assistance and loans from foreign
CHAPTER 1
Highways and their development
are essential components of a country's
infrastructure, playing a crucial role in
facilitating economic growth, connectivity,
and transportation. The Philippines, like
many other countries, faces several
challenges and considerations in planning,
designing, and constructing highways. Let's
discuss each of the mentioned aspects:
A.) Highways in the Philippines: In the
Philippines, highways are essential for
connecting cities, towns, and provinces,
facilitating economic growth, trade, and
transportation. The country's archipelagic
geography presents unique challenges,
including rugged terrain and numerous
islands. Highway development is vital for
bridging geographical gaps and improving
accessibility for the population.
● 1900 - transportations largely
depends on trails, waterways,
railroad, earth roads and partially
graveled roads. The Americans
initiated the development of
roadways, connecting towns, cities
and provinces. The macadam road
type was introduced and it was
widely accepted due to the abundant
supply of stones, roads and gravel.
● World war II - continued
rehabilitation and construction of
roads and bridges, through the
reparations and war damages paid
by the Japanese government and
other financial aids and grants
received from the US government.
● Fifty years after world war - major
highways and expressways were
constructed through the financial
banks.
● 1960 to early part of 1980 -
considered as the automobile age
where cars were no longer regarded
as a luxury item but as a necessity in
transporting people and goods, a
necessity for survival. "The nation is
on wheels."
A.a) Highway Planning Difficulties:
Planning highways in the Philippines can be
challenging due to various factors. These
include topographical challenges (the
country's mountainous terrain and
numerous islands), population density,
urbanization, environmental concerns, and
land acquisition issues. Careful
consideration must be given to these factors
to ensure sustainable and effective highway
development.
● Financial
● Political
● Technical
B.) Highway Programming: Developing a
comprehensive highway program involves
setting priorities, identifying funding
sources, and determining the sequencing of
projects. This is crucial for efficient resource
allocation and ensuring that the most critical
routes are addressed first. It also involves
setting short-term and long-term goals for
the highway network's expansion and
improvement.
There are three inseparable sets of
inputs involved in highway programming,
they are:
1. Economic - Deals with the
questions of resources.
 2. Financial - The question of who
pays and who spends, how much,
and where?
3. Political and Administration - This
involves decision making.
Direct Effects of Highway Construction
and its Use
A. Quantifiable market value
l. Cost of highways as to:
a. Planning cost.
b. Right of way appropriations.
c. Construction costs.
d. Maintenance costs.
e. Operating costs.
2. Cost benefits to highway users;
a. Vehicles operating costs
(including congestion cost) net
income or decrease in costs of
vehicle operation per year
b. Travel savings time
(commercial). Net increase or
decrease in travel time
multiplied by the peso value of
commercial time.
c. Motorist's safety (economic
cost accident) Net change in
expected number of accidents
times the average cost per
accident per year
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value
l. Cost benefits to highway user:
a. Motorists safety - Accident
cost of pain suffering and
deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion -
Discomfort, inconvenience and
strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic film driving
viewpoint - Benefit of pleasing
views and scenery from the
road.
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value
l. Cost benefits to highway users -
Traveling savings time.
(non-commercial) Minutes save per
vehicle trip
C.) Community Involvement: Community
involvement is vital in highway
development. Local communities should
have a say in the planning process to
address their specific needs and concerns.
Public consultations, environmental impact
assessments, and social impact studies are
essential to mitigate negative effects on
communities and the environment.
1. Solicit the cooperation and support
of public officials, non-government
organizations, influential persons
and conservative groups of the
community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this
function
3. Community leadership opportunity to
participate continuously in the
planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled
persons to conduct group meetings,
workshops, hearing and other
related activities.
D.) Highway Economy: Efficient highway
systems contribute significantly to a
country's economy. They reduce
transportation costs, improve access to
markets, promote trade, and stimulate
economic development in areas along the
routes. The economic benefits should be
weighed against the costs of construction
and maintenance.
The intent of expenditures for highways
and public transportations are
enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country's level of
economy.
2. To provide easy access to working
place.
3. To facilitate public services; police,
fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling
and delivery of related basic
services.
5. To give landowner benefits to
transportation and increase property
assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users
through lower cost of operations and
maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accidents.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease
of travel.
Arguments of those who Favors
Borrowings are:
1. The need is immediate to have
instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen
because the "pay as you go" fund is
scattered throughout the entire road
system where the situation is most
critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors
because of fast progress.
Counter Arguments of those Against
Financing Infrastructures through
Borrowing:
1. Borrowing may impair the credit
rating of government agencies,
obstructing other more important
improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay
past improvements, no more funds
available to maintain the existing
system.
3. With much available temptation is
there to over build and recklessly
spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of
public funds.
E.) Location of the Proposed Highway:
Selecting the right location for a highway is
a critical decision. Factors to consider
include traffic volume, connectivity to key
destinations (cities, ports, industrial areas),
topography, and environmental sensitivity.
Careful planning can minimize
environmental impacts and maximize
economic benefits.
To improve the highways, there should
be tentative plan as to the control, and
minimum design speed, roadway cross
sections, and maximum slope with the
following considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate.
2. Character and hourly distribution of
traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit
factor.
4. Availability of funds.
Location surveys in the rural areas are
divided into 4 stages.
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire
area between the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all
feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
 4. Location survey, staking of the right 5. Gutters.
of way, the highway and the 6. Curb structures
structure for construction. 7. Sidewalks
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures
Activities of numerous types.
● Under stage I - Reconnaissance 9. Manholes
survey of the entire area 10. Rip-rap and other devices used for
● Under stage II - Reconnaissance bank protection.
survey of feasible route 11. Fences and right of way.
● Stage III - Preliminary Survey of the 12. Other survey markers.
best route.
● Stage IV - Location Survey Highway Specifications is Divided into
Two:

