E-H Pairs LET

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NUMERICAL MODELLING: ELECTRONIC NETWORKS, DEVICES AND FIELDS
Int. J. Numer. Model. 2010; 23:379–399

Published online 19 January 2010 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/jnm.736
Simulation of femtosecond pulsed laser effects on MOS

electronics using TCAD Sentaurus customized models
F. R. Palomo1, P. Fernández-Martı́nez2,,y, J. M. Mogollón1, S. Hidalgo2,

M. A. Aguirre1, D. Flores2, I. López-Calle3 and J. A. de Agapito3
1
Electronic Engineering Department, Escuela Superior de Ingenieros, University of Sevilla, 41092, Sevilla, Spain
2
Centro Nacional de Microelectrónica (IMB-CNM-CSIC), Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
3
Applied Physics Department, University Complutense of Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
SUMMARY
Pulsed laser illumination constitutes an excellent tool to emulate the effects produced by the impact of
highly energetic particles on electronic circuits. Numerical simulation techniques could be used to study
these effects and to establish accurate relationships between the laser parameters and the particle
characteristics. Unfortunately, although particle incidence can be accurately simulated, up to now, there
not exist a simulation technique able to reproduce completely the effects in electronics produced by a
femtosecond pulsed laser. In this paper, we explore the Synopsys Sentaurus TCAD ability to simulate the
effects of pulsed laser illumination. Theoretical study of the physics of the laser–semiconductor interactions
leads us to design a new simulation tool. Modifying the heavy ion generation rate included in Sentaurus
TCAD, we can take into account all the theoretical predicted characteristics of femtosecond laser
illumination, and reproduce the single event effects (SEE) found in experimental tests. Copyright r 2010
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 10 June 2009; Revised 31 July 2009; Accepted 29 September 2009
KEY WORDS: TCAD Sentaurus; mixed-mode simulation; 3D simulation; single event effect; heavy ion;
femtosecond pulsed laser
1. INTRODUCTION
Single event effects (SEE) produced by highly energetic particle hits on sensitive circuit regions
constitutes a classical topic in reliability of electronics for space applications [1]. In order to achieve a
*Correspondence to: P. Fernández-Martı́nez, Centro Nacional de Microelectrónica (IMB-CNM-CSIC), Campus UAB,

08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
y
E-mail: pablo.fernandez@imb-cnm.csic.es
Contract/grant sponsor: Project EMULASER; Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial (CDTI); Spanish
Industry Ministry; contract/grant number: PNE-034-2006.
Copyright r 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

380 F. R. PALOMO ET AL.
complete knowledge of these phenomena and to predict their influence on the circuit behavior, it is
mandatory to have experimentation in particle accelerators facilities [2]. Unfortunately, tests in ion
accelerators have limited availability and their high cost prevents its realization for most of the
researching groups. Therefore, some alternative methods have been developed.
The use of pulsed laser to generate perturbations on electronic circuits [3] presents some
advantages over particle accelerator tests: it allows an accurate spatial and temporal control of
the point of incidence, with bigger availability and affordable costs. The charge generation
process in pulsed laser interaction is caused by a completely different physical phenomenon:
photoelectric effect instead of particle scattering. However, the pulsed laser illumination is able
to produce SEE on the electronics [4]. These effects can emulate those ones produced by heavy
ions, provided that the relationships between ion characteristics and laser parameters have been
well established.
It is very important to use lasers with pulse duration of 1 picosecond or less (femtosecond
lasers) because that is the temporal scale of the passage of a particle along a sensitive length in a
silicon device (around 2–3 mm) as can be seen from relativistic kinematics:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ffi
1
uion ¼c 1 ð1Þ
11T=mion c2
where c 5 300 mm/ps is the light speed, T is the ion kinetic energy and mion is the ion mass. For
example, an alpha particle with T 5 5 MeV reaches a speed of 15.46 mm/ps. To simplify the
estimation, it has not been considered total stopping of particle inside the sensitive volume.
In this sense, some analytical models that relate ion and laser characteristics have been
developed [5]. These models establish relations between analytical equations from the premise
that a single event occurs when a critical charge value is achieved. No matter the physical origin
of the charge distribution, if a critical amount of charge is generated in a given semiconductor
volume, a single event effect is produced. As the critical charge value can be expressed in
function of the characteristics of either ion or laser sources, a relationship between them can be
established.
Numerical simulation has been used to reproduce SEE induced by ion hits on electronic
devices since the early times of this topic [6]. Several techniques face the problem from different
points of view. There are software tools to study the fundamental physics of the interaction
between the incident particle and the target material (i.e. SRIM [7]), and software packages
concerned about the circuit domain (i.e. SPICE [8]). The intermediate physical level is fulfilled
by physics-based models [9, 10]. The physics-based model formalism is oriented to solve device
solid state and electrical equations on a mesh using finite element techniques. Physics-based
model simulation techniques can be applied to the laser case as well, so they can be used to
emulate both, ion and laser effects over semiconductor devices or circuits, as a way to approach
the problem and reduce the number of tests.
The Synopsys Sentaurus TCAD Physics-Based Simulation Package [11] is a very well-known
physics-based software package for the simulation of semiconductor device physics. This paper
is focused in studying the feasibility of TCAD Sentaurus to reproduce femtosecond pulsed laser
incidence effects on MOS electronics. In principle, TCAD Sentaurus is unable to reproduce
femtosecond pulsed laser effects in electronics because it lacks a specific model. We present a
thorough analysis of all the possibilities of the Sentaurus package for femtosecond laser
Copyright r 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Numer. Model. 2010; 23:379–399
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
SIMULATION OF FEMTOSECOND PULSED LASER EFFECTS ON MOS ELECTRONICS 381
simulation just to show the only way is to adapt the Sentaurus heavy ion track model to the
femtosecond laser physics interaction with the electronic device.
Section 2 describes Sentaurus TCAD and the virtual NMOS transistor modeled as target.
In Section 3 are discussed the physical models for the electron-hole pair (EHP) gene-
ration in response to pulsed light and ions. Section 4 explains simulations using the optical
models from Sentaurus TCAD, concluding that they are not appropriate for femto-
second photo-interactions. Section 5 addresses heavy ion simulations, used as point of
departure and calibration for Section 6, where customizations of the Sentaurus TCAD heavy
ion model for the simulation of femtosecond photo-interactions with the virtual NMOS
transistor are explained.
2. SENTAURUS TCAD DESCRIPTION

