14 Data Structures using Python clear that memory spaces ean never be ‘log n’. Even For a matrix, the space is", respective ofthe dimensions of the function, the total elements are considered a ‘n’ bac ‘When two cost equations have different components with different powers, how can they be compare for choosing the optimal solution? 2.3 ASYMPTOTIC NOTATIONS The equations, discussed in Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2, formed in computing the running steps forte complexity and the memory spaces used in space complexity are treated as a mathematical model, Foy easy comparison and evaluation of the same, asymptotic notations are used. The need of asymptotic notations can be understood well from the below scenario. Consider a function with running steps “2n+7". Now, say the same functionality can be achieved by another function with running steps ‘n’*, So, which implementation should be used in a realtime application? This requires comparison of running time ofboth the functions, When ‘n’is ‘3°, function! wil result in 13" steps and function2 will result in 9” steps. For all ‘n’ lesser than or equal to °3°, function? will perform better than function, However, when ‘n’ crosses 3, functionl starts performing better over function2, which means the number of running steps will be optimally less in case of function. Thus, in real-time, the comparison becomes dificult while handling those mathematical models due to fluctuating values. Asymptotic notations are used to represent the worst case and best case ofthe functions and many such metrics aiding in comparison. - The above scenarios have made the necessity of an asymptotic notation clear, however, the question is, ‘what does asymptotic mean?”. Asymptotic means approaching a curve ora point as close as possible. ‘Therefore, when representing a function in its asymptotic notation, itis very important to keep in mind that the notating function should be arbitrarily close enough to the original function, eee Big-O is represented as ‘O( ) This is the widely used asymptotic notation, which signifies the worst case running time of a function, Formally, the Big-O function is defined as a limiting function. It aims at cow setting an upper limit for a function with another function. A function, ‘ftx)"="O(e (x))as x20", when the absolute value of‘) is lesser than or equal to 4 multiple of ‘C’ and “g(x) forall “x preater than or equal toa threshold ‘x,’ and any constant °C”. This is mathematically represented as: 2.3.1 Big-O Running time [fey] SC * g@), 2x, QA) For visualizing “g(x)’ for any ‘f(x)', the graph in Figure 2.1 can be referred. tn the function, it can be clearly seen that ‘g(x)* is always greater than f(x)’, after the threshold —Taput sie *_, “x,'. For any function, there can be any number of ahi “gGx)' forming an upper border but the core task in Figure 2.1. Big-0 function representation —EeEE adAbstract Data Type and Analysis 35 identifying the apt function is to ensure that ‘g(x)"is as close as possible to the base function ‘f(x)’ and to maintain °x,” a8 minimum as possible For identifying this easily in asymptotic notations, the first step is to identify the maximum impact creating component in the equation of running steps/memory spaces. Say, in the function, “(2¥n) + (w'/2) + (n/2)’, the component with the highest impact is ‘(n’/2)’, This term can further be reduced, that is, when *n'is high, ‘n** will also be very high. When the constant ‘2’ is compared with a very high ‘n”, "2° becomes negligible. Thus, any type of independent constant in the term can be removed. The remaining part in the component is only ‘mn. Thus, the given function is “O(n?)’. Simply, the Big-O is the largest component in the function with all constants removed. With this explanation, let us ty to identify the Big-O of 3*(logn)+7n’. Mathematically, “logn’ is always lesser than ‘n’. So, the function is “O(n)’. Similarly, itis important to remember the fact that ‘nlogn’ is lesser than ‘n’”, only because “logn*is lesser than ‘n’. 2.3.2 Big-Omega Big-Omega is represented as “Q2()’. While *O()’ marks the upper bound for a function, ‘9 ( )° marks the lower bound. A function, ‘/(x)’ = ‘@ (g(x))' as ‘x—>=0", when the absolute value of ‘/(x)" is greater than or equal to a multiple of *C” and ‘g(x)’ for all ‘x’ greater than or equal to a threshold “x,” and any constant °C’. This is mathematically represented as: [fey] C* gC), 22%, 22) For visualizing ‘g(x)" for any ‘ftx)’, the graph in Figure 2.2 can be referred. It is clearly seen in the graph that *g(x)" is always lesser than ‘f(x’ after a threshold. Say ‘f(xy’ is “x? + 5*x’, then “g(x can be any function which is always lesser than or equal to the ‘f(x)’. Even ‘f(x) = Q(g(1))"is right, as *#cey’ can never be lesser than ‘1" at any point. Even though by definition it is right, such a representation will always be misleading and hence this notation is rarely used. Even after these shortcomings, if ‘2 notation is to be used, itis to be maintained as close as possible to ‘flay’. 