INTRODUCTION ON

ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
& HISTORY
B y Yo n a s A .
 ARCHITECTURE ?
The art and science of designing
and constructing buildings
"Architecture is always dream and function, expression of a utopia and
instrument of a convenience." - Roland Barthes in "Semiology and Urbanism“

"Architecture is not a question of the purely theoretical if you're interested in

building buildings. It's the art of what is possible." - Paul Rudolph in Chicago
Architects Oral History Project

"Architecture is geometry." - Álvaro Siza in Imaginar a Evidência (Imagining

Evidence)

"Architecture is an untapped source of magnificent stories waiting to be

imagined, visualized, and built." - Matthew Hoffman in "Blank Space Launches
Architecture Storytelling Competition"

2
 STRUCTURE?
the arrangement of and
relations between the
parts or elements of
something complex.

By Yonas Assefa 3
 ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
What Is engineering
structure?
Within the context of the built environment , the term ‘structure’ refers to
anything that is constructed or built from different interrelated parts with a
fixed location on the ground.

This includes buildings, but the term structure can also be used to refer to
any body of connected parts that is designed to bear loads, even if it is not
intended to be occupied by people. Engineers sometimes refer to these as
'non-building' structures. Common examples include:

Aqueducts and viaducts, Bridges, Canals, Cooling towers and chimneys,

Dams, Railways, Roads, Retaining walls, Tunnels.

By Yonas Assefa 4
 ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
What Is engineering
structure?
It has long been recognised that an appreciation of the role of structure
is essential to the understanding of architecture. It was Vitruvius,
writing at the time of the founding of the Roman Empire, who identified
the three basic components of architecture as firmitas, utilitas and
venustas and Sir Henry Wooton, in the seventeenth century , who
translated these as ‘firmness’, ‘commodity’ and ‘delight’. Subsequent
theorists have proposed different systems by which buildings may be
analysed, their qualities discussed and their meanings understood but
the Vitruvian breakdown nevertheless still provides a valid basis for the
examination and criticism of a building

By Yonas Assefa 5
 THE STRUCTURAL CONCEPT FROM
EARLY CENTURY
firmitas, utilitas and venustas

• Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain

in good condition.

• Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is

used.

• Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing.

6
 THE BASICS OF
STRUCTURE

Yonas A. 7
 AND
Architecture
• The simplest way of describing the
function of an architectural structure
is to say that it is the part of a
building which resists the loads that
are imposed on it. A building may be
regarded as simply an envelope
which encloses and subdivides space
in order to create a protected
environment.
Yonas A.
Structure
• The surfaces which form the
envelope, that is the walls, the floors
and the roof of the building, are
subjected to various types of
loading: external surfaces are
exposed to the climatic loads of
snow, wind and rain.
8
 STRUCTURAL
REQUIREMENTS
Equilibrium

Structures must be capable of achieving a state of

equilibrium under the action of applied load. This
requires that the internal configuration of the
structure together with the means by which it is
connected to its foundations must be such that all
applied loads are balanced exactly by reactions
generated at its foundations.

Loads on the building envelope. Gravitational loads due to snow and to

the occupation of the building cause roof and floor structures to bend
and induce compressive internal forces in walls. Wind causes pressure
and suction loads to act on all external surfaces.
Yonas A. 9
 STRUCTURAL
REQUIREMENTS
Geometric stability

Geometric stability is the property which preserves

the geometry of a structure and allows its
elements to act together to resist load. The
distinction between stability and equilibrium is
illustrated by the framework shown in Fig. which is
capable of achieving a state of equilibrium under
A rectangular frame with four hinges is capable of achieving a state of
the action of gravitational load. The equilibrium is equilibrium but is unstable because any slight lateral disturbance to the
not stable, however, because the frame will columns will induce it to collapse. The frame on the right here is
collapse if disturbed laterally. stabilised by the diagonal element which makes no direct contribution to
the resistance of the gravitational load.

Yonas A. 10
 WHAT IS STRUCTURE?
Structure – something that is constructed, or built
Joining parts to meet a certain purpose or perform
a specific task by resisting the load applied on it.