Synopsys Sentaurus TCAD [11] is a well-known Technology Computer Aided Design software
tool used for semiconductor fabrication (Process TCAD) and for modeling of device operation
(Device TCAD). In this work we are interested in the Device TCAD tool to solve the transport
equations in a semiconductor device. A device is created by means of a graphical interface with
inputs from the device geometry, the doping profiles and the finite-element distribution or mesh.
For this work, we have modeled a 3D virtual NMOS transistor. We have introduced a typical
NMOS layout with a bulk depth of 6 mm. The doping profiles come from the Austria
Microsystems technology AMIS C5, see Figure 1. A nonuniform finite element mesh of approx.
80 000 nodes was considered, with bigger mesh density around the transistor active areas.
Sentaurus offers two main roads for device simulation: Monte Carlo simulation of the full
Boltzmann transport equation (BTE) [12] (Sentaurus MOCA [13, 14] or Sentaurus SPARTA
[15, 16]) or electronic transport models based on the moments of the BTE [17] (Sentaurus Device
[11]). In any case, the Device TCAD tool only considers the solution of the Poisson equation to
determine the instantaneous electric field inside the device.
Figure 1. 2D cross section of the virtual NMOS transistor used in the simulations, with detail of the
doping levels and its values for VLSI technology AMIS C5. Dimensions in micrometer.
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
This work is related to the simulation of the response of VLSI electronics to a femtosecond
laser pulse hit. A priori, the Monte Carlo technique seems to be more appropriate to calculate
the Chamber’s path integral solution to the BTE [18, 19]. However, it has been shown [20–22]
that the simulation of the fast charge transport phenomena of carriers generated by the
femtosecond laser pulse must consider the full Lorentz force to evaluate the Monte Carlo
carriers free flights; in other words, the solver has to obtain a full solution of the time-dependent
Maxwell’s curl equations. The numerical solution of Poisson’s equation only provides forces in
a quasistatic approximation.
The other alternative is to include a femtosecond pulsed laser EHP generation rate in a model
of moments of the BTE (quasi-equilibrium transport model). Sentaurus Device provides three
quasi-equilibrium transport models under electrostatic fields: Drift-Diffusion, Thermodynamic
and Hydrodynamic. The temporal scale of femtosecond laser pulses (or heavy ion) is under the
picosecond regime so it can be assumed isothermal conditions during the simulation [22]. In
order to know the circuit response, we elude the use of hydrodynamic transport models as we
are not interested in the evolution of carrier energies. The drift-diffusion plus Poisson equations
to solve for our model are [11]:
H eHf ¼ qðp n1ND NA Þ rtrap ð2Þ
@n @p
H J~n ¼ qRnet 1q H J~p ¼ qRnet 1q ð3Þ
@t @t
with (2) the Poisson equation, where f is the electrostatic potential, A is the electrical
permittivity constant, q is the elementary electronic charge, n and p are the electron and hole
densities, ND is the concentration of ionized donors, NA is the concentration of ionized
acceptors and rtrap is the charge density contributed by traps and fixed charges. The two
equations in (3) are the current continuity equations, where Rnet is the net electron-hole
recombination rate, J~n is the electron current density and J~p is the hole current density.
Simulations on multidimensional models emulate the perturbations generated by particle
strikes or laser incidence; generated charge volumes and their evolution can be observed and
compared with the critical charge necessary to produce a SEE [9]. Moreover, including some
suitable boundary conditions or even some passive elements, this procedure can reproduce the
current and voltage transient device curves. Nevertheless, the simulation of a full circuit
response (even a single flip-flop) using 3D models entails an excessive computational overload.
It becomes essential to introduce a simulation methodology, capable to obtain whole circuit
response with the accuracy of multidimensional device models. Mixed-mode simulation fulfills
that premise as the affected device is simulated in multidimensional mode (3D), meanwhile the
rest of the circuit compounds are simulated by the use of SPICE models. Figure 2 shows the
procedure on a SRAM circuit, with a 3D model for the affected transistor (Off-NMOS) and a
HSPICE schematic for the rest of the circuit. The SPICE model for AMISC5 technology was
obtained from the MOSIS service web. The election of this circuit is not accidental, as digital
memories, and specifically SRAM cells, have been usually chosen as SEE test circuits [9, 10, 23].
3. PAIR GENERATION RATES

