Elements of Roads and Highways

2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the project in

question that include additional modification to standard
CHAPTER
specifications. This includes copies of all documents re-
quired in securing cornpetitive bids and contracts. Speci-
fications are also subdivided into two:

a.) The general clause that deals with the bidding proce- DESIGNING THE
dures and award execution and control of work and
other legal matters.
HIGHWAY
b.) Specifuing detail regarding the materials, manner of
work execution and how pay quantities are to be 2-l Consistency
measured.
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway
design. That is, by making every element of the roadway con-
forms to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

l. Clear information and guidance tlrough a variety of road

slgns.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road
standards.

If these guides and directions could be planned properly to

convey one single message at a time, and if these directions will
be followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, or
changes in speed, lhen, the roadway facilities are considered
satisfactory. Experienced highway Engineers recommended that
highway signs and directions should be integrated as early as
the preliminary layout studies.

2-2 Definition of Terms

AASTHO is the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. ln 1914, the American Associa-
tion of State Highway Officials (ASSHO) was established as an
association of State Territorial and District of Coi.rmbia High-
way Department, and the Federal Highway Administration. The

L3
 Elements of Roads and Flighways
name was expanded in 1973, when the Departrnent of Transpor-
tation was integrated into the association renaming AASHO to
AASFilO, giving the officials of these agcncy the power to
govern its operation. Engineering activities, were implemented
by the standing committees with the task of preparing specifica-
tions manual and standards, representing the current trighway
engineering practice.
AASIIIO publications includes:
l. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests.
2. Specifications for highway bridges
3. Geometric deign standards.
+. Numerous policy statements and guides.
AASHTO publications are authoritative" References are
made in these books and periodic manuals. 'lhe association also
publishes the AASHTO quafterly reports on current Highway
and Transportations sublect including trends in forecast and
legislation.
Roads and Highways is defined as strips of land that have
been cleared and further improved for tle movement of people
and goods.
Road. R.oad has somewhat broader application in usage
while generally used to describe a public thoroughfare. It can
also refer to railways.
Highway" The term was first used in England to describe a
public road built by digging ditches on both sides and heaping
up the earth in the middle creating a way higher than the adja-
cent land. Highway now connotes, a higher state of develop-
ment than road. but the words are almost interchangeable.
Expressway is a divided arterial highway for through traffic
wrth full or partial control or access and generally provided
with grade separation at major intersections.
Freeway is au expressway with/r Il control oJ" access"
Designing the Highway
Control of Access is a conditron where the rights of owners
or occupants of adjoining land or other persons access to light,
air or view in cormestion with a highway is fully or partially
controlled by public authority.
Full Control of Access - The authority to control access is
exercised to give preference to through traffic by providing ac-
cess connections to seiected public roads only. Crossing at
grade or direct private driveway connections is not permitted.
Partial Control of Access - The authority to control access
is exercised to give preference to through traffic. Although in
addition to access connestions with selected public roads, there
may be some crossings at grade and some private driveway
connections allowed.
Through Street or Through Highway - Every Highway
or portion thereof on which vehicular traffic is given preferen-
tial right of way, and at the entrance to which vehicular traffic
from intersecting highways is required by law to yreld right of
way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either
stop sign or yield signs erected thereon.
Parlanay is an arterial highway for non-conrmercial traffic,
with full or partial control of access usually located within a
park or ribbon park-like development.
Arterial Street is an arterial route that carries traffic to the
nearest access point or through traffic. It often serves as the
most advantageous routes for relatively long distance travel.
Most arterial streets are existing highways of considerable
length along which cross traffic is regulated by signals or stop
signs. In addition, arterials provide access to adjacent property
but often with restrictions on entry and exit points. Arterial
street is considered as a "make do" substitute for controlled
access facilities when traffic volume exceeds about 20,000 ve-
hicles per day.
 I
t

