Section 2: The revised Construction Safety Orientation Course that WSHC came

up with by integrating theory and practical lessons in 2013 addressed the

using safety features and improved their responsiveness to FFH risks. It was

effective in significantly decreasing the FFH fatality rate from 2014 to 2021, but

could not bring the fatality rate to zero as it still had insufficient authenticity due

to differences between the training centres and actual construction sites.

2a: In 2013, WSHC came up with a revised Construction Safety Orientation

Course that integrated both theory and practical lessons. This addressed the

when encountering FFH

risks in actual construction sites. Thus, the revised course was able to further

responsiveness to FFH risks, such that they know how to use the safety features

more effectively to protect themselves from FFH.

WSHC revised the training course in 2013, where workers first undergo theory

lessons before undergoing practicals (Workplace Safety and Health Council, 2013).

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 Expected impact on

Key Theory
Lesson Practical Application
Concept Learnt responsiveness to FFH

risks

3 Conditions for safe Demonstrate proper Workers are able to

usage of fall- installation and use of practise correctly

prevention fall-prevention installing fall-prevention

measures. measures measures and identify

appropriate situations to

use them.

5 Descent systems Demonstrate Workers are able to

for particular work- technique using a apply their knowledge

at-height and positioning lifeline and on usage of descent

Confined Space rope grab system systems6 when they are

activities working at heights.

6
Descent systems allow workers to descend or ascend to access different parts of a construction site. E.g
positioning lifelines and rope grab systems

22
 Nil Demonstrate safe Workers are able to

connections to full body assess whether they are

harness able to correctly don the

full body harness and

Demonstrate safe
how to correctly use it to
movement with 100%
prevent falling.
connection whilst using

twin lanyard

Demonstrate sizing and

fitting of a full body

harness & lanyard

Common unsafe Identify common unsafe Workers are able to

practices whilst practices whilst using practise under stressors

using twin lanyard twin lanyard that they would likely

face in the construction

site so that in the actual

construction site, they

are more likely to

remember their theory

knowledge.

Figure 11: Structure of the Construction Safety Orientation Course after 2013 related to fall protection/prevention

measures (Workforce Singapore Agency, 2022)

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 For different stages of FFH, the combination of theory and practical equips

workers with a wide range of knowledge and skills so that they are more responsive and

familiar with the ways to prevent the different FFH risks. FFH can only be prevented if

workers know how to use the different safety features effectively. The following table

shows that both knowledge and skills are required to correctly use the fall

prevention/protection measures.

Type of fall-prevention measure that WSHC prepared to address the stage of

FFH before falling

(i) Use of Travel Restraint Belt before falling:

waist, stopping them from reaching zones where FFH risk exists, preventing FFH.

Impact of proper usage of travel Impact of improper usage of travel

restraint belt by workers, in relation to restraint belt by workers, in relation to

fall prevention fall prevention

24
Figure 12: Diagram of a travel restraint belt. (Workplace

Safety and Health Council, 2012b, p.30)

The worker needs to know which

Figure 13: The travel restraint belt has been extended
locations are secure enough to anchorSS using lanyards. (Workplace Safety and Health Council,

the travel restraint belt, the appropriate 2012b, p.31)

length of the belt to prevent them from The worker is unaware that the extension
reaching areas with FFH risk, and of the travel restraint belt will allow them
practice inspecting the travel restraint belt to reach areas with FFH risk, hence it
for defects. cannot prevent them from falling off open

edges as their movement is supposed to

be restricted by the belt.

25
 Type of fall-protection measure that WSHC prepared to address the stage of

FFH after falling

(ii) Use of Energy Absorber during fall: This is meant to deploy itself when the worker

falls, causing the worker to experience an upward force and fall with less impact to

protect them from all FFH.

Impact of proper usage of energy Impact of improper usage of energy

absorber by workers, in relation to fall absorber by workers, in relation to fall

protection protection

Figure 15: An activated energy absorber is being tied up

and reused. (Workplace Safety and Health Council,

2012b, p.25)
Figure 14: Energy absorber is correctly attached

26
 (Workplace Safety and Health Council, 2012b, p.28) Worker did not know that energy

Workers must know the appropriate absorbers cannot be reused and could

location to attach the energy absorber not identify the used energy absorber.

and which areas are secure enough to

anchor their harness. They need to have

the skill of attaching the energy absorber

securely to their harness and inspecting

the energy absorber for defects.

Figure 16: The energy absorber is not correctly

attached to the lanyard. (Workplace Safety and Health

Council, 2012b, p.26)

Worker was unable to securely attach the

energy absorber.

Hence, in both cases, the energy

absorber would not be able to absorb the

impact of their fall effectively to protect

them from FFH.

Figure 17: Proper and Improper usage of various fall prevention measures. (Workplace Safety and Health Council,

2012b)

27
 Before the revised course by WSHC, while workers had full knowledge and skill

on using safety features through theory, they had little practice and exposure to the

unpredictable nature of FFH risks. Hence, they had slower responsiveness to FFH risks.

