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Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Phytomedicine
journal homepage: www.elsevier.de/phymed

Review

An overview on traditional uses and pharmacological profile of Acorus

calamus Linn. (Sweet flag) and other Acorus species
Sandeep B. Rajput a , Madan B. Tonge b , S. Mohan Karuppayil a,∗
a
DST-FIST and UGC-SAP Sponsored School of Life Sciences, SRTM University, Nanded 431-606, MS, India
b
Prabhu Ayurvedic Clinic, Nanded 431-606, MS, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Acorus calamus (Sweet flag) has a long history of use and has numerous traditional and ethnomedicinal
Received 10 June 2013 applications. Since ancient times, it has been used in various systems of medicines such as Ayurveda,
Received in revised form 19 August 2013 Unani, Siddha, Chinese medicine, etc. for the treatment of various aliments like nervous disorders,
Accepted 29 September 2013
appetite loss, bronchitis, chest pain, colic, cramps, diarrhea, digestive disorders, flatulence, gas, indi-
gestion, rheumatism, sedative, cough, fever, bronchitis, inflammation, depression, tumors, hemorrhoids,
Keywords:
skin diseases, numbness, general debility and vascular disorders. Various therapeutic potentials of this
Acorus calamus
plant have been attributed to its rhizome. A number of active constituents from leaves, rhizomes and
Sweet flag
Pharmacological properties
essential oils of A. calamus have been isolated and characterized. Of the constituents, alpha and beta-
asarone are the predominant bioactive components. Various pharmacological activities of A. calamus
rhizome such as sedative, CNS depressant, anticonvulsant, antispasmodic, cardiovascular, hypolipidemic,
immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, cryoprotective, antioxidant, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, anti-
cancer and antidiabetic has been reported. Genotoxicity and mutagenecity of beta and alpha-asarone is
reported, which limits their use at high dosage. Though A. calamus has been used since ancient times,
many of its uses are yet to be scientifically validated. In the present review an attempt has been made to
explore traditional uses and pharmacological properties of A. calamus.
© 2013 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Habitat and habit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Common names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Traditional uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Uses in traditional medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Phytochemical studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Pharmacological and bioactivity studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Antioxidant and protective effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Anticonvulsant and antispasmodic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Actions on cardiovascular system (CVS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Actions on respiratory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Actions on nervous system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Anti-diabetic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Hypolipidemic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Anticancer properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Antimicrobial properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Pesticidal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9028528438; fax: +91 2462 229245.

E-mail address: prof.karuppayil@gmail.com (S.M. Karuppayil).

0944-7113/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2013.09.020
 Author's personal copy

S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276 269

Other bioactivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Toxicity studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Introduction Table 1
Synonyms of A. calamus in Ayurveda.