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the HighwaY

Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways to residence, business, or other adjoining properties. It is also
defined as a road constructed and maintained by the local gov-
ernment.
l. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
Highway Capacity is defined as the manimum number of
3. Origin and destination. vehicles that are reasonably erpected to pass a given point over
4. Accident experienced. a given period of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane oftraffic in each direction. l. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommo-
7. Should be at least one kilomster in length. date about 2,000 passenger cars per hour.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate 2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000 passenger cars per
thern.
hour in each direction.
9. On gnd desrgn system streets, arterials are spaced at
about 600 to 900 meters apart.
There is an obvious relationship betwe€n vehicle speed and
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum vol-
highway capacity. As the volume of traffrc approaches capacity,
ume to justifu arterial road is 300 vehicles per average
the average speed is markedly reduced.
hour during the day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak
periods.
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a high-
way as measured by the number of vehicles passlng a partial
Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated arterial station during a given interval of time. It is called 'Average
road exceeds the capacrty of two-way streets, and to increase Annual Daily Traffic" if the period is less t}an one year. Vol-
the arterial capaclty, the following solutions are enforced: ume may be stated on houdy "Observed Traffic Volume" or
estimated 30e hour volume commonly used for desrgn pur-
l. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both poses. Some highway agencies use traffic volume for 5 minutes
sides ofthe street. interval to distinguish short peak movements of vehicles.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side
ofthe road intersections or corners.
3. fughtturn is allowed on red signals anytime with care.
2-3 The Design Speed
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections.
There is no single sst of Geometric Standards that will ap-
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to
ply to all highways. For every highway segment, decisions re-
provide more lanes in the direction of heavier traffic flow
g-di"g appropriate control for each of the many details or re-
quirements must be addressed individually or separately.
Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattem where pas-
sengers are pick up from service streets and carried to the arte-
AASI{TO defined Design SPeed as:
rials. Large commercial enterprises or amusement facilities like
drive in theaters are mostly fronting arterial roads. "The speed determined for design and correlation of the
physicat feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation'
Local Road is defined as street or road primarily for access
27
26
 Elernents of Roads and Highwnys
It is the marimum'speed that can be maintamed over a specified
section of the highway when weather and traffc conditi.ons are
so favorable that the designfeatures af the highway govern.
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super ele-
vation ofcurves, the sight distance, and grade. The design speed
is
basically higher than the anticipated average speed.
AASI{TO recommend that:
"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to
satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers bath today and throughout
the road anticipated life."
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain
road sections are designed for speed from 30 to 50 kilometers
per hour. And yet, some motorists drive faster on straight road
Designing the Highway
obsolescence as well as the increased margin of operating
safety. The high speed road design must anticipate future gen-
eration high speed vehicles and advanced transportation sys-
tems that may operate on many of these road alignments.
Although the design speed of most highways is govemed by
construction costs, the concept of the relatively high speed de-
sign for freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are planned for a
nationwide high volume traffic and high speed network.
TABLE2.l MINIMU ECOMMENDEI' DESIGN SPEED
FACILITY RURAL Km/hr
Freeway 8G95 preferred 110-95 mountainous

alignment or less sharply curved sections. Under this situations,

Arterial 6495 but 48 in built 80- I l0
up areas
highway des4n adopted control by reducing the super elevation Collectors 48 km./hr. See Table 2-2
combined with easement curves, delineators, stripprng signs and Local 32-48km./hr. See Table 2-2
rumble strips, to alert motorists and inform them tha! they are
approaching sharp curves or blind curves.
TABLE 2.2 AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEEI)
Selection of the proper road design speed is one of tlre most KM./HR FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND LOCAL ROADS
important decisions to make, because it sets the limit to curva- BASED ON CURRENT ADT
Class Tra
ture, sight distance, and other geometric figures. But because of
Collector 0-400 4W-750 750-2000 2000-4000 Over 4000
limited funds, there is a strong ternptation to reduce the design
Level 60 75 I> 75 90
speed. Such kind of decision is unwise, because the alignment Rolling 45 60 60 IJ 75
grade and siglrt distance after the roadway has been construct€d Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60
and paved along the landscape and rights of way, become more Local 0-50 50-250 250-400 Over 400
difficult and expensive to adjust or to correct. Levcl 45 45 60 75
Rolling 30 45 45 60
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Mountainous 30 30 30 45