After the revised course by WSHC, workers experienced the sense of urgency felt when

encountering unpredictable FFH risks coupled with extensive knowledge and skill.

Hence, they were more familiarised with using safety features and responsive to

different situations at construction sites to prevent FFH.

Theory and practical reinforce each other in the way shown below:

Figure 18: How theory and practical are complementary as adapted from the Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb, 1984)

28
 As theory and practical are complementary, the integration will improve the skills

and knowledge of workers, improving their ability to prevent FFH and protect

themselves from FFH.

29
2b: After integration in 2013, the Construction Safety Orientation Course was

reviewed to have enabled workers to be more familiarised with safety features in

their actual work. This contributed to a significant decrease in the FFH fatality

rate from 2014 to 2021, hence the integration was effective in minimising FFH

fatalities. However, FFH fatalities still occurred due to differences in the

environments of the practical training course and actual work-at-heights sites

which caused workers to have limited responsiveness to FFH risks under the

different environmental conditions. Hence, the safety training environment has to

be more authentic by more accurately simulating actual work sites to attain

The enhanced Construction Safety Orientation Course was found to be effective

in reducing FFH fatalities as it increased the proficiency of workers' ability to respond to

FFH risks as evident by the reviews of workers who attended the course.

Govindavelalar excellent grasp of

Gunasekaran
construction safety and allowed me to enhance worksite

Kenn Tan better aligned

this enabled me to apply

Figure 19: Reviews of integrated course from two participants, Gunasekaran and Tan (Apply, n.d.)

that they could apply their knowledge and skills in their actual workplace, in order to

minimise FFH fatalities.

30
 The integrated course contributed to the FFH fatality rate decreasing significantly

from 2014 to 2021 to below 1.44, exceeding the goal they set in 2009.

7
Year

2014

2015

2016

7
Per 100, 000 workers

31
 2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Fatality rate
in 2013 =
2.33

Figure 20: Number of fatalities from Falls-from-Heights in the construction industry from 2014 to 2021 (Workplace

Safety and Health Council, 2015, p.21; 2016, p.21; 2017b, p.30; 2018, p.28; 2019, p.30; 2020, p.30; 2021, p.35;

2022, p.37) and the derived FFH fatality rate

32
fatality rate.

However, WSHC is unable to reduce the FFH fatality rate to zero as there are

still limitations in the revised course. Fatalities occur due to some FFH risks and

environmental factors not being replicated in the training course. The situations

simulated in the course do not replicate the exact setting of a construction site and

workers are only trained to respond to a limited set of FFH risks. This is seen in the

differences between the environment in construction sites and in the course.

Controlled environment in training

Actual environment in construction sites
course

Figure 21: Construction worker working on the roof during

wet weather (Taken by NJ056, Clavon Construction Site at

Clementi, October 7 2022)

33
 Figure 23: Construction Safety Training Centre (Fonda

Global Engineering, n.d.)

Figure 22: Elevated construction site, many floors from the

ground (Taken by NJ056, Clavon Construction Site at

Clementi, October 13 2022)

1. In brightly lit indoor training centres, workers can more easily respond to FFH risks as

hazards are more visible. In actual worksites when vision is reduced by weather or the

conditions during the time of day, they are less able to identify hazards in time to respond

and protect themselves from FFH as they are not trained in these conditions.

2. In slightly elevated training centres, workers do not face actual risk and stressors 8 from

FFH, allowing them to more easily respond to FFH risks. In actual worksites, they are not

8
Stressors: an activity, event or other stimulus that causes stress to workers (i.e. working at extreme heights with
many FFH risks.)

34
trained to prepare for the increased stressors from the introduction of actual FFH risks,

and are less able to respond to FFH risks in time to protect themselves from FFH.

Figure 25: Uncluttered environment of a training centre

(Beyond Multiple Solutions Group, n.d.)

Figure 24: Cluttered environment of a construction site

taken from above (Taken by NJ056, Clavon Construction

Site at Clementi, October 13 2022)

In uncluttered training centres, workers are not trained to respond to unexpected trip

hazards on the ground. They expect to encounter no clutter during actual work, making

them less prepared to respond to clutter to prevent FFH.

Figure 26: Comparison between the environment in actual construction sites and the environment in the Construction

Safety Orientation Course

35
expectations of actual worksites are based on experiences they gained in the

excessively safe controlled environment of the training course. However, the actual

construction site has many environmental factors9 that differs from the controlled

environment in the course. Hence, workers had insufficient expectations of the full

range of FFH risks they encounter in actual construction sites and have limited

responsiveness when they meet unexpected FFH risks due to the limited authenticity of

the safety training.

WSHC must prepare workers for the range of FFH risks not taught in current

training. Hence, they must increase the authenticity of training by making training more

representative of actual construction sites while ensuring worker safety during training.

9
For example: rainy weather, low visibility, tripping hazards and limited supervision, etc.

36