Acorus calamus Linn., commonly known as ‘Sweet flag’, is an aro- Sanskrit name Meaning
matic medicinal plant, well known for its medicinal values. It is Ugragandha Aggressive odor
an integral part of the traditional Indian and Chinese systems of Shadgrandha Having multiple nodes
medicine and has a long history of use (Wu et al. 2009; Lee et al. Golomi Having hairs (as on a cow)
2011). In the vedic periods it was used as a ‘rejuvenator’ of the Shatvarvika Having six nodes
Lomasha Having hairs on nodes
brain and nervous system. Charaka categorized it as a lekhaniya
Aruna Reddish brown rhizomes
(natural substances that remove fat from the body), trptighna Ikshuparni Leaves resembles sugarcane leaves
(anti-saturative), asthapanopaga (an adjunct to decoction enemas), Jatila Hairy rhizome
sitaprasamana (relieves cold sensation on the skin), samjnastha-
pana (restores consciousness), vayasthapana (promotes longevity),
arsoghna (anti-hemorrhoidal) and sirovirecana (cleansing nasal Taxonomy (Seidemann, 2005)
Kingdom: Plantae
therapy) (Sharma 2000). It is widely used in traditional folk
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta (Vascular plant)
medicine of America and Indonesia for gastrointestinal disorders Superdivision: Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
such as, colic pain, diarrhea and in the therapy of diabetes (Gilani Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
et al. 2006; Si et al. 2010). It is also used in the treatment of cough, Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
fever, bronchitis, inflammation, depression, tumors, hemorrhoids, Subclass: Arecidae
Order: Arales
skin diseases, numbness, general debility, as antidotes for several
Family: Acoraceae
poisoning (Nadkarni 1998; Vaidyaratnam 1994). This plant is also Genus: Acorus L.
described in Siddha medicine for its pediatric uses. Paste of the rhi- Species: calamus
zome is used in rural areas of southern India to improve the speech Synonyms: Acorus asiaticus Nakai; Acorus terrestris Spreng.
and to memory in children (Meena et al. 2010). The genus name, Acorus is derived from Acoron (coreon = the
pupil of the eye) and the species calamus is derived from the Greek
Habitat and habit word, Calamos (a reed). The family Acoraceae comprises about 110
genera and more than 1800 species. The members of the family
A. calamus is a native of central Asia and eastern Europe, and are rhizomatous or tuberous herbs. The genus Acorus comprises
is indigenous to the marshes of the mountains of India (Gupta about 40 species, however, only few species like A. calamus (Linn.),
1964). It is cultivated throughout India, ascending to an altitude A. christophii, A. tatarinowii (Schott.) and A. gramineus (Solandin Ait.)
of about 2200 m. It is found/cultivated in the states of Jammu Kash- have been investigated for their chemical composition and bioac-
mir, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga land, Uttarakhand, Uttar tivities. A. calamus is extensively studied due to its medicinal and
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka pharmacological significance (Ganjewala and Srivastava 2011).
(Pawar et al. 2011; Malabadi et al. 2007; Rao and Sreeramulu 1985).
A. calamus is a semi-evergreen perennial hairless herb that can Traditional uses
grow to two meters high. It has a creeping rhizome. It is extensively
branched and up to three centimeter in diameter. The rhizome is Uses in traditional medicine
pale yellow to pinkish-brown on the outside and whitish but some-
times slightly pinkish on the inside. The upper surface is marked A. calamus rhizome has a long history of usage in many
with large V-shaped leaf-scars and longitudinally furrowed. The countries: at least 2000 years in China and India. Many native
surface beneath has circular pitted scars of rootlets arranged in American tribes were familiar with calamus and it was used as an
irregular lines. Rhizome sections exhibit a large stele separated anesthetic for toothache and headaches. The ancient Chinese used
by a yellowish line, the endodermis from a thick cortex; numer- it to lessen swelling and for constipation. The rhizome was also used
ous small, oval, vascular bundles are scattered throughout the by the ancient Greeks and included in the traditional remedies of
section. Leaves are bright green having sword-shaped, based equi- many other European cultures.
tant, thickened in middle and wavy margins. Flowers of A. calamus A. calamus is used for the treatment of various ailments
have both male and female organs (Hermaphrodite), pollinated by like appetite loss, bronchitis, chest pain, colic, cramps, diarrhea,
insects (Prajapati et al. 2003; Nadkarni 1998; Wallis 1997). digestive disorders, flatulence, gas, indigestion, nervous disor-
ders, rheumatism, sedative, and vascular disorders (Kirtikar and
Common names Basu 1987). In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, the rhizomes
of A. calamus are considered to possess aromatic, stimulant, bit-
English-Sweet Flag.; Chinese-Shi chang pu; Arabic-vash, ter tonic, emetic, expectorant, emmenagogue, aphrodisiac, laxative,
vaj; French-acore calame; German-Kalmus; Italian-calamo diuretic, antispasmodic, carminative, and anthelmintic properties.
aromatic; Dutch-kalmoeswortel; Hindi-Bajai, Gora-bach, Vasa It is found to be effective in various disorders like chronic diarrhea,
Bach; Marathi-Vekhand; Tamil-Vashambu; Telugu-Vadaja, Vasa; dysentery, bronchial catarrh, intermittent fevers, tympanitis, colic,
Kannada-Baje; Malayalam-Vayambu; Sanskrit- Bhutanashini, otitis media, cough, asthma, and glandular and abdominal tumors
Jatila. Vacha (Seidmann, 2005). (Anonymous 2001).
In sanskrit, the language in which ayurveda is rendered, a num- In Western herbal medicine the herb is chiefly employed for
ber of synonyms are given to A. calamus (Table 1). The synonyms digestive problems such as gas, bloating, colic, and poor digestive
give clue about the properties of this drug. function. Calamus helps distended and uncomfortable stomachs
 Author's personal copy

