%, is welded to a pipe/fitting at the upper end of the sul-
whether the process is not undertaken after welding, whether phur range that the AISI specifies (a maximum value of 0.030 wt%),
too much or too little chemicals are used – these parameters the weld pool may shift towards the component with the lower
have an effect. For pickling and passivation the following sulphur concentration, resulting in a weld that is difficult to
factors all have major effects: chemical concentration of acids; penetrate (39,50,52).
the distance of the weld from the pipe opening; the tempera- Reducing the upper limit of sulphur has improved corrosion
ture of reagents; and the time taken for the process (37,38). resistance and surface finish by limiting the number of manganese
sulphide inclusions formed in materials at the higher end of the
The EHEDG have been concerned about the impact of weld and AISI specification. However, electro-polishing and corrosion
joint imperfections, typified by a crack but representative of a dead resistance would be further improved by selection of materials
area, on hygienic operation. The EHEDG illustrative estimation of the with low sulphur concentrations and welding together materials
influence of weld cracks follows alongside the mechanisms in Fig. 6. with similar sulphur compositions (45,51,52). Table 1 shows that
Tolerances can have a significant effect on successful welding of the specified sulphur limits were progressively reduced in the
thin wall pipes as welders have no control on tolerances in period 1980–2010 to resolve the issue. Desulphurizing has led to
commercial-grade thin-wall pipes (wall thickness < 3% diameter). a systematic reduction in sulphur effects over this 30 year period.
These tolerances are on wall thickness, ovality and OD, leading to However, existing capital equipment maintenance may need to
pipe-to-pipe and pipe-to-bend misalignments. accommodate these changing realities.
Effect of sulphur during welding

Dye pen and boroscope assessment of welds
Trace elements, like sulphur, have an effect on the melting
characteristics of metals. Each element in stainless steel will vary The interior of small-bore pipes are generally inaccessible from
somewhat from the next and this variability results in differences outside during and/or after welding. So usually, to assess the
Figure 6. The impact of cracks and porosity in welds on hygienic fabrication (49). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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Figure 7. Effect of sulphur on weld penetration (45). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Table 1. Change in sulphur concentration with time to mitigate its effects during welding (45)
quality of the weld, the procedure is to use a dye pen or a bore- clearer than those produced with fibre optics. Their disadvan-
scope. Dye pen inspection is a means of locating fine cracks on tage is their rigidity that keeps them from manoeuvring into
the surface of pipes by allowing a visible or fluorescent dye to some areas.
accumulate in any such discontinuities to reveal its shape and 2 Fibrescopes – these use fibre optic strands to project the image
location (53). from the tip of the probe to the eyepiece. Their advantage is
Dye pens are used to detect cracks and involves spraying a dye their flexibility as they are able to bend into areas that may be
on the area to be tested, the welded area in this case. After impossible to get to with a rigid scope. The head of the probe
allowing time for penetration the surplus dye is removed and is also able to be manoeuvred once in place, say within a com-
the area is then sprayed with a white developer. Any faults are pressor turbine area, in order to get different fields of view.
revealed as coloured lines or spots caused by the developer Fibrescopes are also manufactured in small diameters.
absorbing the dye seeping from the cracks. If more sensitive 3 Videoscopes – these are similar to the fibrescope in appearance
results are required, a fluorescent dye is used and the same and operation, but that is where the similarities end. A
process is followed. When viewed under ultraviolet light any videoscope uses a charged coupled device to capture the image
defects show as a highly fluorescent line or spot (54,55). at the distal tip of the scope. It sends the image electronically
Borescopes allow users to view into areas that are inaccessible through the flexible scope to the camera control unit. Since
with the eye. There are basically three different types of scopes the images are digital files, they can be stored electronically
available: for future reference (53,54,56).
1 Rigid scopes – these are non-flexible inspection scopes. They These tests can be used to assess the quality of the welds and