For pulsed laser VLSI testing, the laser pulse hits with perpendicular incidence and typical
wavelengths ranges from 590 to 1100 nm [3] (above 1100 nm the test is still under research [24]).
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 2. Mixed-mode simulated SRAM schematic. The 3D virtual nMOS transistor has a size of 6 mm
in the vertical direction.
To avoid chip surface ablation [25], the laser pulse energy is maintained below a few mJ. The
dominant absorption in silicon for that wavelengths and pulse energies is single photon
absorption (SPA), well described in the mesoscopic regime by the Beer–Lambert Law for
photoelectric effect [3]:
dIðr; zÞ
¼ aIðr; zÞ ð4Þ
dz
with I(r,z) a, the light intensity and a the photoelectric absorption coefficient. Microscopically,
the Beer–Lambert law implies that a laser photon generates only one EHP [26, 27], so we can
calculate the pulse laser energy Elas as:
Z 1 Z Z 1 Z
Elas ¼ dt dV Plas ðr; z; tÞ ¼ Nhv ¼ hv dt dV glas ðr; z; tÞ ð5Þ
1 1
where glas ðr; z; tÞ is the pair generation rate we want to obtain, N is the number of absorbed
photons from the pulse (also the number of EHPs created in the interaction) and Plas ðr; z; tÞ is
the instantaneous pulse power density, integrated over the whole interaction volume. Let’s
consider a Gaussian pulse,
2 2
Plas ðt; r; zÞ ¼ Pp ðr; zÞet =tlas ð6Þ
(with tlas the pulse duration), the Beer–Lambert law for the photoelectric SPA absorption in
silicon,
Pp ðr; zÞ ¼ P0p ðr; zÞeaz ð7Þ
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
(with a the photoelectric absorption coefficient) and laser etalon mode TEM00 [26, 28]:
2 2
2 e2r =w ðzÞ
P0p ðr; zÞ ¼ P0 ð8Þ
p w2 ðzÞ
where w(z) is the longitudinal dependence of the beam radius:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ffi
z
wðzÞ ¼ w0 11 ð9Þ
zsc
pw20
zsc ¼ ð10Þ
l
and w0 the beam waist. Joining altogether results:
2 2
2 e2r =w ðzÞ t2 =t2
Plas ðt; r; zÞ ¼ P0 e las ð11Þ
p w2 ðzÞ
where P0, the peak power, is a normalization constant. Integrating (11) in (5) the peak
power is:
aElas
P0 ¼ ð12Þ
tlas p
so the final equation that relates the power density and the pair generation rate is
obtained:
" 2 2
#
aElaser 2 e2r =w ðzÞ az t2 =t2
Plas ðr; z; tÞ ¼ gðr; t; zÞhv ¼ pffiffiffi ½e ½e las ð13Þ
tlas p p w2 ðzÞ
The energy Elas has to be corrected with a transmission factor Ttrans to consider the device
silicon interface, resulting in the final pair generation rate for pulse laser interaction with the
silicon device [5]:
" 2r2 =w2 ðzÞ #
1 aTtrans Elaser 2 e 2 2
glas ðr; z; tÞ ¼ ½eaz ½et =tlas ð14Þ
tlas hv p3=2 w2 ðzÞ
where a is the photoelectric absorption coefficient, T is the silicon surface transmission

coefficient, h is the Planck constant, v is the photon frequency, Elas is the laser pulse
energy, tlas is the pulse duration and w(z) is the longitudinal dependence of the beam
radius.
If the target chip suffers the impact of a heavy ion, there is also EHP generation rate,
gion ðr; z; tÞ. If the ionizing energy (the energy for pair creation, 3.6 eV) is Ep and Eion is the
energy deposited by the particle in the silicon volume, the number of pairs is:
Z
Eion
Nion ¼ ¼ dtdV gion ðr; z; tÞ ð15Þ
Ep
For particle ionization, the main mechanism for energy transfer is scattering. The most
simple model for scattering supposes a linear energy transfer (LET) along the ionization track,
LETi, so the transferred energy is:
Eion ¼ LETi d ð16Þ
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
with d the track length. It is typical, [29], to model the ionization track as a Gaussian pulse in
time and transversal extension, so:
Z 1 Z 1 Z d
t2 =t2rad r2 =r20
Eion ¼ A dt e 2pr dr e dz LET ð17Þ
0 0 0
with trad the particle track pulse duration; r0 defines the initial radius of the cylindrical track
(0.1/mm) and A is a normalization constant, determined by integration of (16):
1 1
A¼ pffiffiffi 2 ð18Þ
trad p pr0
From (15) results the heavy-ion pair generation rate [5]:
2 2 2 2
LETion et =trad er =t0
gion ðr; z; tÞ ¼ pffiffiffi ð19Þ
Ep trad p pr20
Just for completion, the integrals of the pair generation rates give the values of number of pairs:
Elas
Nlas ¼ Ttrans ð1 ead Þ ð20Þ
hv
LETion d
Nion ¼ ð21Þ
Ep
in the laser and the ion models respectively.
4. SENTAURUS TCAD OPTICAL MODELS AND PICOSECOND PULSED LASER