270 S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276

and headaches associated with weak digestion. Small amounts are Table 2
Ayurvedic terms indicating properties of Acorus calamus.
thought to reduce stomach acidity, while larger doses increase
deficient acid production. They are also employed for kidney and Ayurvedic term Use/properties
liver troubles, rheumatism, and eczema. In acidity, it is taken with Vantikrut Induces vomiting in Vamana therapy (a
honey and jaggary. In indigestion, vacha is taken with salt and therapy where the patient is made to
water leads to emesis (Bangasen 1984). In Vamana therapy, it vomit)
Vanhikrut Used as appetizer in dyspepsia
is used as emetic (Vantikrut) while in dyspepsia, it is employed
Vibandhhara or Adhanahara Carminative
as an appetizer (Vanhikrut) (Chunekar and Pandey 1998). It is Shulaghni Antispasmodic (relieves abdominal pain)
widely used as a carminative (Vibandhanhara, Adhmanahara) in Shakrut vishodhini Removes stool from body
distension. It exerts antispasmodic (Shulaghni) effect by relieving Mathrushodihni Act as a diuretic
abdominal pain. It removes stools (i.e. Shukrut Vishodhini) from Bhodhaneeya Arousing consciousness
Karshini Reduces body weight
body as well as improves its quality. It is also employed as mild
Rokshoghni Checks or destroys the organisms
diuretic (Mutravishodhini) which improves quality of urine. Vacha Bhutaharet/Jantuharet Antimicrobial or antihelminthic properties
in combination with milk and water is useful in obstructive uri- Anilhara or Vatanasaka Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, pain
nary disorders particularly in distended urinary bladder (Bangasen reducing
Vednasthapaka Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, arthritis
1984). The decoction or powder of rhizome has been given in var-
Lekhana Lipid lowering
ious pediatric aliments like cough, fever, abdominal pain, epilepsy Swaralu Improving speech or voice
etc. (Ignacimuthu et al. 2006; Chellaiah et al. 2006). Smarani Memory promoter
A. calamus rhizomes are used for the treatment of host dis- Shleshmaghni Pacifies kapha
eases such as mental ailments like schizophrenia, psychoneurosis, Vijaya Victory over diseases
Mangalya Helps to keep healthy
insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy and loss of memory in the Indian
ayurvedic system of medicine (Prajapati et al. 2003; Nadkarni
1998). Vacha taken with milk for one month improves ‘pragnya’ and
‘shrutidharana’ i.e. intellectual, grasping and memory (Shah 2005). Phytochemical studies
Traditionally the new born child is given vasambu (rhizome paste)
with honey and gold for proper brain development, speech ability, A wide variety of chemical constituents have been reported from
better visual power, increased seminal power. It stimulates ner- the rhizomes, leaves and essential oil of Acorus calamus (Namba
vous system (i.e. vatanadi sasthana) to get relief from depression. 1993; Wang et al. 1998). The content and composition of chem-
It is useful in improving speech in stammering and other disorders. ical constituents in plant parts vary with geographical condition,
After birth its paste is applied on tongue with ghee, gold and water plant age, climate and ploidy of the plant (Venakutonis and Dagilyte
to improve memory and grasping qualities (Jadhav 1994). It is a 2003). According to Ogra et al. (2009) and Zhang (2005) the dif-
good sedative so that the extract is used for epilepsy, insanity and as ferent Acorus species appear to follow a geographical pattern of
a tranquillizer along with Valeriana jatamansi and Nardostacys gran- distribution with respect to ploidy level.
diflora. It is an ingredient of the ayurvedic preparation “Brahmi Bati” A total of fifty three organic volatile compounds of rhizomes
(Budhivardhar) which is indicated in epilepsy, coma, and hysteria of Nepalese Acorus calamus L were isolated and identified, which
and in cases of mental retardation; the same uses are prescribed belongs to alcohol (11), aldehyde (14), ester (3), furan (1), hydro-
for an Acorus containing Unani drug “Ma’jun Baladur”. In headache, carbon (19), ketone (4), N-containing miscellaneous (1). ␤-Asarone
drowsiness, sinusitis, more sleepy feelings the ‘Pradhaman nasya’ (46.78%) was found to be a major bioactive compound (Gyawali and
i.e. its dry powder is inhaled in nostrils (Jadhav 1994). Kim 2009).
A. calamus rhizomes are found to be very useful as a topical agent At least one hundred and eighty five compounds in the oil of the
in skin related problems. The rhizomes are used in the form of pow- triploid European A. calamus var. calamus, and ninety-three com-
der, balms, enemas, and pills and also in ghee preparations (Kirtikar pounds in the oil of the tetraploid Indian A. calamus var. angustatus
and Basu 1987; Anonymous 2001). A tub bath in the decoction of with f-asarone as the major constituent is reported. Sixty-seven
vacha, kustha (Savccera lappa) and vidanga (Embelina ribes) is use- hydrocarbons, fifty three carbonyl compounds, fifty six alcohols,
ful in eczema and other skin diseases. It acts as ‘sagnyasthapaka’ i.e. eight phenols, two furans and four oxido compounds were detected
it restores sensation useful in various comatose conditions. Its pow- in an alcohol extract of A. calamus var. calamus (Motley et al., 1994).
der is sprinkled on infective and wounds with maggots. On baby’s The content of ␤-asarone in essential oil of Acorus spp. varies
head it is applied in powder form after bath for protecting from with the grade of polyploidy of the various Acorus cytotypes,
cold. After bath its powder is applied to body like talcum powder sub varieties and/or species. ␤-Asarone (90–96%) is abundantly
(Kirtikar and Basu 1987). found in tetraploid variety. In A. calamus var, angustata ENGER
The skin of the rhizomes is said to be haemostatic. In hemor- (tetraploid), about 80% ␤-asarone is reported. In triploid plants
rhoids, its fumes are given to pile masses to reduce swelling and (e.g. A. calamus var. calamus L.), 5% ␤-asarone was present in
pain. In the treatment of hemorrhoids, non-bleeding hemorrhoids the oil, while diploid plants such as A. calamus var. americanus