allow access to remote areas that do not require the flexi- take corrective action. However, there are costs implications as
bility of fibre or video scopes. Their advantage is the clarity the observation is done after welding and trying to correct what
of the image. Rigid scopes use optics (mirrors and lenses) has already been done takes additional steps in terms of processes
to project the image to the eyepiece, so the resolution is like pickling and passivation.
87
These processes also tend to have their shortfalls. The methods To test ovality of the pipes, measurement of minor and major axes
work best if the area to be assessed is close to an opening, e.g. a was done on-site using Vernier callipers with an accuracy of
weld close to an opening of a short pipe length can be assessed 0.01 mm. The pipes were sampled and arranged according to
and corrected. However, if a pipe is being replaced on an existing Table 2. As pipes were perceived to be oval shaped, major OD,
plant full of piping, there may not be access to observe the quality termed D, and minor OD, termed d, were measured for all the
of the weld done on a replacement pipe once the pipe has been pipes according to Fig. 8.
welded in place. In addition a set of measurements were undertaken on bends
(90° elbows) formed from the same pipes. The bends were sec-
tioned first and then the diameter and wall thickness were mea-
Monte Carlo simulation sured afterwards. The measurement criteria for bends followed
In the analysis to follow, Monte Carlo simulation is used to obtain that of 316 L pipes and the measurements were performed several
results. This section describes and explains what Monte Carlo is. times on an elbow with average ODs of 53, 70 and 85 mm (Fig. 9).
Monte Carlo is a mathematical technique first used by scientists It was recognized that the wall thickness was varied because of
working on the atomic bomb. It is a technique used by profes- the production process tolerances described earlier. To test for
sionals in different fields such as finance, project management, en- variation of wall thickness, each pipe and bend wall thickness
ergy, manufacturing, engineering, research and development, was measured at three points, extended to four as 0° and 360°
insurance, oil and gas, and transportation. It allows people to ac- are superimposed (Fig. 8). The tests were compiled and results
count for risk in quantitative analysis and decision making. It fur- recorded.
nishes the decision-maker with a range of possible outcomes
and the probabilities that will occur with any choice of actions
(57,58). Simulation of measured pipe dimensions using Monte Carlo
How Monte Carlo simulation works. Monte Carlo simulation simulations
performs risk analysis by building models of possible results by A Monte Carlo-based mathematical algorithm was developed
substituting a range of values – a probability distribution – for (with the code written in Wolfram Mathematica® version 9.0.1.0)
any factor that has inherent uncertainty. It then calculates results
over and over, each time using a different set of random values
from the probability functions. Depending upon the number of Table 2. Categories of pipe outer diameter (OD), wall thick-
uncertainties and the ranges specified for them, a Monte Carlo ness and sample number of pipes supplied by fabricator A
simulation could involve thousands or even tens of thousands of from Pune, India
recalculations before it is complete. Monte Carlo simulation pro-
duces distributions of possible outcome values. By using probabil- Major OD (mm) No. of sampled Nominal wall
ity distributions, variables can have different probabilities of pipes thickness (mm)
different outcomes occurring (57,58).
During a Monte Carlo simulation, values are sampled at random 29.1 9 1.45
from the input probability distributions. Each set of samples is 41.2 9 1.43
called an iteration, and the result is a probability distribution of 53.0 27 1.45
possible outcomes, which is recorded. In this way, Monte Carlo 70.1 25 1.92
simulation provides a much more comprehensive view of what 85.1 5 1.91
may happen. It tells you not only what could happen, but how 104 9 1.94
likely it is to happen (57,58). 129 5 1.91
This paper looks at the development of poor welds that encour- 153.2 1 1.98
age biofilm formation considering real pipe measured tolerances Total pipes sampled 90
and up to 6% wall thickness misalignment. It also considers the po-
tential effects of choosing duplex stainless steels (2304 considered)
that, because they are twice as strong as 316 L SS, encourage thin-
ner pipe wall thickness to be used (half wall thickness).
Methodology
The methodology is divided into two broad categories: (a) data of
actual pipe readings determined from sampled outer pipe diame-
ters from a brewery project; and (b) simulation of gathered data
using a Monte Carlo simulation.
Data from pipe measurements