The first approach to simulate laser incidence effects has been developed by means of the
Sentaurus Device Optical Generation tool [11]. This tool calculates the photo-generated charge
profile under quasi-continuous laser incidence conditions. Equation (22) describes the photo-
generation rate for a laser with power value of P0 W/cm2; Eph ðlÞ is the photon energy for a given
wavelength and Ft(t) and Fr(r) are temporal and spatial functions which value equals 1 for the
incidence duration and the laser spot extension, with a Gaussian decay to 0 out of these intervals.
Z z
P0
sim
Glas ¼
Ft ðtÞFr ðrÞaðl; zÞexp 0 0
aðl; z Þdz ð22Þ
E ðlÞ
ph z0
The optical absorption coefficient dependence on the wavelength, aðl; zÞ, can be obtained from
some different models, provided by the simulation tool. The easiest, but most accurate one, takes the
values from a table, which relates each wavelength value with its corresponding optical constants [30].
Laser illumination simulations have been performed on a mixed-mode modeled SRAM
circuit, as shown in Figure 2. According to this methodology, the illuminated device has been
simulated by a multidimensional model; meanwhile, the rest of the circuit compounds have been
emulated by SPICE.
With the aim of establishing a comparison between the pulsed laser illumination and the
ionizing particle incidence, a first approach has been performed, based on the results shown by
Zhu et al. [23]. According to [23], a simplified TCAD two-dimensional model of the Drain-
Substrate diode has been considered instead of the whole three-dimensional TCAD NMOS
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
model. The technological parameters documented by [23] have been reproduced, and cylindrical
symmetry has been considered, as well.
This two-dimensional diode TCAD model has been introduced in the mixed-mode SRAM
circuit to be simulated under the illumination of a 3 ps pulsed laser with a wavelength value of
590 nm. Different beam waist and power values have been tested to obtain the current transient
response of the circuit. Collected charge in the illuminated node has been calculated by the
integration of the current transient curves. From an experimental point of view, the number of
electron-holes is not directly observable, but it can be relatively easy to measure and integrate
the currents in the device terminals. It is obvious that a proportional relation exists between the
number of pairs and the collected charge in the device terminals. The expected linear
dependence of the collected charge (see Equation (20)) as a function of laser energy has been
reproduced, obtaining similar slope values to the ones shown in [23].
This apparently successful use of the Sentaurus Optical generation tool has been tested then,
when a whole three-dimensional NMOS model has been considered to perform a complete set of
simulations. According to this, different device nodes have been illuminated to obtain the
current transient response of the circuit of Figure 2. The results are shown in Figure 3. As it was
indicated above, collected charge in the illuminated node has been calculated by integration of
the current transient curves. Several laser parameter values have been tested, i.e. wavelength,
power and spot diameter.
The expected linear dependence between the number of generated pairs and the pulse energy,
advanced in Equation (20), has been found under all simulation conditions. Unfortunately,
when these results are compared with the theoretical ones, calculated from the analytical
model (14), a remarkable discrepancy can be observed (Figure 4): Neither the absolute nor the
slope values show agreement with the analytic model predictions. In this case, the mismatch is
not excusable by the different account considerations. The pair number calculated from the
Figure 3. Simulated drain current transient response of 3D transistor in the SRAM cell of Figure 2 after
laser illumination. Different power values have been introduced. The curve shape is due to the drift
collection mechanism (front side) and the diffusion and bipolar contribution (tail).
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 4. Simulated (up) and theoretical (down) generated pairs as a function of incident energy for
a 600 nm (stars) and 900 nm (squares) pulsed laser. Simulated results show a great discrepancy in values
and tendency.
integral of the simulated drain current exceeds theoretical calculated values. Moreover, as beam
wavelength is increased, from 600 to 900 nm, an increment in the number of pairs is shown;
meanwhile theoretical calculations predict the opposite tendency, increasing the discrepancy
(Figure 4).
Considering these results, the validity of Sentaurus Optical Generation simulations to
reproduce femtosecond laser-induced SEE should be questioned. The encouraging results
shown in [23] are concerned about the photo-electrical response of the drain-substrate diode of a
NMOS under certain illumination conditions: i.e. short wavelength, which means low
penetration depth, and long pulses.
In fact, our simulation tests have demonstrated a huge discrepancy when longer wavelength,
shorter pulses or whole NMOS three-dimensional models are considered. Besides, the beam
longitudinal dependence profile w(z) (see Equation (9)) is not considered in Sentaurus Optical
Generation tool, as can be seen comparing with Equation (14).
The reason for the discrepancy is depthly embedded in the numerical model that Sentarus is
using. The Sentaurus optical model solves the optical model in the same temporal scale as the
current model. The femtosecond laser pulse interaction is much shorter than the temporal scale
of the current model. In the next sections we will show that the solution is to use an adaptation
of the ionization track model of Sentaurus because the solver uses two different temporal scales.
5. HEAVY ION MODELS IN TCAD SENTAURUS