Rural or Urban, then as Freeways, Arterials, Coliectors and Lo-

cal. Rural collectors and local facilities are classified as flat,
rolling, or mountainous. Although the design speed presently 2-4 Cross Section of Typical Highway
used is 80 lan. per hour, highway designers projected design
speed up ta 120 kilometers per hour to guarantee against future
The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of vari-
ables to consider such as:

28
 Elements of Roads and l{ighways Designing the Highway

The volume of traffic.
Character of the traffic.
Speed of the traffic.
Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver
Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uni-
form in thickness from end to end of the improvement. This is
acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a low vol-
ume traffic facilities, modrfication of the features like the
shouldcrs width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce
costs. A cross section design generally offers the expected level
of service for safety and a recent study showed that:
fic roadways, although tlere are strong demand to increase it
further from 3.60 to 4.20 meters.
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide sur-
face is required for safe clearance between commercial vehicles
and is recornmended for main highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is ac-
ceptable only for low volume trafFrc including few trucks trav-
eling thereon.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is
4.80 meters for a 30 km / hr. design speed.
For Urbair Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60
meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is limited.

t. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less accidenl Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars
compared wrth pavement narrower than 5.50 m. wide. and trucks, air disturbances sometimes cause side collision be-
A 7,2A meters wide pavement ha 4%o fetver accidents tween passing vehicles when sweryed within or out of their
than the 6.00 meters wide roadway. lanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60
meters and the 7.20 meters wide pave.ment.
4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters wide pavement Rounded
2:1 cut alope
with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide shoulder, recorded accident in deep cut
decreases by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoul-
der. And 20%o compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide
shoulder.

It appears that, the above difference in accident potentials

may not justifiz higher standard, particularly, when traffic vol-
ume is low. A driver's instinct when overtaking or allowing FIGURE 2-1 CROSS SECTION OF ryPICAL TWO LANE HIGHWAYS
other cars to overtake or meting oncoming vehicles is to look at
the surface width of the highway, and see the kind of surface
where to position his car.

Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only

4.50 meters, but due to the increased number of vehicles using
the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80 to 5.40 meters.
Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00 m. for
first class paved one lane highway, and now 3.60 meters wide
surface was adopted standard for freeways and other major traf- FTGURE 2-2 MULT|-LANE HTGHWAYS AND FREEWAYS (HALF SECTTON)

30 3l

t
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

100 3.25 13.00 3.25 1.00

2.50 Widening 2.54

0.15 0.20 0.20 0.15

L- t
I

!r...F-.?F
StoD lane
Vr. < 100 Km / hr. Four 3.50 m. Lanes - 2.50 m. Stop Lanes
stop ranJ