To test the impact of pipe tolerances on weld hygiene, 90 × 316 L
stainless steel pipes of different OD sourced from fabricator A (not
their name) from Pune, India to be used on a project related to a Figure 8. A simple illustration of a pipe cross section with the different measure-
brewery project in Namibia were sampled and measured and the ments of outer diameter (OD) and wall thickness defined. [Colour figure can be
data recorded. The pipes complied with client specified tolerances. viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
88
calculated as 0, 23π, 43π and 2π in radians. Appendix I gives more

information on the quartic function.
Monte Carlo simulations. The simulation to determine overlap

readings was performed in two ways. Firstly, the simulation was
performed at typical random points as shown in Fig. 11, with both
the quartic function giving varying wall thicknesses and a random
centroid offset, i.e. the pipes were randomly selected and fitted.
Secondly, both pipes were aligned individually on their major axis,
fitted and the percentage overlap was determined with all other
conditions varying as in the first case.
The procedure was as follows:
1 Two pipes of known OD, known ovality and known wall
thickness, as well as a known offset and relative rotation of the
pipes, are taken as input to the algorithm. The two pipes are
randomly drawn from specified distributions using a Monte
Carlo algorithm. Pipes were also chosen from standard ASTM
D1587(2012)e1 specifications and simulated. The algorithm
randomly offsets them according to specified distributions
and randomly rotates pipes relative to each other, then applies
the code to determine the minimum overlap required. The
algorithm then produces an output showing the fraction of
pipes that meet the minimum 80% overlap between the walls.
Figure 9. A typical 90° elbow showing measurement criteria. The 80% overlap choice was not a specified overlap by any
standards or test body. Orbital welding works best with 100%
to test the effects of commercial pipe tolerances or deviations. A overlap. If the overlap is not 100% more filler is melted than is
Monte Carlo algorithm was used for reasons highlighted earlier. required. The excess filler changes the weld geometry. If the
overlap is regarded as, say, 80% then there is the possibility of
Formulating the algorithm. Two tacit assumptions were made underfill. Both overfill and underfill are undesirable from the
in designing the algorithm: point of view of hygienic fabrication. The 80% was simply a ref-
• Firstly, it was assumed that the inner wall of the cross-section of erence point based on the 90% overlap ±10%. In addition an
any given pipe is a perfect mathematical ellipse (an affine trans- allowance for a centroid misalignment of 6% of wall thickness
formation of a perfect circle), as opposed to some other oval (0.1 mm for a 1.6 mm thickness) as specified between two pipes
shape, such as an egg shape (Fig. 8). was considered. The Monte Carlo based algorithm was applied
• Secondly, it was recognized that the wall thickness was varied by bringing two randomly selected pipes (or bends) together
because of the production process tolerances. It was assumed 1000 times to perform 1000 iterations. The way the Monte Carlo
that there was no relationship between the major and minor works is to randomly choose different possible situations
axes and wall thickness at any specific point. The outer skin (iterations) and a result is obtained. As the number of iterations
(OD) was characterized by a quartic function; Fig. 10 shows increases the set of variables tends towards some central point.
the principles. Each pipe and bend wall thickness was mea- Whilst the tendency can be seen from relatively low number of
sured at three points – extended to four as 0° and 360° are repeats, it tightens with larger numbers, hence the use of 1000
superimposed. The assumption of the quartic function selected iterations.
was that the curve should fit each measured point and that the
tangents of the curve at 0 and 360° should match. The quartic
function used angles Ø = 0, 120, 240 and 360° which were
Figure 10. The Quartic model used to characterize the outer surface (OD) profile. Figure 11. The overlap of two hypothetical pipes. The arrow shows the minimum
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] overlap position. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
89
2 Two pipes of known OD, known ovality and known wall thick- 1 Six straight pipe-to-straight pipe experiments for manufacturer
ness, as well as a known offset and relative rotation of the pipes 1, manufacturer 2 as well as manufacturer 1 to manufacturer
are taken as input to the algorithm. The two pipes are randomly 2. Within these, two wall thicknesses were considered – the
drawn from specified distributions using a Monte Carlo algo- existing walls thickness for 316 L SS actual pipes and half the
rithm. The algorithm then aligns the major axes of the chosen wall thickness of 2304 duplex SS. Duplex SS was considered
pipes to enable estimation of the fraction of pipes that meet because of its possible use in the future. Manufacturer and
the requirement of 80% overlap under various manufacturing offset tolerances were common to both wall thicknesses. This
and operating assumptions. The algorithm then produces an was achieved by using Monte Carlo analysis (1000 cycles) where
output showing the fraction of pipes that meet the minimum an individual pipe was randomly considered against all other
80% overlap between the walls. In addition an allowance for a pipes first with random orientation and, second, with major axis
centroid misalignment of 6% of wall thickness (0.1 mm for a alignment. A random misalignment of up to 6% of wall
1.6 mm thickness) as specified by between two pipes was thickness (0.1 mm) was applied or allowed.
considered. 2 Four straight pipe-to-bend experiments were undertaken.
These involved all pipes to bends for manufacturer 1 to bend
The justification for testing the two scenarios is as follows: and manufacturer 2 to bend. Two wall thicknesses were consid-
1 For random orientation of pipes, i.e. no axis alignment, there is ered – the existing walls thickness and half the walls thickness as
no welder influence or control. This is currently what is practiced in 1 above. Manufacturer and offset tolerances were common to
in industry. both. Using Monte Carlo analysis (1000 cycles) an individual
2 For alignment of the major axes, there is welder influence. pipe was considered against all other pipes first with random
This is the practice that industry is being encouraged to orientation, and second, with major axis alignment. A random
follow as it increases the chances of getting a good and misalignment of up to 6% of wall thickness (0.1 mm) was
acceptable weld. applied or allowed.
Figure 11 shows the minimum overlap that yields a histogram