The impact of an ion on a semiconductor device generates an EHP plasma. The phenomenon is
well described in the literature [31, 32]. With femtosecond laser pulse illumination, the
semiconductor device also generates an EHP plasma [33]. It is also reported [34] that the charge
collection dynamics in the semiconductor is similar, no matter whether the EHP plasma is
generated by femtosecond laser or by an ion impact. The radial initial distribution of the EHP
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
plasma is different for each mechanism; however, ambipolar expansion quickly compensates the
geometrical differences [35]. Thus, for computational purposes, it can be said that the ion hit
and the laser pulse creates similar transport dynamics in the device, provided that their total pair
production are the same [5]:
Z Z
glas ðr; z; tÞ dV dt ¼ gion ðr; z; tÞ dV dt ð23Þ
As previously discussed, the ideal computational model for an EHP plasma is the Monte
Carlo approach, but the options in Sentaurus TCAD are not appropriate. In any case, ion-
induced transient current can be practically modeled by an ion track approach [36, 37]. The ion
track approach (known generically as the Katz approach) gives an analytical formula to
calculate the energy losses, Eðr; z; tÞ of the ion along the track in the device.
The ion track model is added to the simulation of moments of the Boltzmann equation in two
steps: given a running transient simulation, at the instant of impact the software holds the
transient simulation and calculates the pairs distribution. The charge generated in the ion track
is incorporated in the generation term of the continuity equations and then goes on the transient
simulation to calculate the effects of the new charge distribution on the running device’s
transient response [38].
In Sentaurus TCAD the ion track model accepts as input an electron-hole generation
distribution. Previous efforts have simulated femtosecond laser interaction by means of a
customization of the alpha particle interaction model of DESSIS, a predecessor of Sentaurus
TCAD [39, 31]. This approach reproduce the photoelectric absorption, but it is not possible to
adapt the alpha particle model to reproduce the lateral geometric distribution of a focused light
beam.
The EHP generation rate for the TCAD heavy ion model is (see [11], chapter 13, page 431 for
further details):
Gðz; w; tÞ ¼ GLET ðzÞRðr; zÞTðtÞ ð24Þ
expanding (24):
GLET ðzÞ ¼ a1 1a2 z1a3 ea4 z 1k0 ½c1 ðc2 1c3 zÞc4 1LETf ðzÞ ð25Þ
r2
2
Rðr; zÞ ¼ ewt ðzÞ ð26Þ
ðtt0 Þ2
2
2e shi
TðtÞ ¼ ð27Þ
pffiffiffi t0
shi p 1 erf
shi
The user can introduce the functions LETf ðzÞ and wt ðzÞ as arrays of values by means of the
operators Length, LET f_(l) and Wt_hi(l); Sentaurus makes a linear interpolation between
each array values.
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
6. FEMTOSECOND PULSED LASER SIMULATIONS

Starting from the heavy ion TCAD pair generation rate, (24), and considering k0 6¼ 0; t0 ¼ 0
and all of a0 s and c0 s identically zero, it is transformed to:
2 2
3
t
r2 s2
6 2e hi 7
Gðz; o; tÞ ¼ ½k0 LETf ðzÞ½e w2 ðzÞ
t 4 pffiffiffi5 ð28Þ
shi p
Comparing (14) with (24) and (9), the femtosecond laser pulse pair generation rate (etalon
mode TEM00) can be reproduced by the TCAD generic rate for heavy ions if:
Ttrans Elaser
k0 ¼ ð29Þ
p2 hv
a o20 eaz
LETf ðzÞ ¼ ð30Þ
o20 o2 ðzÞ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
z
oðzÞ ¼ o0 11 ð31Þ
zsc
shi ¼ tlas ð32Þ