Structural loads
or actions are forces, deformations,
or accelerations applied to a structure or
its components.

Loads cause stresses, deformations,

and displacements in structures. Assessment of
their effects is carried out by the methods
of structural analysis.

Yonas A. 11
 REQUIREMENTS
When designing a structure, the design working
life of the structure should be specified, and the
following fundamental performance requirements
should be ensured for the specified period.
Safety – Esthetics –
Serviceability -
Environment – Economy

(1) Safety of human life in and around the structure is ensured Excess load or overloading may cause structural failure, and hence such
against foreseeable actions. possibility should be either considered in the design or strictly
(2) The functions of the structure are adequately ensured controlled.
against foreseeable actions acting on structures (Serviceability).

(3) If required, continued use of the structure is feasible against
foreseeable actions by restoration using technologies available
within reasonable ranges of cost and time (Restorability)
Yonas A.
Structures may fail due to numerous reasons that need to be
thoroughly deliberated during the initiation, design, planning,
executing, and the monitoring processes of the project.
12

To describe how any force is acting on a structure,
it is important to know about three main things:
the force’s magnitude, its direction, and the point
and plane of its application.
Magnitude -How big is the force compared to
the size and weight of the object? Example A
gentle breeze causes a flag to flutter. In a very
strong wind, the flag appears stiff.
Point of Application and Plane of Application –The
point of application is the exact location where the force meets
the structure. The plane of application is the side of the
structure affected by the force. Where does the force meet the
structure? Example -Is the wind affecting the entire structure
or just a part of it? A strong gust of wind at your feet might be
enough to knock you out.

Direction-Where is the force coming from?

Example -If the wind is blowing into your face, it is
difficult to walk. If the wind is blowing on your
back, you can walk faster, but you might find it
difficult to keep your balance.

Yonas A. 13

Shear Force : bend or tear a material by
pressing different parts in opposite directions at
the same time. Shear strength measures the
largest shear force the material can withstand
before it rips apart .
A good example of shear force is a simple scissors.
The two handles put force in different directions
on the pin that holds the two parts together. The
force applied to the pin is called shear force.
Yonas A.
Torsion : twist a material by turning the ends in opposite directions.
Torsion strength measures the largest torsion force the material can
withstand and still spring back into its original shape .
The plastic ruler is twisted between both hands. The ruler is said to
be in a state of torsion.
Tension : The rope is in “tension” as the two people pull on it. This
stretching puts the rope in tension. Tensile strength measures the
largest tension force the material can withstand before failing
Compression forces crush a material by squeezing it together.
Compressive strength measures the largest compression force the
material can withstand before it loses its shape or fails
14
Bending is due to the internal moment. Since
moment can be resolved into a couple, the internal
moment can be considered as a compression force
(C) and a tensile force (T). The compression force
results in compressive stresses and tensile force in
tensile stresses.

Therefore, bending stress is a combination of

compressive and tensile stresses due to internal
moments.

Since the stress across a beam section varies from

compression to tension, there is a location at
which stress is equal to zero. This is called the
“neutral axis”. For a homogeneous beam the
neutral axis passes through its centroid.

Yonas A. 15

LIVE LOADS
All unfixed items in a building such as people
and furniture result in a 'live' load on the
structure. Live loads are exerted in the vertical
plane. Live loads, or imposed loads, are
temporary, of short duration, or a moving load.
These dynamic loads may involve
considerations such
as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh
dynamics of fluids and material fatigue.
Live loads are variable as they depend on usage
and capacity.
Yonas A.
• Live loads for floors as per building usage Vs
Uniformly distributed load kPa or kN/m2
• Houses -1.5,
• apartments, motel bedrooms-2.0
• Offices-3.0
• Workshops-5.0
• Parking, vehicle > 2.5 t-5.0
• Hospitals, school assembly areas with fixed seating-
3.0
• Dance halls, bars, lounges-5.0
• N.B Note that kPa and kN/m2 are essentially the
same units.
16
 About To Continue with
overview of Wind load

Yonas A. 17
THANK YOU
Yo n a s A s s e f a

18