point as indicated by the arrow. Moving around the thinner Results and discussions
(rotated) pipe, broken up into illustrative line segments from inner The results are divided into two broad categories: (a) data of actual
wall to outer wall, each point is checked for overlap with the pipe readings determined from sampled outer pipe diameters
thicker pipe. This process then results in successive points as the from a brewery project; and (b) simulation of gathered data using
pipes interfaces rotate to produce histogram points on the same a Monte Carlo simulation.
pipe combination i.e. this is the effect of rotation. Considering
Fig. 11, moving around the thinner (rotated) pipe, the minimum
overlap forming the input to the histogram is indicated by the Data from pipe measurements
arrow. The histogram then shows the chance of success for each
Pipes supplied by fabricator A were grouped into different outer
category picked.
pipe diameters. To test ovality, major (D) and minor (d) axes for
OD were measured and recorded. In addition, wall thicknesses
Monte Carlo simulations for measured pipe dimensions. The measured at 120° intervals to give three thickness readings were
data obtained for pipes sourced from Pune, India to be used on taken. Measurements were conducted as illustrated in Fig. 8 for
a project related to a Namibia brewery project showed the ef- D and d as well as wall thicknesses. The data is summarized in
fect of different manufacturers named manufacturer 1 and man- Table 3.
ufacture 2. During Monte Carlo simulation this was taken into During theoretical analysis, pipes were assumed to be elliptical.
consideration. Ten Monte Carlo experiments (1000 cycles each) However, this was confirmed by the results observed for actual
were undertaken on: pipes sampled. The pipes showed varying wall thicknesses along
Table 3. Summary of results of measured thin-walled pipes sampled from fabricator A from India
Colm 6a
1 2 3 4 5 6 100 Colm 1 100 Colm 6
Colm 2 *
Major OD Wall thickness No. of Range (Dmax– Range (Dmax– Mean ovality Mean ovality 100 Mean 100× Ovality/
D (mm) (min) (mm) samples Dmin) (mm) dmin) (mm) (D d) (mm) (D d)/D (%) minimum wall thickness (%)
29.1 1.45 9 0.08 0.23 0.081 0.28 5.44
41.2 1.43 9 0.36 0.36 0.09 0.22 6.5
53.0 1.45 27 0.25 0.54 0.26 0.48 17.93
70.1 1.92 25 0.31 0.74 0.32 0.46 16.6
85.1 1.91 5 0.35 0.70 0.45 0.53 23.49
104 1.94 9 0.30 1.34 0.6 0.57 5.02
129 1.91 5 0.72 1.13 0.4 0.31 24.93
153.2 1.98 1 0 0.24 0.24 0.16 12.12
* Colm is shorthand for column.
D, Major and d, minor axes for OD.
90
the pipe circumference and also major and minor axes which
meant oval shaped pipes, i.e. Table 3 shows that all thin wall pipes
measured are characterized by a degree of ovality. Column 6
shows ovality (D – d) for different pipe diameters. Column 7
compares percentage ovality normalized against outer pipe
diameter. Column 8 shows the mean ovality as a percentage of
the pipe wall thickness (column 2). It was assumed that the
distributions of OD, wall thickness and ovality of pipes were all
normal distributions, with two standard deviations matching the
variability reported by manufacturers, this accounting for 96% of
the manufactured pipe. An allowance for a centroid misalignment
of 6% of wall thickness (0.1 mm for a 1.6 mm thickness) as specified
by between two pipes/tubes was made.
As can be seen from Table 3, the pipe ovality as a proportion of
wall thickness fell in the range 5.02–24.93%. The 53 mm OD pipes
with 1.45 mm wall thickness and mean-to-wall thickness of 17.93% Figure 12. Ovality differences in 53 mm OD pipe. ‘manufacturer 2’ is shown with
were explored further and the results for pipe measurements are blue line and has a mean around 0.05 mm while ‘manufacturer 1 is shown with a
presented in Table 4. red line and has a mean around 0.3 mm. [Colour figure can be viewed at
Two distinctly different distributions of sizes were noted from wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Table 4, as there was what seemed to be the overlap of two nor-
mal distributions with different means. It was proposed that this distributions were calculated, plotted (Fig. 12) and then used in
may have been due to two differing manufacturers: ‘manufacturer the algorithm.
1’ with ovality in the range 0.17–0.51 mm and ‘manufacturer 2’ The data in Fig. 12 show that manufacturer 2 had better OD
with ovality in the range 0.04–0.07 mm. Separate normal control, low ovality and wall thickness variation, which were
slightly smaller than for manufacturer 1. This should translate to
quality welds and higher chances of success of obtaining good
Table 4. Results of measured thin-walled pipes for full set of orbital welds. This was tested using the Monte Carlo simulation.
53 mm OD pipes sampled from fabricator A from India The results for pipe bend (elbow) measurements are presented
in Table 5 where OD was measured on the major and minor axes