are fomented with Poltice (Lukeworm) of vacha and Antheum sowa WULFF lacked ␤-asarone, but it has high amount of geranyl
(Shatapushpa). Its application with mustard seeds paste is use- acetate (Wagner et al. 2011). In the rhizomes of some Chinese
ful in hydrocele. In earache and tinnitus, vacha swarasa (juice) is Acorus tatarinowii samples, formerly known as Acorus gramineus, an
poured in ear. Vacha is prescribed as ‘Vedanasthapalea’ (analgesic) uncommonly high amount of ␤-asarone (up to 80%) were detected
in arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory conditions as exter- (Wagner and Urlich-Merzenich 2013). The percentage of chemical
nal application in the form of paste (Lepa) (Shastri and Pandey components varies depending on the part of the plant from which
1997). the oil is extracted (Motley 1994). ␤-Asarone [(Z)-asarone] is the
In Ayurveda, A. calamus is described as ‘Lekhana’ (lipid lowering major constituent in the leaves (27.4–45.5%), whereas acorenone
action) (Table 2). The decoction of Vacha and Nimba (Azadirecta is dominant in the rhizomes (20.86%) followed by isocalamen-
indica) is given for emesis in cardiac disease. It has lipid scavenging diol (12.75%). Monoterpene hydrocarbons, sequestrine ketones,
property that removes excessive fats from the body. Sometimes it (trans- or Alpha) Asarone (2,4,5-trimethoxy-1-propenylbenzene),
is also prescribed along with honey, hot water and ava (Barley) in and beta-asarone (cis-isomer) and eugenol were also identified
cardiac diseases (Bangasen 1984). (Balakumbahan et al. 2010; Raja et al. 2009). Other constituents
 Author's personal copy
S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276
such as alkaloids, flavanoids, gums, lectins mucilage, phenols, qui-
nine, saponins, sugars, tannins and triterpenes are also recorded
from this plant. Various sugars such as maltose (0.2%), glucose
(20.7%) and fructose (79.1%) are reported (Balakumbahan et al.
2010). Calamenone (a tricyclic sesquiterpene) as well as calamen-
diol and isocalamendiol (both sesquiterpenes) occur in the roots.
The volatile oil also contains terpenoids like calamine, calamenol,
calamenone, eugenol, camphene, pinene and asaronaldehyde. Aco-
rafuran is a sesquiterpenoid found in Calamus oil (Pandy et al.
2009).
␤-Asarone, geranylacetate, methyleugenol, cis-
methylisoeugenol, ␤-farnesene, shyobunone, epishyobunone
and isoshyobunone are abundantly present in the essential
oil. The other chemical components include ␣- and ␥-asarone,
calamenene, asaronaldehyde, acorenone, calamenone, n-heptanic
acid, calamendiol, numerous sesquiterpenes, tannins, starches,
mucin, soft gums and resins (Motley et al., 1994).
Other compounds identified in A. calamus were 4-terpineol,
2-allyl-5-ethoxy-4-methoxyphenol, epieudesmin, lysidine,
spathulenol, borneol, furylethyl ketone, nonanoic acid, 2,2,5,5-
tetramethyl-3-hexanol, bornyl acetate, galgravin, retusin,
(9E,12E,15E)-9,12,15-octadecatrien-1-ol, butyl butanoate, geranyl
acetate, sakuranin, acetic acid, camphor, isoelemicin, a-ursolic
acid, acetophenone, dehydroabietic acid, isoeugenol methylether,
apigenin 4 ,7-dimethyl ether, dehydrodiisoeugenol, linalool,
elemicin, linolenic acid (Balakumbahan et al. 2010).
Pharmacological and bioactivity studies
Rhizomes and its essential oils possess important bioactivi-
ties such as immunomodulatory and anticellular (Jayaraman et al.
2010; Mehrotra et al. 2003; Kim et al. 2009; Lad et al. 2010), antidi-
abetic (Wu et al. 2009; Lee et al. 2011; Lee et al. 2010; Si et al. 2010),
antitumor/anticancer (Gaidhani et al. 2009; Chaitali et al. 2010) and
antimicrobial properties (MacGaw et al. 2002; Phongpaichit et al.
2005; Devi and Ganjewala 2009).
Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity
Several studies have recognized the anti-inflammatory poten-
tial of A. calamus. The anti-inflammatory activity of A. calamus in
rats using acute and chronic experimental models is evaluated.
The oral administration of the extract showed inhibition of the
carragenin-induced paw edema, inhibition of cotton pellet gran-
uloma formation, and inhibition of croton oil granuloma pouch
inflammatory response. The rhizomes extract showed significant
anti-inflammatory effect in acute, chronic, and immunologic mod-
els of inflammation (Varde et al. 1988; Vohra et al. 1989). In another
study anti-inflammatory activity of A. calamus leaf extract have
been elucidated using human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. The extract
inhibited production of pro-inflammatory cytokines through mul-
tiple mechanisms (Kim et al. 2009). Acetone extract of A. calamus
displayed anti-inflammatory response in albino rat, where, inflam-
matory effect was completely diminished and the normal status of
paw was achieved when 25–75% acetone extract was tested against
inflammation within 30 min (Lad et al. 2010).
Mehrotra et al. (2003) demonstrated immunomodulatory prop-
erties of ethanolic extract of A. calamus rhizome. The extract
inhibited proliferation of mitogen (phytohaemagglutinin; PHA)
and antigen (purified protein derivative; PPD)-stimulated human
peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), nitric oxide and
interleukins-2 production.
271
Antioxidant and protective effects
Several researchers have evaluated antioxidant potential of
Acorus spp. and validated its protective roles in free radical and
reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated disorders. The ethyl
acetate extract of A. calamus exhibited strong antioxidant effect
by inhibiting 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical
(Acuna et al. 2002). In another in vitro experiment, maximum DPPH
scavenging activity of 86.43% was recorded at 0.2 g/ml of extract
(Govindarajan et al. 2003). The free radical scavenging activity of
A. calamus has been found to be useful to overcome excess produc-
tion of ROS generated due to continuous exposure to loud noise
(Manikandan and Devi 2005). The ethyl acetate and methanolic
extracts of A. calamus have protected most of the changes induced
by noise stress in the rat brain. These changes were evaluated