oðzÞ
ot ðzÞ ¼ pffiffiffi ð33Þ
2
with the Rayleigh range, zsc, given by (10). In the simulation script, we use the operators Length,
LET_f(l) and Wt_hi(l), to introduce the variable z and the functions LETf ðzÞ and ot ðzÞ as
arrays of values.
The constant k0 has no dimensions and LETf ðzÞ has dimensions of [L3]. The dimensionality
selection is forced by Sentaurus TCAD, because it assigns no dimensions to the parameter k_hi
(option k0 5 k, Gaussian simulation with LET_f(l) in units of pairs/cm3).
From previously reported experimental results [40], where a silicon device has been
illuminated with a 800 nm femtosecond laser (120 fs pulse duration), the transmission
coefficient, Ttrans, can be estimated in 85%. Usually, the exposed silicon area is smaller than
the spot area, and it consists of a slit of silicon, surrounded by the metallic drain and the
polysilicon gate contact strips. Just to take account of geometrical blocking (slit effect), Ttrans
could be substituted in a pure geometrical coefficient for effective transmission coefficient
(refined versions could consider diffraction effects in the slit):
l 2w0
Teff ¼ Ttrans ð34Þ
pw20
with o0 the spot radius and l the narrowest dimension of the slit. To deduce (34) it has been
considered that the slit is narrower than the spot radius, with an area greater than the spot
ðpo2 Þ. In this situation these areas overlap l 2o0 .
For the presented simulations, considering the virtual NMOS used (see Figures 5–7), l 5 0.3 mm
and a spot radius around 1 mm, the Teff value is around 8%. In the physics simulation script we
consider the usual Shockley–Read–Hall and Auger recombination models, Fermi statistics and
the mobility models for electron and holes recommended in the Sentaurus TCAD manual.
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 5. Pairs Generation after laser pulse hit. Left: layout overview of the spot on the nMOS transistor.
Right: 3D graphical representation of the lateral profile o(z) for the radial part of the generation rate
glas ðr; z; tÞ; the spot on the surface is clearly visible and how the Rayleigh waist grows when the beam wides.
EHP density in pairs/cm3, lengths in micrometers (6 mm depth).
We can select, for example l 5 800 nm, tlaser 5 120 fs, a typical wavelength and pulse duration
for a titanium-sapphire femtosecond laser. The interband absorption aðl; TÞ dependence with
the wavelength (data for 800 nm) and with temperature, from [25, 41], is given by:
a ¼ 1121eT=430 cm1 ð35Þ
where we will consider T 5 300 K for the simulations. In the simulations shown in this study, we take the
transmission coefficient Ttrans as the main adjustable parameter to consider partial blocking of laser light
by superficial structures in the silicon device as, for example, the transistor metal gate electrode.
The lateral distribution of focused laser light, consequence of diffraction effects in the laser
pulse, Equation (9), has a well-known bell profile, as can be seen in Figure 5: it is shown the
simulated pairs generation profile just after laser pulse hit; the Rayleigh waist and the beam
widening along the propagation axis are clearly visible.
The goal of the present work is to simulate the generation of bit-flips under femtosecond laser
illumination. For the mixed simulation, we take a well-tested model of a flip-flop composed of a
3D virtual NMOS transistor and a SPICE model of the remaining circuit (Figure 6). This
flip-flop has been simulated under ion hit conditions, as reported in a previous work [42]. In the
referenced work, we studied the bit-flip of the circuit in Figure 6 under different ions and kinetic
energies, just to simulate several energy transferences along the ion track (or LET). It was
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 6. Schematic of the simulated slave stage of a Master-Slave flip-flop. The NMOS 3D model is
depicted with the typical generated charge distribution after the laser pulse impact. The charge collected in
the drain node (C) is able to turn on the transistor, flipping the stable state of the flip-flop.
possible to detect a bit-flip in the simulations and also to determine that a 12 MeV Mg24 ion
generates the threshold LET for bit-flip in that circuit with the VLSI technology AMIS C5.
For the simulations in [42], the LET profile was previously studied using a stopping power
analysis software, SRIM (see Figure 8). The linear energy loss profile was introduced in the
heavy ion Sentaurus model by the array values mechanism. We take the ion simulations as a
reference study to develop the present femtosecond pulsed laser emulation.
In Figure 7, it can be seen the results from the hybrid simulations for the illumination with a single
pulse of a femtosecond laser. In these, we follow the evolution of the gate voltage, V(A), the drain
voltage, V(C), and the drain current, Idrain, of the transistor C10 (see Figure 6). The initial state of
that transistor was off; after the laser pulse event at the fifth nanosecond, the transient evolves to a
bit-flip if the final state of C10 is on. In other words, we declare a bit-flip if V(A) changes from logical
‘0’ to ‘1’ and V(B) changes from logical ‘1’ to ‘0’ as a consequence of the pulse of laser light.
From top to bottom, the three graphs (Figure 7) show that the threshold energy for the laser
pulse is around 41 pJ (Ttrans 5 7.16%). For 40 pJ (Ttrans 5 7.16%), V(A) and V(B) return to its
initial state (logical ‘0’ and ‘1’, respectively).
The critical charge, Qcrit, is defined in this work as the amount of charge driven from the rest
of the circuit needed to produce a bit-flip. The mathematical definition is:
Z
Qcrit ¼ Idrain dt ð36Þ
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 7. Transient simulations. E 5 40 pJ: no bit-flip (top). E 5 41 pJ: simulation threshold energy
(middle). E 5 55 pJ: full bit-flip (bottom). In all cases, TeffE8%.
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 8. SRIM LET for 12 MeV Mg24.
R
Table I. Qcrit ¼ Idrain dt for different laser pulse energies (In all
cases, Teff 5 7.16%).
Pulse energy (pJ) Qcrit (fC)
40 193 No bit-flip
41 285 Bit-flip
42 254 Bit-flip
43 245 Bit-flip
44 243 Bit-flip
47 237 Bit-flip
55 230 Bit-flip
150 229 Bit-flip
i.e. the integral of the current going through the drain contact of the 3D NMOS virtual
transistor (transistor C10 in Figure 6). To calculate Qcrit we made simulations at different pulse
energies, as can be seen in Table I.
The simulations reproduce a bit-flip in similar conditions of an ion simulation (see [42]). In
Figure 9, it can be seen the pair generation distributions in the 3D virtual NMOS for the impact
of a 12 MeV Mg24 ion. The flip-flop response is shown in Figure 10. The charge collected in this
case is around 230 fC. As reported in [42], Qcrit;ion is the charge collected at the minimum LET to
produce a bit-flip.
Comparing the critical charges for ion threshold, it can be seen that Qcrit;ion 230 fC is
reproduced at Elas 5 55 pJ and above. For energy lower than 55 pJ, the Qcrit;las grows
nonlinearly, increasing for lesser energy values before laser pulse threshold energy (41–40 pJ), as
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Figure 9. Pair generation profile in the 3D virtual NMOS for the impact of a 12 MeV Mg24 ion.
EHP Density in pairs/cm3.
Figure 10. Threshold ion energy (12 MeV Mg24 for bit-flip in the mixed simulation of the flip flop.
a consequence of the longer duration of the transistor commutation. Since Qcrit is the temporal
integral of Idrain, a slower commutation, i.e. a slower return of Idrain to the null quiescent
value, produces an increase in the integral. In Figures 7 and 10 we can observe that for
55 pJ laser pulse and 12 MeV Mg24 the voltage V(A) and V(B) show similar temporal evolution
during the bit-flip. The drain current I(C10,drain) in both graphs is also similar. This agreement
is verified by the coincidence in the Qcrit of the ion (230 fC) and the pulsed laser simulations
(230 fC).
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
For a laser Energy just over the bit-flip threshold (41 pJ), the commutation time is slightly
longer. In the laser case, the drain current reaches its null quiescent value slightly later than in
the ion simulation. As expected, under the threshold pulse energy (40 pJ), the Qcirt;laser is lower
than the Qcirt;tion (192 fC vs 230 fC, respectively). For the threshold laser illumination energy, the
temporal evolution of the virtual transistor C10 is slower than in the LET threshold. For Elaser
over the threshold (more than 47 pJ), the commutation behaviour of the circuit under ion
incidence and pulsed laser illumination agrees, as expected, by the coincidence of Qcrit. We
interpret the difference in transistor evolution as a consequence of the variations in geometrical
extension between the pair distribution of the pulsed laser and the ion.
7. CONCLUSIONS
We have presented an exhaustive study of the ability of Synopsys Sentaurus TCAD suite to
simulate the incidence of a femtosecond pulsed laser on electronics. The study has been
supported by theoretical developments, which describe the electric behavior of the devices as
well as the physics of the interaction. From them it can be inferred that, as far as the effects of a
highly energetic particle want to be emulated, only a laser pulse duration under the picosecond
can be considered. Moreover, a whole knowledge and prediction of the phenomenology can
only be achieved from a physics-based formalism.
From these premises, the Monte Carlo simulation of the full BTE seems to be the most
accurate method to reproduce the physics involved in the problem. Sentaurus TCAD suite
includes some tools addressed to perform Monte Carlo simulation (SPARTA and MOCA).
However, none of them are capable to solve the full Maxwell’s equations to consider the
induction effects from fast dynamics. This way, the problem has to be solved combining a quasi-
equilibrium transport model with an ionization track model.
The simulation procedure consists of introducing the suitable pulsed laser pair generation
rate in a model of moments of the BTE. The drift-diffusion formalism, consisting of solving the
Poisson equation coupled with the continuity equations of carriers, has been shown appropriate
since the short pulse durations impose isothermal conditions and we are not interested in
hydrodynamic transport phenomenology. We have only consider SPA, as it is the main
absorption mechanism for wavelengths shorter than 1100 nm. All circuit simulations have been
performed by means of the Mixed Mode method, where the affected device has been simulated
by a three-dimensional virtual model; meanwhile, the rest of the circuit has been simulated by
SPICE.
Inspired by the literature, we have first considered the Sentaurus Optical Generation tool, as
it has been specifically designed to reproduce the pair generation rate produced by the incidence
of a laser beam on an electronic device. Unfortunately, the performed simulations show a great
discrepancy with the theoretical predictions, unless that certain simplifications (short incident
wavelength, large diode-type devices) would be considered.
This adverse result has led us to study the highly energetic particle incidence, which can be
accurately simulated by the Sentaurus Heavy Ion tool. Sentaurus performs this simulation by
means of an ionization track model, which evaluates the energy distribution along the ion path
through the device. Since the ionization energy is constant (Ep 5 3.6 eV), this is equivalent to
obtain the pair generation rate along the track. The ionization track model is introduced in the
calculation of the moments of the BTE by means of a two-times model: the transient simulations
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
stops at the instant of the particle hit, the generated pair distribution is instantaneously
introduced and the transient simulation continues under these new conditions.
Femtosecond pulsed laser illumination on a semiconductor generates an EHP plasma similar to
the one generated by the impact of a heavy ion. This photoelectric EHP plasma shows radial
symmetry, so it can also be simulated by means of a track model. Moreover, the charge collection
dynamics is determined by the semiconductor device, whatever the origin of the EHP plasma.
In this sense, we have modified the Sentaurus Heavy Ion tool parameters to reproduce the
pair generation rate produced by femtosecond pulsed laser illumination. This new technique
permits to take into account some specific characteristics of the interaction that were not
completely available by other means. This way, the Rayleigh diffraction along the device depth,
the geometrical dependence of the transmission coefficient as well as the absorption coefficient
dependence with the wavelength and temperature can be considered together to obtain an
accurate pair generation rate.
We have proved the validity of this new simulation technique, reproducing the generation of
bit-flips under femtosecond laser illumination that we have previously reported [40]. Eventually,
we can conclude that this new procedure is able to simulate the effects generated under
femtosecond pulsed laser illumination, taking advantage of the powerful Sentaurus TCAD
simulation environment.
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AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Francisco Rogelio Palomo Pinto was born in Sevilla, Spain in 1969. He received the
fundamental Physics degree in 1993 from University of Sevilla. In 1999 he joined the
Dpto. Ingenieria Electronica, Escuela Superior de Ingenieros de Sevilla, University
of Sevilla, Spain, where he is assistant professor. His current research interests are
VLSI radiation effects testing and simulation and electronic instrumentation.
Pablo Fernandez-Martinez was born in Oviedo, Spain in 1980. He received the BS