D d Ovality Wall Wall Wall for 53 mm OD pipe bends. It was noted that there was no
(mm) (mm) (D – d) thickness thickness thickness measured relationship between the location of the major and
(mm) major major major minor axes and the wall thicknesses for pipe bends. When
axis 0° axis + 120° axis + 240° considering Table 5, it was noted that therewas a 15% variation
(mm) (mm) (mm) in wall thickness of the elbows as compared with 6.25% variation
53.12 53.08 0.04 1.46 1.46 1.47 in wall thickness of straight connecting pipes. Therefore, it was
53.04 53.00 0.04 1.52 1.51 1.51 postulated that:
53.02 52.97 0.05 1.52 1.52 1.50 1 The ovality range is less than in the straight pipes measured.
52.93 52.88 0.05 1.46 1.47 1.45 2 Whilst one would expect thinner wall thicknesses on the outside
53.07 53.00 0.07 1.5 1.52 1.51 and thicker wall thickness on the inside, it appeared that
53.05 52.98 0.07 1.50 1.50 1.51 internal and external mandrel friction had an influence on the
53.06 52.89 0.17 1.51 1.5 1.51 metal flow for pipe bends.
53.08 52.89 0.19 1.54 1.51 1.51
53.00 52.80 0.20 1.51 1.5 1.49
53.19 52.99 0.20 1.46 1.46 1.47
Table 5. Results of measured thin-walled pipes of 53 mm OD
53.20 52.99 0.21 1.47 1.47 1.48
pipes bend (elbow) sampled from fabricator A from India
53.00 52.73 0.27 1.46 1.48 1.48
53.15 52.88 0.27 1.47 1.47 1.49 OD OD Ovality Wall Wall Wall
53.17 52.87 0.30 1.45 1.47 1.47 major minor (D – d) thickness thickness thickness
53.24 52.93 0.31 1.45 1.48 1.47 axis (D) axis (d) (mm) 0° (mm) 120° (mm) 240° (mm)
53.20 52.89 0.31 1.47 1.49 1.50 (mm) (mm)
53.18 52.87 0.31 1.48 1.49 1.5
53.09 52.77 0.32 1.46 1.47 1.47 53.02 53.00 0.02 1.50 1.60 1.55
53.21 52.89 0.32 1.46 1.47 1.47 53.04 53.02 0.02 1.50 1.55 1.50
53.12 52.78 0.34 1.47 1.48 1.49 52.94 52.90 0.04 1.50 1.61 1.55
53.12 52.78 0.34 1.46 1.46 1.46 53.10 53.04 0.06 1.50 1.55 1.50
53.27 52.89 0.38 1.46 1.47 1.46 53.10 53.02 0.08 1.50 1.59 1.53
53.17 52.78 0.39 1.52 1.53 10 .52 53.00 52.90 0.10 1.50 1.65 1.59
53.26 52.87 0.39 1.54 1.53 1.54 53.00 52.90 0.10 1.50 1.65 1.60
53.24 52.79 0.45 1.48 1.48 1.48 53.10 53.00 0.10 1.50 1.55 1.50
53.24 52.76 0.48 1.5 1.51 1.51 53.08 52.96 0.12 1.50 1.69 1.60
53.26 52.75 0.51 1.47 1.49 1.49 53.02 52.88 0.14 1.50 1.65 1.58
91
Simulation of measured pipe dimensions using Monte Carlo histograms shown in Figs 14 and 15. Figure 14 was based on
simulations random data generated to test the algorithm but with OD within
the measured tolerances while Fig. 15 was based on the data
Stage 1 – observed simulation results from Monte Carlo algo-
from measured pipes. Note that the histograms represent the de-
rithm. Figure 13 shows a typical result from one experiment af-
gree of overlap. The shaded area (covered in green) represents
ter Monte Carlo simulations. As ϕ increases from 0(0°) to 2π(360°),
the fraction of pipes that achieved a minimum of 80% overlap.
the simulation determines how much the smaller pipe and bigger
However, what is more concerning is the extent of non-
pipe diameters overlap and gives the result as a fraction or percent
compliance of pipes below 50% overlap; see Fig. 14. These result
fraction. This function is then numerically globally minimized on
in bad welds leading to hygienic problems. Figure 15 had better
ϕ ∈ [0, 2π] to find the minimum overlap.
results as more of the sampled pipes which were matched
Figure 13 shows that for ϕ = 2 and ϕ = 4, the minimum overlap
showed higher success chances. The common observation in
is not achieved. This can be attributed to the misalignment of ma-
the figures was the lower chance of success when pipes were
jor axes of the two pipes. At other points, like ϕ = 1, ϕ = 3 and
randomly orientated as compared with major axes alignment.
ϕ = 5, there is good overlap and it is assumed that this is when
The overall results for all of the cases considered are summarized
the major axes are aligned/overlap or they closely overlap each
in Table 6.
other.
Simulation results for random pipe diameters within the mea-
Stage 2 – simulation using data for pipes from India. Simula- sured pipe diameters showed a 61% success chance of obtaining
tion using random data and pipe measurements resulted in the a good orbital weld when there was no alignment of major axes
Figure 13. The minimum fraction-overlap reflected on the histogram as a function of the parameter ϕ for the two typical pipes with the minimum indicated. 1 ≤ ϕ ≤ 6 was used
in the function. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 14. Results of Monte Carlo simulation using random data. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
92
Figure 15. Results of Monte Carlo simulation using data from pipe measurements. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Table 6. Results for Monte Carlo simulations using random data and data from fabricator A to achieve overlap of 80% or greater
between two pipe diameters
Configuration Random orientation Aligned orientation Random Aligned orientation