by measurement of the activities of superoxide dismutase, cata-
lase, glutathione peroxidase, levels of reduced glutathione, level
of vitamin C, E, protein thiols and lipid peroxidation. ␤-Asarone
is believed to be involved in reducing the stress (Manikandan and
Devi 2005). In another study, the antioxidant property of ␣-asarone
was demonstrated against noise-stress-induced changes in the rat
brain. In this study, a-asarone was administered intra-peritoneally
one-half hour before the animals were exposed to noise-stress for
30 days. The antioxidant activity was measured by assessing the
activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione
peroxidase (GPx), levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), vitamin C,
vitamin E, protein thiols and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in different
regions of the rat brain. ␣-Asarone exhibited protective effect by
normalizing the increased SOD and LPO, and decreasing CAT, GPx,
GSH, vitamins C and E, and protein thiols (Manikandan and Devi
2005).
Palani et al. (2010) studied the antioxidant activities of etha-
nolic extract of A. calamus on acetaminophen induced toxicity in
male albino rats. Acetaminophen increased the level of hemoglobin,
total leukocyte count, packed cell volume, differential leukocyte
count (DLC), mean corpuscular volume, granulocytes, raised body
weight, uric acid and platelet concentration. A. calamus extract sig-
nificantly increased activities of the renal superoxide dismutase,
glutathione peroxidase, catalase and decreased the level of monodi-
aldehyde content of acetaminophen-treated rats. A. calamus extract
inhibited hemolysis caused by acetaminophen. Histopathologi-
cal studies showed the protective nature of the ethanolic extract
against acetaminophen induced necrosis and renal damage in rats
(Palani et al. 2010).
A. calamus rhizome and leaves are traditionally used for the
treatment of various neurological disorders due to its neuro-
protective properties. Hydro-alcoholic extract of A. calamus has
demonstrated neuroprotective effects in the middle cerebral artery
occlusion-induced ischemia in rats (Shukla et al. 2006). ␣ and ␤-
Asarone inhibited N-Methyl-d-Aspartate (NMDA) and glutamate
induced excitotoxicity in primary cortical cultures (Cho et al. 2002).
Studies by Sandeep and Nair (2010) have demonstrated in vitro
radio-protective effects of A. calamus. The protective effects were
evaluated by measuring the degree of lipid peroxidation. In vitro
DNA damage was measured by assessing the radiation induced
relaxation of supercoiled plasmid DNA (pBR322) and alkaline sin-
gle cell gel electrophoresis or comet assay was used to analyze any
damage to cellular DNA. The free radical scavenging property of A.
calamus safeguarded DNA and membrane damage caused due to ␥-
radiations in murine cells and human peripheral blood leukocytes.
Anticonvulsant and antispasmodic activity
The anticonvulsant effect against the pain models in mice was
observed when methanol extract of A. calamus was administered
orally at the doses of the 100 and 200 mg/kg. The anticonvulsant
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272 S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276
effect was studied through the Pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures
method. This study suggested that the anticonvulsant effects might
be potentiated by the activity of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
(Jayaraman et al. 2010). Calamus oil has also been reported for its
antiepileptic property in adult albino mice, where it successfully
prevented seizures in maximal electroshock seizure test (Khare and
Sharma 1982). ␣-Asarone has shown a tendency to protect against
metrazole mediated convulsions (Sharma et al. 1961).
In another study, A. calamus crude extract was found to display
anti-spasmodic activity. In the isolated rabbit jejunum preparation,
the crude extract of A. calamus caused inhibition of spontaneous and
high K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions, with EC50 values of 0.42 and
0.13 mg/ml respectively, resulting in spasmolytic activity which is
mediated through the calcium channel blockade (CCB). Results of
the study suggest that the spasmolytic effect of the plant extract is
mediated through the presence of CCB-like constituent(s), which
is concentrated in the n-hexane fraction, and this study provides
a strong mechanistic base for its traditional use in gastrointesti-
nal disorders such as colic pain and diarrhea. Additionally, the
methanolic extract of A. calamus exhibited anti-diarrheal poten-
tial against castor oil-induced diarrhea. The extract significantly
reduced induction time of diarrhea and total weight of the feces
(Shoba and Thomas 2001). The essential oil was found to be more
antispasmodic than the alcohol and aqueous extracts (Bose et al.
1960). Further, it was observed that ␣-asarone is more active than
that of essential oil (Das et al. 1962).
Actions on cardiovascular system (CVS)
A. calamus extract has been reported for its properties of low-
ering blood pressure and vascular modulation (Shaha and Gilani
2010). The essential oil was found to combat auricular fibrilla-
tion, auricular flutter, and ventricular arrhythmias after two-stage
coronary ligation in dogs. It prolonged the conduction time and
refractory period in isolated rabbit auricles (Madan et al. 1960). The
alcoholic extract of A. calamus exhibited a dose dependant hypoten-
sive action on blood pressure of dog (Moholkar et al. 1975). In a
clinical study on forty-five patients of ischemic heart disease, the
health of A. calamus-treated group was found to be significantly
improved. A. calamus was effective in the improvement of chest
pain, dyspnea of effort, reduction of body weight index, improving
ECG, decreasing serum cholesterol and serum low-density lipopro-
tein (SLDL), and increasing serum high-density lipoproteins (SHDL)
(Mamgain and Singh 1994).
Actions on respiratory system
A. calamus has been found to be a famous remedy for the respi-
ratory disorders due to the unique combination of airways relaxant