degree in Physics from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2005. He obtained his
Master’s degree in Electronic Engineering in 2007. He joined the Power Devices and
Systems Group of the Centro Nacional de Microelectronica (CNM-CSIC),
Barcelona, Spain, in 2006. In September 2006 he received a research fellowship
from the Spanish government to obtain his PhD. He works in the field of radiation
effects testing and simulation, and the design and optimization of radiation
detectors.
Juan M. Mogollon Garcia was born in Cordoba, Spain, in 1978. He received his
degrees in Physics and Electronics Engineering in September 2002 and February
2008, both from the University of Seville. He obtained his Master’s degree in
Electronics in February 2009. In 2006, he joined the Department of Electronics
Engineering at the University of Seville, where he is currently working as Research
Assistant. In September 2008 he received a research fellowship from the Spanish
Government to work toward his PhD in the field of Radiation Effects on Aerospace
Systems.
Salvador Hidalgo was born in Granada, Spain, in 1961. He received the BS and the
PhD degrees in Physics from the Autonomous University of Barcelona in 1986 and
1990, respectively. In 1987 he joined the CNM-IMB as a member of Power Devices
Group, specializing in the development of Power devices with MOS gate control in
vertical, lateral and trench configuration. He also works in the field of surge
protection power semiconductor devices with high (thyristor) and low (zener) voltage
capability. He is the author of 45 publications in International Journals, 130
communications to international congresses (of to 5 received the prize for the best
paper) and 9 units in international collective volumes.
DOI: 10.1002/jnm
Miguel A. Aguirre (M’97) was born in Madrid, Spain in 1963. He obtained the
Master’s degree in 1991, in Electrical and Electronic Engineering by the University
of Sevilla, Spain. He obtained the PhD degree in 1994 in the same University. He is
currently teaching digital microelectronics in the Electronic Engineering Department
of the University of Sevilla, as Assistant Professor. He is the author of more than 20
publications in Journals and 70 in International Conferences. His current research
activity is focused on tools for dependable design of integrated circuits, and FPGA
for Space applications, where robustness against radiation is one of the main
concerns.
David Flores was born in Martorell, Spain in 1967. He received the BS and the PhD
degrees in Physics from the Universitat AutŒnoma de Barcelona (UAB), Spain, in
1990 and 1995, respectively. He joined the Power Devices and Systems Group of the
Centro Nacional de Microelectronica (CNM-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain, in 1991. He
has published more than 50 papers in international journals and 107 contributions to
international conferences. His current research activity includes technology,
modeling and numerical simulation of high voltage power semiconductor devices,
LDMOS transistors for RF and automotive applications, SOI technologies and
advanced super-junction structures.
Isabel Lopez-Calle Graduated in Physics and is a Researcher in the field of Devices