orientation
Material and wall thickness 316 L Current wall 316 L Current wall 2304 Half wall 2304 Half wall
thickness thickness thickness thickness
Pipe-to-pipe
Using random data 61% 67% — —
Using ASTM D1587(2012)e1 specifications 72% 84% — —
s–s all pipes 51% 91% — —
s–s low tolerance M1 17% 47% 1% 12%
s–s high tolerance M2 100% 100% 79% 82%
s–s M1 to M2 33% 39% 4% 6%
Pipe-to-bend (elbow)
s–b low tolerance M1 22% 59% 2% 16%
s–b high tolerance M2 58% 85% 6% 26%
s–s, Straight pipe to straight pipe; s–b, straight pipe to bend.
and a 67% chance when the welder aligned the major axes of impact of the manufacturing process on the chances of obtaining
pipes before welding. Considering standard tolerances from ASTM, a good and acceptable weld. However, this made no allowance for
the results were 72% success with no alignment and 84% chance welding concerns relating to welding process control but just
with alignment of major axes. This can be summed up as saying assessed the impact of pipe manufacture inputs. Factoring in
that manufacturing pipes using tighter tolerances (ASTM) on OD, welding concerns will further reduce the theoretical success
ovality and wall thickness can result in pipes that are uniform chances that can be achieved on-site.
and which can lead to improved chances of success during orbital When considering manufacturer 1, there was an increase in
welding on-site. orbital welding success when pipes were aligned as there was a
Simulation results for all pipes from manufacturer A showed a change from 17% with no alignment to 47% after major axes
51% success chance of obtaining a good orbital weld when there alignment. For manufacturer 2, the success chance was 100% with
is no alignment of major axes. However, if the welder were to align and without major axes alignment. Manufacturer 2 had higher
major axes of pipes before welding, the results showed that the success chances of orbital welding as compared with
probability increases to 91%. The results suggest that a well- manufacturer 1 because the tolerances used were much tighter,
performing orbital weld joint is difficult to achieve with random i.e. there was better control of OD, ovality and wall thickness, as
orientation of pipes, but it is far better with pipes aligned by major discovered earlier in Fig. 12. This was further confirmed by normal
axes. The success rate was at most 84% when using tighter distributions plotted for the two based on OD, ovality and wall
tolerances which are outside the welder’s control, showing the thicknesses. However, the plots are not shown here.
93
The results show that the chances of getting a better orbital do not include effects of pipe chemistry, welding parameters and
weld improve by using one manufacturer with good control of the conditions during welding. From this analysis, it shows that
OD, ovality and wall thickness and aligning major axes. If the welding is influenced by complex parameters which need atten-
control is not good enough, the pipes can be mixed with those tion from the manufacturer all the way to the welding conditions.
with good tolerance control to improve the success chances of
achieving good orbital welds. This also means that combining
pipes from ‘different manufacturers’ with different tolerances led
Conclusions
to only 91% success rate with aligning major axes as compared The algorithm developed when applied to random pipe
with 100% that was achieved with pipes with good control from orientation showed that the potential for achieving a good and
one manufacturer (manufacturer 2) with major axes alignment. acceptable orbital weld (a minimum of 80% overlap) under current
When the wall thicknesses were halved for 2304 duplex SS, the manufacturing tolerances is very low, assuming that all other
simulation shows that the success chance decreased drastically. inputs are as expected. Whilst the chances of success of obtaining
For manufacturer 1, the success decreased to only 1% without acceptable welds improve dramatically with major axes alignment,
alignment and 12% with alignment. For manufacturer 2, the suc- it seems desirable to actively consider the impact of manu-
cess decreased to 79% without alignment and 82% with align- facturing tolerances beyond this alignment.
ment. For manufacturer 1 to manufacturer 2, the success was 4% Sensitivity analysis on the impact of ovality, wall thickness and
without alignment and only 6% with alignment against 33% OD shows that ovality is the major reason behind poor welds
without and 39% with alignment for 316 L SS pipes using full wall achieved. When considering new plants, improving the success
thickness. rate of orbital welding requires either better management of
All the results were for welding straight pipe to another straight tolerances or post-receipt pipe end modification as both affect
