Cet Sail Chemistry

E T
CAIL!
S
with
SCIENCE
VOLUME 2: SCIENCE
III. Chemistry
CET sail with
SCIENCE
Topic Outline
III. Chemistry
1. Unit conversion
2. Elements, compounds, and mixtures
3. States of Matter
4. Periodic Table
5. Electron Configuration
6. Chemical Reactions
7. Stoichiometry and Balancing Equations
8. Gas Laws
E T
CAIL!
S
1 CET Sail: Chemistry 2023
I. UNIT CONVERSION
International System of Units (SI)
commonly known as the metric system
the international standard for measurement
made up of 7 base units that define the 22 derived units with special names
and symbols
SI Base Units
Base Quantity Base Unit
Name Typical Symbol Name Symbol
time t second s
length l, x, r, etc. meter m
mass m kilogram kg
electric current I, i ampere A
thermodynamic
T kelvin K
temperature
amount of substance n mole mol
luminous intensity Iᵥ candela cd

I. UNIT CONVERSION
Image retrieved
from nist.gov
I. UNIT CONVERSION
Conversion Factor
a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are the same quantity
expressed in different units
this fraction is always equal to 1
may be multiplied to any given quantity without changing its value
does not affect the number of significant figures of the quantity being
multiplied to
Example:
1 in = 2.54 cm may be written as a conversion factor in two ways:
or
This conversion factor may then be used in converting measurements of length

from inches to centimeters or vice versa.
(canceling the unit in from the numerator and denominator leaves us with cm)
(the given quantity 10.00 in has 4 significant figures, so the final answer must
also have 4 significant figures, i.e., 25.40 cm)
I. UNIT CONVERSION
Dimensional Analysis
the use of conversion factors in problem solving
allows for a systematic way of tracking units
Example 1:
An average adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is the volume of blood in cubic
meters?
Relevant conversions:
1 L = 1000 mL
1 mL = 1 cm³
100 cm = 1 m³
Example 2:
The density of silver is 10.5 g/cm³. What is its density in kg/m³?
Relevant conversions:
1000 g = 1 kg
100 cm = 1 m
II. ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS,

AND MIXTURES
Classifications of Matter
A. Pure Substance
substances that contain only one type of particle and have a fixed constant
structure
due to constant composition, it also has a fixed boiling and melting points.
Image retrieved from https://www.diffen.com/difference/Compound_vs_Mixture


AND MIXTURES
Pure Elements
1. Element - a substance that consists of only one atom.
it cannot be broken down or transformed into a new substance even by
using some physical or chemical means. Elements are mostly metals, non-
metals or metalloids.
Ex. Gold, copper, silver, sodium
2. Compound - consists of two or more elements combined chemically in a

fixed ratio. These substances can be broken down into separate elements by
chemical methods.
Ex. Table salt (NaCl), Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
B. Mixture
consists of different kinds of elements and compounds combined
physically and not chemically. Meaning, we can separate its
components using simple means
It does not have specific properties (e.g. boiling point and melting
point). These properties ultimately depend on what component is
dominant in the mixture.

AND MIXTURES
1. Heterogeneous Mixture - aka solution
is comparatively unvarying in configuration or constant.
For instance, when you prepare a glass of hot milk using powdered
milk, the glass would contain a uniform mixture of water and milk, thus
homogenous. No matter where you drink, the milk will taste the same
since it would not be possible, under proper preparation, to have
varying parts and taste of the milk (i.e. tasteless portion, very sweet
portion, medium portion)
2. Homogeneous Mixture - is a concoction whose configuration varies

from spot to spot within the sample.
For example, if you put a little amount of sugar in a vessel, add some
sand, and then shake the jar a couple of times, your concoction
doesn’t have the same configuration all throughout the jar. As the
sand is heftier, there’s possibly more amount of sand at the bottom of
the jar and more sugar at the top part. These mixtures can be
identified visually and separated easily by physical means.
III. STATES OF MATTER

Gas Liquid Solid Plasma
assumes the
assumes the
shape and fixed volume
shape of the part
volume of its and shape
of its container
container rigid - particles
particles can
particles can locked into
move/slide past
move past one place Similar to a gas
one another
another Cloud of ionized
particles
not easily not easily
Electrons
compressible compressible compressible
separated from
lots of free space little free space little free space
the nuclei
between particles between between
Found in flames,
particles particles
lightning, and
does not flow auroras
flows easily flows easily easily
particles can particles can rigid - particles
move past one move/slide past cannot
another one another move/slide past
one another
Modified from https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/states.html