F.) Highway Plans and Specifications: 1. Standard Specifications

Highways should be designed and 2. Special Supervisions
constructed in accordance with engineering
standards and specifications set by In summary, highway development
agencies like the Department of Public in the Philippines involves a complex
Works and Highways (DPWH) in the interplay of planning, community
Philippines. These standards cover aspects engagement, economic considerations, and
such as road width, pavement materials, adherence to engineering standards.
drainage, signage, and safety features. Addressing these factors appropriately is
Compliance with these specifications essential to create a highway network that
ensures the quality and safety of the supports economic growth, enhances
infrastructure. connectivity, and improves the quality of life
for Filipinos while preserving the
The complete detailed scheme for the environment.
road which are incorporated in the
geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
4. Roadside development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement

Partial list of subjects covered by the

standard drawing:
1. Pipe culverts
2. Concrete box culverts
3. Guard rail and parapet
4. Curbs.

CHAPTER 2
Highway design technical
requirements, as outlined by the
Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) standards, are critical for the safe
and efficient transportation infrastructure in
a region. These standards ensure that
highways are built to high-quality
specifications that address various aspects
of highway design and operation. Let's
discuss the relevance of each of these
technical requirements:
A.) Consistency and design speed:
Consistency in design ensures that the
highway maintains a uniform flow of traffic.
Design speed considers factors like terrain,
curves, and traffic volumes to determine the
maximum safe speed at which a vehicle can
travel on a given section of the highway.
This is crucial for safety and efficient traffic
flow.
Drivers expect the highway agency to
provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance
through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the
traffic as well as the road standards.
B.) Cross-section of the typical highway:
The cross-section defines the physical
dimensions and layout of the highway,
including the number of lanes, lane width,
median, shoulders, and other elements. It's
relevant because it influences how
efficiently and safely vehicles can use the
road.
The cross section of a typical highway
has latitude of variables to consider
such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles
and of the driver
Read more: page 19 - 20
C.) Road Shoulder: Road shoulders
provide a buffer between the travel lanes
and the roadside. They are essential for
emergency stopping, breakdowns, and
maintenance activities. Well-designed
shoulders enhance safety and accessibility.
Read more: page 21 - 25
D.) Cut or Fill slope: Cut and fill slopes are
used to level the terrain and create a stable
roadbed. Properly designed slopes prevent
landslides, erosion, and other hazards.
Slope stability is crucial for the long-term
integrity of the highway.
When the side slope requires
embankment with suitable retaining wall,
any of the following materials could be
used depending upon the natural
conditions.
1. Fland placed stones.
2. Cement rubble masonry.
3. Concrete blocks.
 4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. T or counter forted designs.
6. Cribs assembled from timber.
7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal elements.
9. Tied back piling.
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic
bands'
E.) Cross Slope: Cross slope refers to the
slope of the road surface from the centerline
to the edge. Proper cross slope ensures
proper drainage and minimizes the risk of
hydroplaning in wet conditions.
Read more: page 25
F.) Highway Median: The median divides
opposing traffic flows and provides a safety
buffer. Different types of medians, such as
grass, concrete, or barriers, can be used
based on traffic volume and safety
considerations.
For Narrow Median, there are four means
of reducing cross median accidents:
1. Provide deterring devices - Two
sets of double strip painted on the
existing pavement, raised diagonal
bars, low curbing and shallow
ditches.
2. Provide non-traversable energy
absorbing barriers - The line chain
link fence 1 meter high supported by
steel posts augmented by cables at
the bottom and midpoint.
Non-traversable rigid barriers are
metal guard rails.
3. Provide non-traversable rigid
barriers -
4. Provide G.M. barriers - A high
non-mountain sloped face concrete
barriers called New Jersey. It is cast
or extruded in place or precast in
sections and set in position by
crane.
G.) The Grade Line: The grade line refers
to the vertical alignment of the road,
including the elevation changes. Proper
grading ensures that vehicles can navigate
hills and valleys safely and efficiently.
In laying the grade line, the designer
must consider the following:
1. Where earthwork is minimal and
consistently meeting sight distances
in relation to grade line, economy is
one main consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line
must be considered balanced