pipe with similar tolerances. Considering straight pipe to bend the degree of overlap achieved.
welds, the results are not so encouraging. For manufacturer 1, When considering existing plants, managing welds as ‘hot spots’
the chance of success was only 22% without alignment and it im- to reduce local biofilm build-up seems appropriate. Replacement
proved to 59% with alignment, while for manufacturer 2, the components should follow the new-build philosophies to reduce
chance of success was 58% without alignment and 85% with align- biofilm build-up. To meet current and potentially incoming hy-
ment. When the wall thicknesses were halved, the situation further gienic guidelines and standards, particularly those set by EHEDG
deteriorated. For manufacturer 1, the success decreased to only group, for both new and old plants, consideration of the use of a
2% without alignment and 16% with alignment. For pipe end-forming machine to manage the alignment of pipe ends
manufacturer 2, the success decreased to 6% without alignment to achieve competent orbital welds is recommended. This applies
and 26% with alignment. particularly where the algorithm shows a poor potential for
This shows that welding quality reduces when you are joining achieving the 80% overlap requirement for successful orbital
straight pipe to a bend compared with when welding two straight welding.
pipes together. This may be attributed to the difficulty of aligning Whilst welders cannot control pipe manufacture, they can
the major axis of a straight pipe with that of a bend owing to the control pipe orientation and alignment to meet hygiene consid-
fact that there might be time when you cannot align the axes, erations (32). This means that tighter manufacturing tolerances
i.e. if you have a straight piece of pipe with a bend at each end are required. On-site welding of pipes is more difficult to control
and the bends need to point in specific directions. so orbital welding is the preferred method of joining components
In general results in Table 6 show that: (40,41). The major axes can be found by a welder in the field by
using a pair of callipers. The major axis is represented by the
• There is an improvement in the probability of pipes achieving point of maximum extension. On site it is not necessary to mea-
80% minimum overlap from aligning the major axes of pipes sure but just to determine the major axis. If there is a straight
before welding. This is within the welder’s influence but the piece of pipe with a bend at each end and the bends have to
pipes need to be sampled, measured and marked on arrival first point in specific directions, then alignment is problematic, but
to show major and minor axes. The data should then be made the hope is that the major axis is identified before the bends
available to the welders on-site. have been included on the pipe through welding or any other
• The data also show that wall thicknesses can be reduced to as form of joining. In hygienic plants, bends are not preferred as
much as half wall thicknesses. However, when the wall thick- they encourage dead areas where biofilms can form. If there is
nesses are halved without changing pipe tolerances from man- one bend, major axes can be aligned easily. However, if there is
ufacturers, there is a severe impact on the success chance of more than one bend, then there may be a problem that affects
pipes achieving 80% minimum overlap as compared with full welding quality.
wall thicknesses. Welds cannot be completely omitted but they can be reduced
by minimizing the number of bends or making use of long lead
The results in Table 6 reveal the impact that manufacturers have corner bends where compression buckling has been managed
on the success of orbital welding. If manufacturing tolerances by the ball mandrel or pre-tension methods. Specified tolerances
which are tighter on ovality, wall thickness and OD are achieved for thin-wall pipes can be modified as required. These are a few
by manufacturers, this leads to better welding success onsite. suggestions of what can be done:
However, consumers receiving the pipes can improve the success
rate by measuring and marking major axes so that during welding 1 Manufacturers need to tighten tolerances to suit applications.
they can align them together. In addition, using pipes from one 2 Designers and procurement team need to accommodate the
manufacturer can lead to better chances of success during orbital commercial impact of tolerances on successful joints. This may
welding than mixing pipes from different manufactures. All of indicate the need for increased wall thicknesses.
these parameters are outside the welder’s influence and they still 3 Fabricators need to consider the following:
94
Table 7. Achievable benefits to gaps and challenges facing hygienic welded fabrication
Factors End users Designers Fabricators Piping suppliers