III. STATES OF MATTER

Phase Transitions
Red: Higher temperature

Blue: Lower temperature
From: https://www.science-sparks.com/what-is-matter/
IV. PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic Table: Basics
Formulated by Dmitri Mendeleev
Saw that elements, when arranged in increasing atomic weight,
had repeating or periodic properties
The elements found in one column of the periodic table
share similar properties
From: https://www.britannica.com/
IV. PERIODIC TABLE

How to Read the Table
The Table
Period: One row
Group: One column; Same number of valence electrons
From: https://sciencenotes.org/periodic-table-groups-and-periods/
IV. PERIODIC TABLE

One Element
Atomic number:
No. of protons in the nucleus
Element symbol:
One/two letters used to quickly
identify the element
Element name:
The full name/identity of the
element
From: https://www.expii.com/t/how-to-read-the-
Atomic weight: periodic-table-overview-components-8606
The average mass of one atom of

the given element in atomic mass
units (amu)
Notable Elements or Types of Elements

Hydrogen
1 proton, 1 electron
Simplest element
Gaseous and somewhat different from the elements below it
Alkali Metals
Group 1 (1st column)
Soft metals
Extremely reactive elements (can fizzle or explode in water)
Usually found in nature as ionic compounds (e.g. Na in NaCl)
IV. PERIODIC TABLE

Notable Elements or Types of Elements
Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 2 (2nd column)
Similar to Alkali Metals
Soft, very reactive metals
Transition Metals
Big block in the middle of the table
All are metals with varying properties (e.g. Iron, Copper,
Gold, Titanium, etc.)
Metalloids
Diagonal line/staircase on the right side
Have properties between metals and non-metals
Mainly used in semiconductors and electronics (Silicon)
Halogens
2nd to the last column
Reactive and generally toxic/dangerous
Chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.
Noble Gases
Last column
Complete electron shells
Very Unreactive; rarely participate in reactions
IV. PERIODIC TABLE
From: https://sciencenotes.org/periodic-table-trends/
Periodic Trends
Ionization Energy:
Energy needed to remove an electron from the atom
Electronegativity:
Strength of attraction between electrons and the nucleus
Atomic radius:
General size of the atom
Metallic/nonmetallic character:
How “metallic” an element is (shiny, conductive, malleable, and ductile)
IV. PERIODIC TABLE
From: https://sciencenotes.org/electron-affinity-trend-and-definition/
Periodic Trends
Electron Affinity:
Energy released when an atom gains an additional
electron/how readily an atom receives an electron
GENERALLY follows electronegativity trend
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
What is an Orbital? Shell? Subshell?
Orbital
It is a likely region where electrons would be found around a nucleus
Has an associated energy level. It is like the potential energy
between the negative electron and the positive nucleus
Subshells
Are made of multiple orbitals in the same energy level
Shells
Are made of subshells
SHELLS contain SUBSHELLS which contain ORBITAL.
Quantum Numbers
There are 4 values that can describe the properties of an electron in
an atom: n, l, mₗ, and mₛ
From: https://byjus.com/chemistry/quantum-numbers/
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Designates principal electron shell of a specific electron
Can be a positive integer
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number/Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
Designates the shape of an electron subshell (s, p, d, or f)
Subshells fall under an electron shell
s: l = 0
p: l = 1
d: l = 2
f: l = 3
Can take any values from 0 to (n-1)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (mₗ)
Describes the orientation of a given orbital and the number of orbitals in
one subshell
E.g. a p orbital may be aligned along the x-axis, y-axis, or the z-axis.
Therefore, there are 3 unique p orbitals
For an orbital with a value l, ml takes a value from -l to l
E.g. a p orbital with l = 1 can have mₗ of 1, 2, or 3
Note: Each shell has its own set of subshells and orbitals, so 2 shells can
have 2 different sets of p orbitals.
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
s, p, d, and f, Orbitals
From: https://byjus.com/chemistry/quantum-numbers/
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
4. Spin Quantum Number (mₛ)
Gives the quantum spin of an electron
Independent of the previous 3 values
Either +½ or -½. Nothing else
Rules
1. Aufbau Principle
The “building up” rule
Electrons fill the orbitals
from lowest to highest
energy
s, p, d, and f are the
subshells indicated with
quantum number l
1, 2, 3, … are from the
principal quantum number
n, indicating the electron
shell
From: https://www.chemistrylearner.com/aufbau-
principle.html
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
2. Hund’s Rule of Maximum
Multiplicity
When filling orbitals in the same
energy level, one electron must fill
all the orbitals BEFORE a second
can fill it
The electrons also must share the
same spin (up or down) when From: https://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses
filling the orbitals /351/mechanistic_etext/Ch01/ch1-2-2.html
3. Pauli Exclusion Principle