constituents that were found in the crude extract of A. calamus such
as papaverine-like dual inhibitor of calcium channels and phospho-
diesterase in the hexane fraction and anticholinergic, rolipram-like
phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor in the ethyl acetate fraction. The
associated cardiac depressant effect has provided a pharmacolog-
ical basis for the traditional use of A. calamus in the treatment of
the disorders of airways such as asthma (Jabbar and Hassan 2010;
Shaha and Gilani 2010).
In a clinical trial of patients with moderate to severe bronchial
asthma, the fresh rhizome of A. calamus was administered by a
chewing method for 2–4 weeks. The A. calamus was found to have
antiasthmatic potential without any side effects (Rajasekharan and
Srivastava 1977). In another study, small pieces of the rhizome were
administered to asthmatic patients by a chewing method, and sig-
nificant effect in relieving of bronchospasm was observed without
any side effects (Chandra 1980).
Actions on nervous system
The in vitro acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory potential
of the hydroalcoholic extract and of the essential oil from A.
calamus rhizomes and that of its major constituents was eval-
uated based on Ellman’s method in 96-well microplates using
bovine erythrocytes. The IC50 values obtained for the hydroal-
coholic extract, the essential oil, beta-asarone and alpha-asarone
were 182.31 ± 16.78 ␮g/ml, 10.67 ± 0.81 ␮g/ml, 3.33 ± 0.02 ␮M
and 46.38 ± 2.69 ␮M, respectively. The A. calamus essential oil and
its constituents exhibited significant AChE inhibitory potential. ␤-
Asarone showed the maximum inhibitory potential (Mukherjee
et al. 2007). Methanolic extract of A. calamus displayed signifi-
cant AChE inhibition at a concentration 200 ␮g/ml (Oh et al. 2004).
Because cognitive performance and memory are related to acetyl
choline levels, the AChE-inhibitory effect of the plant may account
for its traditional use.
A. calamus is well-known traditionally for its sedative proper-
ties. The volatile fraction of the petroleum ether extract potentiated
the sedative activity with pentobarbital, hexobarbital, and ethanol
in mice (Dandiya and Cullumbine 1959). The essential oil showed
sedative-tranquilizing action in rats, mice, dogs, and enhanced
motor activities in mice. It was observed that a high dose of oil
inhibited monoamine oxidase activity (Dhalla and Bhattacharya
1968).
Anti-diabetic properties
A. calamus extract has the potential to be used in the treatment
of diabetes (Wu et al. 2009). Ethanol extract of A. calamus has been
reported to enhance differentiation in adipocytes which is very use-
ful in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. However, ␤-asarone from
essential oil of A. calamus has shown inhibitory effect on adipo-
genesis in 3T3-L1 cells. It has been suggested that ␤-asarone might
have suppressed the expression of adipogenic transcription fac-
tors (Lee et al. 2011). In earlier study, the same group has reported
that asarones inhibit adipogenesis and may reduce intracellular
triglyceride levels by stimulating the phosphorylation of hormone
sensitive lipase which triggers lipolysis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Lee
et al. 2010). A. calamus extract has also been reported to cause
suppression of blood glucose level in the normal mice. A. calamus
extract had hypoglycemic effects and alpha glucosidase inhibition
and improved the postprandial hyperglycemia and cardiovascular
complications (Si et al. 2010).
Hypolipidemic properties
A. calamus extract demonstrated its cholesterol-reducing effect
by decreasing cholesterol biosynthesis in the liver (D’Souza et al.
2007). The alcoholic extract of A. calamus containing saponins,
prevent the cholesterol absorption and interferes with its entero-
hepatic circulation and also increase its fecal excretion (Parab and
Mengi 2002).
The hypolipidemic mechanism of action of ␣-asarone has been
established in a rat model where it is shown to inhibit hepatic
HMG-CoA reductase (Rodriguez-Paez et al. 2003). In silico studies
have revealed that ␣-asarone binds to the active site of HMG-CoA
reductase. The methoxy groups play a key role in the binding and
probably also in its biological activity, as shown by extensive SAR
studies reported for analogs of ␣-asarone (Medina-Franco et al.
2005).
Anticancer properties
A. calamus rhizomes have been reported to have promising
antiproliferative activities (Gaidhani et al. 2009; Chaitali et al.
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S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276
2010). Lectins derived from A. calamus rhizomes shows potent
antimitogenic activity toward mouse splenocytes and human lym-
phocytes. These lectins also significantly inhibited the growth of
J774, a murine macrophage cancer cell line and, to a lesser extent,
WEHI-279, a B-cell lymphoma cell line (Bains et al. 2005). The eth-
anolic extract of A. calamus exhibited in vitro anticellular property
by inhibiting production of nitric oxide, interleukin-2, and tumor
necrosis factor-␣ (Mehrotra et al. 2003).
Epieudesmin and galgravin from methanolic extracts of A. cala-
mus leaves have been identified as anticancer agents. Epieudesmin
have antineoplastic activity against the murine P388 lymphocytic
leukemia cell line and several human cancer cell lines (BXPC-3,
MCF-7, SF268, NCI-H460, KM20L2, and DU-145). Galgravin pre-
vented neuronal death and stimulating neurite growth. Studies
have also suggested that the anticancer activity of calamus oil may
be attributed to ␤-asarone (Palani et al. 2010).
Antimicrobial properties
Phongpaichit et al. (2005) reports promising antifungal activity
of A. calamus extracts against Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum
gypseum and Penicillium marneffei with IC50 values of 0.2, 0.2
and 0.4 mg/ml, respectively. However, it showed moderate activ-
ity against yeasts: Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (MIC 0.1–1 mg/ml). Scanning electron
microscopic studies revealed that hyphae and conidia treated with
extract were shrunken and collapsed due to cell fluid leakage