excavation against embankments to
get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat are4 the grade line is set
almost parallel to the ground surface
but sufficiently above the ground for
drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be
provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river
or stream, is governed by the
expected level of water flood.
H.) Right of Way: Right of way determines
the width of land needed for highway
construction. It involves acquiring land
legally and is vital to ensure that there's
enough space for the road, including lanes,
shoulders, and other features.
I.) Road Alignment/Widening of Curves:
Proper alignment and curve design are
crucial for driver safety. This includes
ensuring that curves are properly banked
and have appropriate radii to accommodate
the design speed.
Road Alignment
● should be consistent
- it will only create hazard and
invite accident
● Designing circular curves of different
radius from end to end or
compounded curve is not a good
practice.
● To have a short tangent between two
curves is a poor practice.
● A long flat curve is acceptable at all
times. It is pleasing to look at, with
less probability of future
obsolescence.
● Alignment should be provided
with tangent because there are
drivers who hesitate to pass on
curves.
Widening of Curves
A provision for a wider roadway is
necessary on sharp curve for two lanes
pavement under the following reasons:
1. To force the drivers to shy away from
the pavement edge.
2. To increase the effective transverse
vehicle width for non tracking of front
and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the
slanted position of the front wheel to
the roadway centerline.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an
additional width of 30 centimeters is
necessary on an open curve
highway.
J.) Islands: Islands in the road can be used
for various purposes, such as pedestrian
refuge, traffic control, or aesthetic
enhancements. Their design impacts traffic
flow and safety.
Island is included in the design of
intersections for the following purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular flows.
2. Separation of conflicts.
3. Reduction in excessive pavement
areas.
4. Reduction of traffic and indications
of proper use of intersections.
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent
turning movement.
6. Location of traffic control devices.
Types of Islands
● Channelization - They are
convenient for intersections. The
size and shape of the channelizing
island will differ depending on the
layout and dimensions of the
intersection.
● Divisional - These are planned to
separate opposing or same-direction
traffic streams through movements.
● Pedestrian - Pedestrian islands are
provided to operate as safe zones
for helping and guarding persons on
foot.
● Rotary - This island makes it easier
for cars to move smoothly in and
out. Instead of cars having to cross
in front of each other, this island
gives them enough space to do this
safely.
K.) Types of Interchange: Different types
of interchanges (e.g., cloverleaf, diamond,
or diverging diamond) are designed to
efficiently manage traffic flow at
intersections. The choice of interchange
type depends on traffic volume and other
factors.

The functions of freeway interchanges

are:
1. To provide separation between two
or more traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of
vehicles from one entry to the other
or between local roadway and the
freeway"

Types of Interchange

Freeway interchange:
1. Y - Type
2. T - Type or Trumpet
3. Diamond
4. Partial Cloverleaf
5. Cloverleaf

Channelize interchange:
6. Directional
7. Through Freeway with Rotary
Flyover with roundabout

Fully directional interchanges:

1. Four Level
2. Three Level

L.) Highway Intersections: Properly

designed intersections are essential for
traffic management and safety. They include
considerations like lane configurations,
signalization, and turning radii.

M.) Freeway Entrance and Exit: The
design of entrance and exit ramps on
freeways is critical for smooth merging and
exiting of traffic. This includes acceleration
and deceleration lanes, adequate signage,
and clear visibility.
Entrance - A single lane on ramp vehicle
flows into the outer continuing freeway lane.
The design is either a taper blending into
the through lane or an auxiliary lane parallel
to the through lane. In either case, sufficient
length is required to allow the vehicles to
accelerate and merge into the ongoing
vehicle stream at a speed near that of the
freeway
Exit - Vehicles leaving the freeway need
distance to accelerate and clear the flow of
ongoing traffic. In situations where one lane
cannot meet the traffic demand, two-lane
exits are necessary. In that situation, an
auxiliary lane must be added to the freeway
at least 800 meters before the point of exit.
Even with one lane exit, an auxiliary lane is
necessary to reduce confusion and
congestion.
In summary, adhering to DPWH standards
for highway design is crucial because it
ensures that highways are safe, efficient,
and sustainable. Each of these technical
requirements plays a role in creating a
well-functioning transportation network that
facilitates the movement of people and
goods while minimizing risks and
disruptions.