and Control and Radiation Effects on Electronic Devices at the University
Complutense of Madrid. She is also associated professor in Analog Electronic and
Computer Arquitecture at the Nebrija University.
Juan A. de Agapito, Dr. Sc., is Professor on Electronics at the University

Complutense of Madrid, Dept. Electronics. His research activity is in the field of
the behaviour of electronic devices under gamma and neutron radiation and the
emulation of ionizing cosmic rays by pulsed laser radiation.
DOI: 10.1002/jnm

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NUMERICAL MODELLING: ELECTRONIC NETWORKS, DEVICES AND FIELDS

Int. J. Numer. Model. 2010; 23:379–399

Simulation of femtosecond pulsed laser effects on MOS

F. R. Palomo1, P. Fernández-Martı́nez2,,y, J. M. Mogollón1, S. Hidalgo2,

Received 10 June 2009; Revised 31 July 2009; Accepted 29 September 2009

*Correspondence to: P. Fernández-Martı́nez, Centro Nacional de Microelectrónica (IMB-CNM-CSIC), Campus UAB,

Copyright r 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

2. SENTAURUS TCAD DESCRIPTION

3. PAIR GENERATION RATES

where a is the photoelectric absorption coefﬁcient, T is the silicon surface transmission

4. SENTAURUS TCAD OPTICAL MODELS AND PICOSECOND PULSED LASER

5. HEAVY ION MODELS IN TCAD SENTAURUS

Gðz; w; tÞ ¼ GLET ðzÞRðr; zÞTðtÞ ð24Þ

6. FEMTOSECOND PULSED LASER SIMULATIONS

shi ¼ tlas ð32Þ

a ¼ 1121eT=430 cm1 ð35Þ

Figure 8. SRIM LET for 12 MeV Mg24.

Pablo Fernandez-Martinez was born in Oviedo, Spain in 1980. He received the BS

Isabel Lopez-Calle Graduated in Physics and is a Researcher in the ﬁeld of Devices

Juan A. de Agapito, Dr. Sc., is Professor on Electronics at the University

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