(Phongpaichit et al. 2005). The minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) of the rhizome and leaf extracts for fungi, Aspergillus niger, A.
flavus and Microsporum canis was achieved at 2–4 mg/ml whereas,
against yeasts Cryptococcus gastricus and C. albicans it was relatively
higher i.e. 4–8 mg/ml. In addition, authentic ␣- and ␤-asarones
were also tested for their antimicrobial potential. Both ␣- and ␤-
asarones exhibited very strong antimicrobial activities against the
fungi and yeasts than those of rhizome and leaf extracts. The study
clearly suggested that A. calamus rhizomes and leaves must possess
active principle ␣- and ␤-asarones which is believed to be respon-
sible for their antimicrobial activities, further it was established
that ␤-asarone has high antimicrobial activity as compared to the
␣-asarone (Devi and Ganjewala 2009).
Rajput and Karuppayil (2013) demonstrated anticandida prop-
erties of A. calamus rhizome (ethyl acetate) extract and its
active principle, ␤-asarone. ␤-Asarone exhibited promising growth
inhibitory activity at 0.5 mg/ml and it was fungicidal at 8 mg/ml.
Minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of ␤-asarone was highly
toxic to C. albicans, killing 99.9% inoculum within 120 min of expo-
sure. ␤-Asarone inhibited C. albicans morphogenesis and biofilm
development at sub-inhibitory concentrations. ␤-Asarone was
non-toxic to human RBCs, even at concentrations approaching
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value. Dose depen-
dant reduction in ergosterol content was observed in ␤-asarone
treated cells where complete inhibition was achieved at growth
inhibitory concentration, indicating the growth inhibitory effect
of ␤-asarone through inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis (Rajput
and Karuppayil 2013). A. calamus leaves extract show peroxi-
dase activity. The enzyme was purified and evaluated through the
chromatography and peak giving fractions were tested for the anti-
fungal activity by gel filtration using Superose 1210/300 GL column
(Ghosh 2006).
The leaf and rhizome part of A. calamus is found to possess the
antibacterial activity. A. calamus rhizomes exhibit strong antibac-
terial activity against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, B. subtilis showing
MIC at 0.25 (Sabitha et al. 2003). Mycobacterium spp. and B. sub-
tilis were susceptible to calamus oil (Radusiene et al. 2006). Devi
and Ganjewala (2009), demonstrated that the rhizome and leaf
ethyl acetate extract did not inhibit Gram +ve and –ve bacteria
273
except E. coli strains. Similar activity was observed with authen-
tic ␣ and ␤-asarone (Devi and Ganjewala 2009). Various studies
suggest that the antibacterial activity may be attributed to ␣
and ␤-asarone (Bhuvaneswari and Balasundaram 2006; Devi and
Ganjewala 2009).
Badam (1995) reported that the alcohol extract of the rhi-
zome showed potent antiviral activity against Herpes Simplex Virus
HSV-1 and HSV-2 at a concentration well below the cytotoxic con-
centration. Pretreatment of vero cells with the extract did not
inhibit viral replication of HSV-1 and HSV-2. It shows that host
cells were not affected by the extract. ␤-Asarone possesses strong
inhibitory activity against the replication of both virus types. The
crude alcohol extract and b-asarone showed toxicity to the host
cells (Badam 1995).
Pesticidal properties
The essential oils of the Pakistanian A. calamus exhibit poten-
tial pesticidal activity and also found to be effective on the cuts
and wounds (Tariq et al. 2010). Essential oil was toxic against
late 3rd instar larvae of Dengue fever virus vector mosquito, the
Aedes aegypti. The LC50 was found to be 1250 (Tariq et al. 2009).
Asarones (2,4,5-trimethoxypropenyl-benzenes) isolated from the
essential oil of A. calamus L. rhizomes, exhibited growth inhibitory
and anti-feedant effect to the variegated cutworm (Balakumbahan
et al. 2010). The repellent effect of petroleum ether extract of A.
calamus has been investigated against Tribolium castaneum. 2,4,5-
Trimethoxybenzaldehyde was identified as bioactive compound by
1 H NMR, 13 C NMR, H–H Cozy and HMBC spectra analyses (Hossain
et al. 2008).
The pharmacological properties of A. calamus and its active con-
stituents are shown in their entirety in Table 3.
Other bioactivities
A. calamus extract prevented the development the FeCl3 induced
epileptogenesis by modulating antioxidant enzymes (Pradhan et al.
2007). Anti-mutagenic effect of A. calamus has been studied using
Salmonella typhimurium tester strains, where it showed decrease in
revertants colonies against NaN3 induced mutagenecity (Aqil et al.
2008).
Toxicity studies
It is demonstrated that ␤-asarone is potentially toxic and car-
cinogenic (Keller and Stahl 1983; Taylor et al. 1967). In this study,
rats were fed with diets containing various concentrations of
␤-asarone for two years. The tumors were identified as leiomyosar-
comas of the small intestine and were found in 800 ppm (0.08%) and
2000 ppm (0.2%). Also thrombosis within the chambers of the heart
was observed in the 800 and 2000 ppm (0.08 and 0.27%) (Taylor
et al. 1967). ␤-Asarone has an oral LD50 of 1010 mg/kg bw in rats and
an i.p. LD50 of 184 mg/kg bw in mice (JECFA 1981). The oral LD50 of
calamus oil in rats is reported to be 8880 mg/kg bw (Opdyke 1977).
Jenner et al. (1964) reported an oral LD50 in rats of 777 mg/kg bw
for Jammu calamus oil (containing approximately 75% ␤-asarone).
It was found that ␤-asarone at a dose of 5000 ppm (0.5%) showed
mutagenicity in Salmonella typhimurium while ␣-asarone was inac-
tive at 5000 ppm (Hsia et al. 1979). However, there are no reports
on in vivo genotoxicity of ␤-asarone. A study by Chamarro et al.
(1998) demonstrated that ␣-asarone has hepatocarcinogenic and
mutagenic activity in mice. In this study a dominant lethal muta-
tion as well as direct ␣-asarone toxicity to spermatozoa has been
observed.
In acute and chronic toxicity experiments, ethanolic extract of
A. calamus did not cause significant changes in Winstar rats. This
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274 S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276