In an atom, no electrons can share
the same set of quantum numbers
This means:
i. Only two electrons can fill
one orbital
ii. One must be spin up and
spin down (shown via
arrows) From: https://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses
/351/mechanistic_etext/Ch01/ch1-2-2.html
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
Assigning Electron Configurations
1. Given an atom, find the number of electrons present. This is usually equal
to the number of protons aka the atomic number on the periodic table.
2. Fill up the orbitals following the pattern below until you reach the correct
no. of electrons.
The big number is n, the shell
The letters, s, p, d, and f are the subshells in a given shell
The exponent/superscript shows the maximum number of electrons in
the orbital
I.e. 2p⁶ can hold up to 6 electrons. 4d¹⁰ can hold up to 10, and so on
From: https://www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1045/e_config.html
V. ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
3. Noble Gas Notation: As a shortcut, a large part of the electron
configuration can be shortened by using the electron configuration of a
noble gas.
Noble gases usually have full p orbitals
Instead of writing down the full configuration, everything until np6 can be
shortened into a noble gas form like [Ne] for 1s²2s²2p6
Example: Iodine
Longer version: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s²3d¹⁰4p⁶5s²4d¹⁰5p⁵
Noble Gas notation: [Kr]5s²4d¹⁰5p⁵
[Kr] is a shorthand for the electron configuration from 1s² to 4p⁶
4. Ions
Add (anion) or remove (cation) an electron from the count when assigning
electron configuration
Example:
Neutral Fluorine: 1s²2s²2p⁵
Fluorine anion: 1s²2s²2p⁶
VI. CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
Chemical Reaction - is an interaction between molecules in which the bonds
are broken within reactant molecules, and new bonds are formed within
product molecules in order to form a new substance.
The rate of reaction depends on and is affected by factors like pressure,
temperature, the concentration of reactants.
Causes chemical change, i.e. color change, effervescence
Chemical Equation - a nomenclature to express a chemical reaction:

aA + bB → cC + dD
A and B are the chemical formula of the reactants, while C and D are the
chemical formula of the products. Coefficients (a, b, c, d) are usually seen
in chemical equations to balance them out (see lesson 7) because
chemical reactions follow the principle of law of conservation of mass
(mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions, but is
transformed). Meaning, the mass of the reactants is equal to the mass of
the product.
VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Types of Chemical Reactions
Combustion Reaction - a combustible material (e.g. hydrocarbons) reacts
with an oxidizer (e.g. O₂). Usually, a combustion reaction involves
hydrocarbon and oxygen producing carbon dioxide and water.
Note: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting of hydrogen and

carbon. CH₄ is a hydrocarbon.
Decomposition Reaction - is a reaction in

which a single component breaks down
into multiple products. Example is the
decomposition of table salt (NaCl) into its
individual elements.
Image retrieved from https://byjus.com/chemistry/chemical-
reactions/#:~:text=A%20Chemical%20Reaction%20is%20a,formed%20compounds%2
0are%20called%20products.
Synthesis Reaction - one of the most basic types of reaction wherein

multiple simple compounds combine under certain physical conditions
giving out a complex product.
It is like the opposite of decomposition reaction.


Single-Displacement Reaction - is a reaction in which one element is
substituted for another element in a compound. The starting materials are
always a pure element and an aqueous compound. The general pattern of
this reaction is:
It can be seen that the pure element reactant replaces an element in the
aqueous compound.
Double-Displacement Reaction - another type of displacement reaction in

which two aqueous reactants react and consequently, their anions and
cations switch places forming two new products.
An example is the reaction below:
Image retrieved from https://byjus.com/chemistry/chemical-

reactions/#:~:text=A%20Chemical%20Reaction%20is%20a,formed%20compounds%20are%20calle
d%20products.