6 sie identifies the element with the highest Meant bed pelle tnrellahine al impact, however, Big-Omega targets towards identifying the component with the least impact, Afler identification of the component, any constant factor must be removed. Now, the component can be represented as Big-Omega. For ‘f(x)"in the above example, the ideal “A” should be ‘OGY’. cow Running time. xo ‘Input size x 2.3.3 Big-Theta sd the upper bound and Big-Omega marked the lower bound, Big- Theta is the average case. Big-O marke but there was a problem in both the notations. Big-O ean be any high function and Big-Omega can be any low function, but these are not mandatory the optimal functions, The optimal Big-O must be the Closest upper bounding function and Big-Omega must be the closest lower bounding function. To ensure the optimal function is used, Big-Theta can be considered. In Big-Theta, a function ‘g(x)'is selected to be both the upper bound and lower bound of f(x)’. A function, ‘f(xy’ = *O(g(x))' as: ‘x—s00", when the[a 16 Data Srcaeswsing Python hole value of 0) is within the range of °C)" and *C,e() for all x” greater than aoe ee aay comnts C,and"C,. Thais matemaicaly epesened ag, ly C8005 VOI SC, *ab0)x2 4, 2, For visualizing “g(x)" for any f(x)", the ny inFigue 23 an beefed Tr BigeThea, the same function is niipied by two ilferent comstans, Tne ma the upper a lawer bounds onepodingy based on the vale of the Srna Tas aan C0 optimally scpesen and mark the wpper and lower Soin Forth same. + 5," for fm Homo an he Tower voand 0) Foran atl Select dn’ S60 hea Sem inal Thus; he conan or lwet Toad aed" For upe bond, ined a 2 wiltealvay rer thn Se, when pe Fee Sere 2"e, forxes ‘Which ean be notated, Foe +54) = 06%), forx2 S eee _ fray on. ntti hy m0 wed wie? Fr eran co = analyse ‘How the program will behave in the w "an What ‘beth soe Be 24 smali-o Sl. ia sce ver Biro hc geen a BO Sal. ako mas he per bound of gen finn ie Hoke namie age gee wine sale Eee “0 forall Can nang) Real pear an req to eo UE01 C* £60). 2% Asthere has already been suficent expt ‘of Big-Omega and the difference betwee! hd “Small” notations, i i left for the further explore the ‘Small-Omega”notatic 2.4 RECURSION Recursion is a type of funetion which ¢ feeursion means 2 funtion callingitsel,» {ind that in tur, calls the prior function. 7 ‘Of recusions canbe seen in the graphical Recursion can be seen 38 a relasem functions ean be re-written to work wit ‘Support for passing values from one sta! eres is given in Python code 2Abstract Data Type and Analysis 17 In the above graph, *f(x) = O(g(x)). It ean be con seen at a point when “x = k°, *f(x) = g(x)’. In spite ofthe functions meeting ata point, Big-O definition is still fine with “g(x)' marking the upper bound for *f(x)', whereas Small-O definition does not allow g(x)" to mark the upper bound for ‘f(x)’, as they toth are equal for a particular ‘x’ greater than ‘x, ‘The Small-O along with Big-O and f(x) are shared Pye [iki in the graph shown in Figure 2.5. ; Just to make the function move away from ‘/ix)” ere a at the point ‘x = k’, the constant that is multiplied with *g(9), is increased. So, it is clearly evident that “flx) = O(g(x))= 0(g(x))' for two constants °C, "and “ correspondingly, such that °C, >C,’ = Running te 2.3.5 Small-Omega c,909 ‘Similar to Small-O, Small-Omega isa stricter version eau of Big-Omega. A function ‘f(x) = o(g(x))"as ‘x2, ‘when the absolute value of ‘/(x)" is greater than a ae multiple of ‘C” and *g(x)' for all x" greater than or ‘equal to a threshold ‘x,’ and any constant *C”. This is mathematically represented as: [flgl> C* g(0),x2%, 25) As there has already been sufficient explanation ae ‘of Big-Omega and the difference between “Big.” a ‘rete and ‘Small-’ notations, itis left for the users to are further explore the *Small-Omega’ notation, Figure 2.5 Big-0 and Small-0 fora function 2.4 RECURSION Recursion is a type of function which cals itself. Recursion can either be direct or indirect. Direct recursion means a function calling itself, whereas in indirect recursion a function calls another function, tind that in tum, cals the prior function. This can be seen asa eycle of function calls. Both these types “of recursions can be seen in the graphical cycle representation in Figure 2.6. Recursion can be seen as a replacement of loops in some regular programs. Ideally, all recursive functions can be re-written to work with iterations, but some might require additional data structure suppor for passing valucs from one state to another. A simple recursion to iteration program for Fbonacet series is given in Python code 2.1