Improved hygiene standards ✓ ✓ ✓
Improved welding procedures ✓ ✓ ✓
Improved welding quality ✓ ✓ ✓
Piping standards ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Training and development of welders ✓ ✓ ✓
Improved supply chain communication ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
• Where manufacturing codes are not available, seek out tech- Joint fit-up is a key performance indicator, i.e. aligned major axes
nical publications and welding supplier expertise. assist. Also pipe end-forming equipment may be worth consi-
• Measure pipes on receipt to determine major and minor axes deration. The ranges of potential benefits through appropriate
as major axes alignment improves overlap success rate. management of interfaces are listed in Table 7.
• Improve the skills of welders and use experienced In conclusion, there is a clear disconnection between the inten-
supervisors. tions of the designer and practical realities. Increasingly onerous
• Regular borescope use improves good practice understand- hygiene requirements may lead to increased process water use
ing, if possible. and to production losses. Whilst good design guidelines for
• Use welding techniques that reduce HAZ. hygienic design exist, major gaps seem to exist in the lack of
• Clamping limited to stresses below bucking stresses can as- practical guidelines, education and, pertinent to South Africa, skill
sist in alignment. development, craft appreciation and appropriate supervision.
• Pipe end forming and cutting machines enable better pipe There is a need for developing and diffusing good practice
alignment. Pipe end-forming machines include a range of knowledge to assist predictability of good joint performance
possibilities including forging, swaging and spinning because hygiene requirements, may well prove demanding to
intended to ensure that adjoining pipe ends match ade- achieve. However, biofilm formation concerns are not limited to
quately and are cut to the angle required. The machines hygienic issues only, but also include other factors, like corrosion
modify only the pipe ends up to a length of about two diam- and in some instances health.
eters, not the whole pipes. As such they are not normally
used in the field to compensate for bad specifications.
• Order bends with one diameter straight section on both Acknowledgements
sides. The assistance and cooperation of SAB Ltd, SABMiller Namibia, M/s
• Skilled TIG or pre-programmed TIG orbital welding of pre- Praj Industries Ltd, Pune, India and Mr J D Cluett of JDC consulting
pared and aligned pipe ends should result in hygienic welds in making available real pipe measurements is gratefully acknowl-
(59). Good orbital welds are achieved by controlling the di- edged. Their contributions and direct feedback added value to the
mensions and alignment of weld ends of fittings, valves or understanding of practical issues faced. The assistance of the
other pipes/tubes. Southern African Institute of Welding and WITS University is also
4 Post fabrication need to look at: gratefully appreciated.
• crevices and porosity measurements;
• dye pen plus borescope assessments, if possible;
• addition of silver or copper ions to crevices to reduce or References
eliminate biofilms (10); 1. EHEDG (1993) Hygienic equipment design criteria, Trends Food Sci.
• close crevices using crystal growth methods as used by cast- Tech. 4, 225–229.
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96
60. Al-Juboori, R., Aravinthan, V., and Yusaf, T. (2010) A review of common The fraction of the line segment from rinner(ϕ) to router(ϕ) that
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Southern Region Engineering Conference, 11–12 November,
Toowoomba, pp. 1–9.
two concentric ellipses. A series of affine transforms, mapping
61. Chaidez, C., Lopez, J., and Castro-del Campo, N. (2007) Quaternary the inner and outer ellipses respectively to the unit circle, yields
ammonium compounds-An alternative disinfection method for fresh this fraction-of-overlap separately for different values of the pa-
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62. Momba, M. N. B., Kfir, R., Venter, S. N., and Cloete, T. E. (2000) An over- The value of ϕ that minimizes the overlap fraction is the weak
view of biofilm formation in distribution systems and its impact on the
deterioration of water quality, Water SA 26(1), 59–66. point in the overlap of the two pipes. That fraction of overlap
must exceed 80% to be regarded as a competent weld. A
multi-start method of global minimization was used to find the
Appendix I: simulation code minimum of the function, with 10 starting points equally distrib-
uted over the interval [0, 2π]. The completed Mathematica code
Within the Monte Carlo simulation code a pipe is completely de- was then optimized so that the minimum-overlap between a
scribed by three numbers: (a, b, w), representing the major- pair of pipes could be found in <2 s on a mid-range desktop
diameter, minor-diameter and wall-thickness of a cross-section of computer. This enabled us to perform Monte Carlo simulations
the pipe respectively. Two adjacent pipes to be welded together relatively efficiently.
are represented by two such triples, as well as an offset vector There is one final note about the algorithm to determine the
(x, y), which indicates the alignment of the centroids of the pipes, minimum overlap: a choice was explicitly made to define the over-
and a relative rotation angle θ. These nine numbers completely de- lap with respect to the thinner wall thickness as specified. This is
scribe the overlap of two adjacent pipes. The first part of the code done with a consideration of the case where the thinner pipe’s wall
determines the minimum overlap between two such pipes as fol- maybe completely embedded in the thicker pipe’s wall as to give
lows. Firstly, the inner wall of the thinner pipe is described by the 100% overlap. If it had been defined as that the overlap was a frac-
parametric equation of the ellipse: tion of the thicker pipe that was covered at each point, then it
could never have reached 100% anywhere even when the pipes
were perfectly aligned.
a cosϕ
r inner ðϕ Þ ¼ ; 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π ð0–360°Þ To perform the Monte Carlo analysis, the nine necessary param-
b sinϕ
eters for an overlap of two pipes (a1, b1, w1, a2, b2, w2, x, y, θ) were
repeatedly selected from relevant distributions, and then the min-
For each value of ϕ, we find the corresponding point on the imum overlap was computed using the algorithm. The result is a
outer wall by moving orthogonal to the ellipse at that point by at distribution of minimum overlap values that could be used to esti-
a distance w: mate the typical probability of successful orbital welding of ran-
dom pipes under various manufacturing and operational
a cosϕ
r outer ðϕ Þ ¼ circumstances. In particular the interest was in how much of the
b sinϕ mass of the minimum overlap distribution had a > 80% minimum
w b cosϕ overlap.
þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π
b2 cos2 θ þ a2 sin2 θ a sinϕ
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Research article Institute of Brewing & Distilling

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jib.398

The impact of pipe geometry variations on

Keywords: simulation; Monte Carlo; brewery; welding; ovality; pipes

Introduction previously masked by mass (1). Deflection and distortion, which

Effect of sulphur during welding

Data from pipe measurements

calculated as 0, 23π, 43π and 2π in radians. Appendix I gives more

Monte Carlo simulations. The simulation to determine overlap

Figure 11 shows the minimum overlap that yields a histogram

Configuration Random orientation Aligned orientation Random Aligned orientation

Factors End users Designers Fabricators Piping suppliers

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