A double displacement reaction can be a neutralization reaction or a
precipitation reaction:
Neutralization Reaction - reaction between an acid and a base giving salt
and water as the products.
Precipitation Reaction - a reaction where an insoluble solid is formed.
Image retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?

sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fslideplayer.com%2Fslide%2F14068081%2F&psig=AOvVaw12MVL9-
Qt8hIVSB_3dCvEk&ust=1683768449756000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCLDZ0Ou
P6v4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

How to know if an insoluble salt/solid is formed in a precipitation reaction?
There are actually rules in determining whether a product is aqueous
(soluble in water/a compound that dissolves or dissociates in water) or
insoluble (a compound that remains solid in the presence of water). This is
called the Solubility Rules.
Image retrieved from https://www.speedytemplate.com/solubility-rules-chart-1.png


How to know if an insoluble salt/solid is formed in a precipitation reaction?
There are actually rules in determining whether a product is aqueous
(soluble in water/a compound that dissolves or dissociates in water) or
insoluble (a compound that remains solid in the presence of water). This is
called the Solubility Rules.
Image retrieved from https://www.speedytemplate.com/solubility-rules-chart-1.png

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
NOTE: All figures in lesson VII were lifted from Burdge & Overby
Chemical Equation
a written representation of a chemical reaction or a physical process
chemical species on the left side are reactants; right side, products
the physical state of each reactant and product is specified in parentheses
solid – (s)
liquid – (l)
gas – (g)
aqueous (i.e., dissolved in water) – (aq)
Law of Conservation of Mass

basis of stoichiometry
mass can neither be created nor destroyed
another way of stating Dalton’s third hypothesis

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Three Hypotheses
Matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms; all atoms
of a given element are identical.
Compounds are made up of specific combinations of atoms of two or
more different elements.
Chemical reactions cause the rearrangement of atoms, but do not cause
either creation or destruction of atoms.
Stoichiometry
derived from ancient Greek words stoicheion (element) and metron
(measure)
refers to the use of numerical relationships between reactants and
products in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data
Balancing Chemical Equations

trial-and-error approach
the goal is to have the same number of atoms on both sides of the equation,
which may be done by raising their coefficients

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
General tips:
1. Change the coefficients of compounds (e.g., CO₂) before changing the
coefficients of elements (e.g., O₂).
2. Treat polyatomic ions that appear on both sides of the equation (e.g., CO₃²⁻) as
units, rather than counting their constituent atoms individually.
3. Count atoms and/or polyatomic ions carefully, and track their numbers each
time you change a coefficient.
4. Ultimately, balancing equations takes a lot of patience and practice.
Example:
Balance the chemical equation for the combustion of butane:
We first get the inventory of atoms on both sides:


BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
We can balance C by placing a
coefficient of 4 in front of CO₂,
which changes the tally of atoms.
Note that the coefficient 4 affects
CO₂ as a whole (i.e., if CO₂ has 4 C
atoms and 2 O atoms, then 4CO₂
have 4 C atoms and 8 O atoms.
We can now balance H by placing a

coefficient of 5 in front of H2O,
resulting in 10 H atoms on both
sides.
Since there are 2 O atoms on the

left side and 13 O atoms on the right
side, we may place a coefficient of
13/2 in front of O₂ to balance.

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Though this equation is already balanced, we may multiply everything by 2 so we
get the smallest possible whole number coefficients:
The molecules’ coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are also called

stoichiometric coefficients.
Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations

Mole
the amount of substance that contains 6.022 x 10²³ of elementary particles
(e.g., atoms, molecules, ions)
Avogadro’s Number (N A)
the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12, determined
experimentally
named in honor of Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro (1776–1856)
equal to 6.022 x 10²³ (i.e., has no unit)

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Avogadro’s Constant
equal to 6.022 x 10²³ particles/mol or 6.022 x 10²³ mol⁻¹
used to convert between moles and number of particles
Molar Mass
mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in g/mol
used to convert between moles and grams
the same as molecular mass and molecular weight (Note: mass and weight
are used interchangeably in Chemistry)
Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Number of Atoms
Burdge & Overby


BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio
relates the amounts in moles of any two substances in a balanced chemical
equation
may be used as a conversion factor when solving problems
Example:
From this balanced chemical equation
We may obtain these mole ratios:
Sample Problem (involving balancing, mole ratio, and interconversion):

Given this reaction:
How many grams of NaOH are required to fully consume 3.10 g of H₂SO₄?

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Step 1: Balance the chemical equation.
Balancing Na:
Balancing O and H:

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Step 2: Convert grams of H₂SO₄ to moles of H₂SO₄ using its molar mass.
Step 3: Convert moles of H₂SO₄ to moles of NaOH using the mole ratio.
Step 4: Convert moles of NaOH to grams of NaOH using its molar mass.
(final answer is expressed in 3 s.f. since the given mass of H₂SO₄ in the
problem is also 3 s.f.)

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Limiting and Excess Reagent
Limiting Reagent (LR)
the reagent/reactant that is consumed completely in a chemical reaction
the amount of this reactant limits the amount of product/s that can form
determines the maximum amount of product/s formed
Excess Reagent (ER)
the reagent/reactant that is not consumed completely
present in a quantity greater than necessary to completely react with
limiting reagent
Burdge & Overby
Based on the kabobs analogy, mushrooms are the limiting “reagent” (LR)
while the skewers and beef are the excess “reagents” (ER).