Table 3
Pharmacological properties of Acorus calamus and its active constituents.

Activity Active compound or extract Reference

Antifungal
Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans Epidermophyton
floccosum, Microsporum gypseum
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum Essential oil, ␤-asarone Rajput and Karuppayil (2013), Thirach et al. (2003)
Ascosphaera apis Essential oil Jatisatiener and Jatisatiener (1999)
Aspergillus oryzae, A. nidulans, A. fumigates, Penicillum aculactum, Essential oil Chantawannakul et al. (2005)
Phomopsis destuctum
Curvularia lunata, Alternaria alternata Essential oil Alankararao and Prasad (1981)
Macrophomina phaseolina Fusarium Essential oil Begum et al. (2004)
moniliforme, Trichosporium vesiculosum Essential oil Ghosh (2006)
Helminthosporium oryzae Essential oil Saxena et al. (1990)

Antibacterial
Aeromonas hydrophila Essential oil, ␣-asarone, ␤-asarone Bhuvaneswari and Balasundaram (2006)
Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Vibrio Essential oil Chowdhury et al. (1993)
cholera, Salmonella paratyphi, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes.
B. proteus, Aerobic spore bearers, Staphylococcus pyogens, Shigella Essential oil Alankararao and Prasad (1981)
shiga
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Essential oil Chowdhury et al. (1993), Parekh et al. (2006),
Klebsiella pneumoniae Rajendhran et al. (1998)

Anti-inflammatory/immunomodulatory
Anti-inflammatory effect in human HaCaT cells Leaf extract Kim et al. (2009)
immunomodulatory activity in human PBMCs Ethanolic extract Mehrotra et al. (2003)
Anti-inflammatory activity in albino rats Acetone extract Lad et al. (2010)
Anti-inflammatory activity in rat models Rhizome extract Varde et al. (1988)
Anti-inflammatory activity in human keratinocytes Leaf extract Kim et al. (2009)

Antioxidative/protective effect
Antioxidant and nephroprotective effect in male albino rats Ethanolic extract Palani et al. (2010)
Antioxidant activity in rats brain ␣-Asarone, ethyl acetate and methanolic Manikandan and Devi (2005), Manikandan et al.
extract (2005)

Antioxidant activity
Neuroprotective effect in ischemic rats Ethyl acetate extract Acuna et al. (2002)
Hydroalcoholic extract, ␣- and ␤-asarone Shukla et al. (2006)

Anticonvulsant/antispasmodic
Anticonvulsant activity in mice models Methanolic extract, ␣-asarone Jayaraman et al. (2010), Sharma et al. (1961)
Antiepileptic activity in adult albino mice Calamus oil Khare and Sharma (1982)
Antispasmolytic activity in rabbit Crude extract Shoba and Thomas (2001)
Prevents convulsions and electroshock seizures in rats Asarones Dandiya and Sharma (1962), Dandiya and Menon
(1963)
Anticonvulsant action in amygdale kindled rats Ethanolic extract Hazra et al. (2005)

Anticancer
Anti-carcinogenic activity in human carcinoma cells ␣-Asarone Hu and Ji (1986)
Anti-proliferative activity in mice Rhizome extract Gaidhani et al. (2009), Chaitali et al. (2010)
Anti-cancer activity against human cancer cells Epieudesmin and galgravin from Balakumbahan et al. (2010)
methanolic extract
Anticancer activity in human cancer cells ␤-Asarone from calamus oil Palani et al. (2010)
Antimitogenic activity in mouse and human cancer lines Lectins from rhizome Bains et al. (2005)
Anticellular activity in human cancer cells Ethanolic extract Mehrotra et al. (2003)

Hypolipidemic
Decreased cholesterol and triglyceride levels in rats Saponins from hydro-alcoholic extract Parab and Mengi (2002)
Inhibited cholesterol synthesis in rat liver Rhizome extract D’Souza et al. (2007)
Inhibited hepatic HMG-CoA reductase in rats ␣-Asarone Rodriguez-Paez et al. (2003)

Antidiabetic
Exhibited antidiabetic effect by enhancing differentiation in Ethanolic extract Wu et al. (2009)
adipocytes of mouse
Suppress blood glucose levels in normal mice Calamus extract Si et al. (2010)

Cardiovascular related activity

Lowers blood pressure in cats, dogs and rabbits Essential oil Shaha and Gilani (2010), Dandiya and Cullumbine
(1959)
Hypotensive activity in dogs Alcoholic extract Moholkar et al. (1975)

Cardiac depressant/antiasthmatic
Airways relaxant activity Crude extract Jabbar and Hassan (2010), Shaha and Gilani (2010)
Antiasthmatic activity Rhizome extract Rajasekharan and Srivastava (1977), Chandra
(1980)

CNS depressant/AChE-inhibitory
Calming effect in monkeys Asarones
AChE inhibitory activity in bovine erythrocytes Hydroalcoholic and methanolic extract, ␣-
and ␤-asarone
Sedative effect in mice, dogs and rats Volatile fraction of petroleum ether
extract, essential oil
Hypnosis potentiating activity Volatile oil
Chak and Sharma (1965)
Mukherjee et al. (2007), Oh et al. (2004)
Dandiya and Cullumbine (1959), Dhalla and
Bhattacharya (1968)
Malhotra et al. (1962)
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S.B. Rajput et al. / Phytomedicine 21 (2014) 268–276
study concluded that the ethanolic extract of A. calamus does not
have toxicity on acute and chronic administration in Winstar rats
(Shah et al. 2012). There was no significant toxicity in rodents
when orally administered with hydroalcholic extract of A. calamus
(Muthuraman and Singh 2012). Moreover, the rhizome (but not the
isolated essential oil) has been used in India for thousands of years
without reports of cancer which suggests that using the whole herb
may be safe, though more research is needed (Chevallier 1996).
Acknowledgements
SBR is thankful to DST, New Delhi, for providing DST-INSPIRE
fellowship, Ref No. DST/INSPIRE FELLOWSHIP/2010/(290). We are
thankful to Prof. S.B. Nimse, Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, SRTM Univer-
sity, for his kind support.
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