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Reaction Yield
Theoretical Yield
the amount of product/s that will form if all the limiting reagent is
consumed by the desired reaction
Actual Yield
the amount of product/s actually recovered
determined experimentally
% Yield
a measure of the efficiency of a chemical reaction
Sample Problem (involving limiting and excess reagents, % yield):

1. Determine what mass of NH₃ forms when 84.06 g N₂ and 22.18 g H₂ react
according to the equation: N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃
2. Determine the percent yield if 99.9 g NH₃ was recovered at the end of
the reaction.
Step 1: Convert grams to moles using molar masses.


BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Step 2: Determine amount of NH3 formed from the two reactants.
Since less NH3 is formed from N2, N2 is the limiting reagent (LR).
Step 3: Convert moles of NH3 to grams using its molar mass.
Step 4: Compute for the percent yield.

VIII. GAS LAWS

Boyle’s Law
volume is inversely proportional to pressure
Charles’s Law
volume is directly proportional to temperature
Avogadro’s Law
volume is directly proportional to amount of substance
Combined Gas Law

Given these three gas laws:
Problem Type Relates Requires Constant
Boyle's Law P and V n and T
Charles's Law T and V n and P
Avogadro's Law n and V P and T
we obtain the combined gas law:

VIII. GAS LAWS

Ideal Gas Equation
Given the three gas laws/proportionalities, we obtain:
where R is the proportionality constant, called Gas Constant.

Rearranging, we obtain the ideal gas equation:
Note that the units for P, V, and T will depend on the unit of the gas
constant R.
Various Equivalent Expressions of the Gas Constant, R
Numerical Value Unit
0.08206 L • atm/K • mol
62.36 L • torr/K • mol
0.08314 L • bar/K • mol
8.314 m³ • Pa/K • mol
8.314 J/K • mol
1.987 cal/K • mol
Note: the product of volume and pressure gives units of energy (joules, calories)
VIII. GAS LAWS

Relevant conversions for temperatures:
CET Sail: Science, Chemistry. 2023
REFERENCES
Burdge, J., & Overby, J. (2012) Chemistry: Atoms first. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
https://byjus.com/chemistry
https://sciencenotes.org
https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/states.html
https://www.diffen.com/difference/Compound_vs_Mixture
ttps://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.livescience.com/28507-element-groups.html
https://www.science-sparks.com/what-is-matter/
https://www.scienceworld
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E T

Base Quantity Base Unit

Name Typical Symbol Name Symbol

length l, x, r, etc. meter m

electric current I, i ampere A

amount of substance n mole mol

luminous intensity Iᵥ candela cd

This conversion factor may then be used in converting measurements of length

II. ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS,

Image retrieved from https://www.diffen.com/difference/Compound_vs_Mixture

II. ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS,

2. Compound - consists of two or more elements combined chemically in a

II. ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS,

2. Homogeneous Mixture - is a concoction whose configuration varies

III. STATES OF MATTER

Modified from https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/states.html

III. STATES OF MATTER

Red: Higher temperature

IV. PERIODIC TABLE

IV. PERIODIC TABLE

IV. PERIODIC TABLE

The average mass of one atom of

Notable Elements or Types of Elements

IV. PERIODIC TABLE

IV. PERIODIC TABLE

IV. PERIODIC TABLE

3. Pauli Exclusion Principle

Chemical Equation - a nomenclature to express a chemical reaction:

VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Note: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting of hydrogen and

Decomposition Reaction - is a reaction in

Synthesis Reaction - one of the most basic types of reaction wherein

It is like the opposite of decomposition reaction.

VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Double-Displacement Reaction - another type of displacement reaction in

Image retrieved from https://byjus.com/chemistry/chemical-

VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Image retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?

VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Image retrieved from https://www.speedytemplate.com/solubility-rules-chart-1.png

VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Image retrieved from https://www.speedytemplate.com/solubility-rules-chart-1.png

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

Law of Conservation of Mass

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

Balancing Chemical Equations

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

We first get the inventory of atoms on both sides:

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

We can now balance H by placing a

Since there are 2 O atoms on the

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

The molecules’ coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are also called

Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Number of Atoms

Burdge & Overby

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

We may obtain these mole ratios:

Sample Problem (involving balancing, mole ratio, and interconversion):

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

VII. STOICHIOMETRY &

Burdge & Overby