Shoulder Travelway Medran I Travelway Shouldel

Roadway 33.50

Yr. 12O Km / hr. or Vr < 100 km/hr. with 13 m. Median - 2.50 m. Stop Lanes

Vr. < 60 Km / hr. Four 3.00 m. Lanes - 250 Stop Lanes

Vr. > 100 Km / hr. 2.50 Stop Lanes

Vr. < 100 Km / hr. Two - 3.50 m. Lanes 2.00 m. Stop lenes

23.50

Vr < 100 Km / hr. 2.50 Stop Lanes

Vr. < 80 Km,/ hr. Two - 3.00 m. Laner 2.00 m. Stop lanes

22.O0

Vr. < 60 Km / hr. 2.50 Stop Lanes

FIGURE 2-4 UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS

FIGURE 23 DIVIDEO HIGHWAYS

32 33

Lr-
 t

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

2-5 Road Shoulder Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the l. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or
roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the 3.60 meters wide if tnrck volume is more than 250 in the
ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires that its us- design hour (ADT).
able pavement width shall be strong enough to support vehicles. 2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is
1.20 to 2.40 meters with at ldast 1.20 msters paved.
Importance of Road Shoulder 3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should
be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 metbrs if truck volume in the
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when desrgn hour exceeds 250.
disabled or for some other purpc,ses. Road shoulder con- 4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder
siderably reduces road accidents. width is fixed at 1.20 meters minimum, although 2.40
-l'he meters wide is much preferred.
2. road capacity is decreased and accident opporrunity
5. When the design hour volumeADT exceeds 400, the us-
increases if the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the
able minimum shoulder width is 2"40 meters although
design.
3.60 meters is recommended.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of 6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb
the roadway. It also adds structural strength to the road is suggested unless needed for proposed drainage.
pavement. 7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arte-
4. Shouldlr increases the horizontal sight distance on rials is fixed at 90 centimeters as minimum.
curves. It reduces accident potential when vehicle stop 8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width
during emergencies. is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide
Most of the road shoulders in rural areas are unpaved graded shoulder is required for ADT's less than 400"
having a width of 60 to 120 centimeters wide either earth 10. For ADT's over 2000. 2.40 meters wide shoulder is rec-
filled or graveled surface that during rainy days, drivers are ommended.
hesitant to occupy. The Uniform Traffic Control Device
Manual provides that: TABLE 2.3 WIDTH OFROADWAY X'ORUNDIVIDED HTGHWAY
Total Trave Shoulder Width Roadway Width of Refcrence
" All inter-town or city highways shall provided with
be 14.00 m. 3.25 20.50 100-80-60-40
edge line and may be used on other classes of roads." 12.00 m. 3.25 18.50 60-40
7.00 m. 2.75 12.50 100-80-60-40
A continuous narrow white line strip at the edge of the 7.00 m. 2.00 I1.00 80-60-40
roadway that separates the shoulder, serves as guide to drivers 6.70 m. 2.7s 12.20 100-80-60-40
during bad weather and poor visibilrty conditions. The white
6.7C m. 2.00 10.70 80-60-40
6.00 m. 2.75 11.50 80-60-40
strips tend the driver to stay in the traffrc lane and the vehicles 6.00 m. 1.50 9.00 80-60-40
seldom infringe on the shoulder.

)4
35
 Designing the Highway
r\lements of Roads and Highways

ONLY WITH STOP . LANE

15 Widening Stop Lane 2.50 or2.25 or 2.00

0.50 nan

Travelway Stop Lane 2.50 m.

or2.25 or 2.00m. RoundinO 1.00

shoulder 3.25 m. or S
3.30 m. or 2.75 m. stope or Ditch
Stop Lanes 2.50 a( 2.25 ot 2.OO
Turfed

3.00
Wall
2.0O to 3.00

l/4 to 1/16
UNDER STRUCTURE

Natural Soil

1.20
WITH STOP LANE AND GUARDRAILS

f ravelway
lq 5%

Stop Lane 2.50. 2.25 or 2.00

I 0.75
7%

Concrete
Shoulder 3.25 , 3.00 or 2.75

0.75

Covered gutter ON STRUCTURE

Lane 2.50, 2.25 or 2.00

FIGURE 24 STRAIGHT ALTGNMENT SHOULDER DETATL WITH STOP

FIGURE 2{ STRAIGHT ALIGfTIMENT SHOULDER DETAIL LAilE AND GUARDRAIL
WITH STOP I.ANE
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

NO STOP LANE, FOOTPATH OR GUARDRAILS ( NO PEDESTRIAN ALLOWED)

UNDER STRUCTURE

Shoulder 2.00, 1.50 or 1-00

WITH STOP LANE USED AS CYCLE PATH AND FOOTPATH

ON STRUCTURE
Stop Lane / cycle path
2.5O or 2.25 ot 2.OO

UNDER STRUCTURE

A= 1.50 ifvr > 60Km/hr.

Stop Lane / cycle path 2.50, 2.25 ar 2.OO A= 1.25 if Vr S 60 Km /hr.

Stop Lane / cycle path / footpath Under Structure

2.5a, 2.25 ot 2.oO

0.50 if 1.00 shouldef

Shoulder 2.00.1.50 - 1

Stop Lane/ cycle path

?.50. 2.25 ot 2.OO
ON STRUCTURE

FIGURE 2-7 STRAIGHT ALIGNMENT SHOULDER DETAIL WITH STOP FIGURE 2€ NO STOP LANE, I,IO FOOTPATH, I{O GUARDRAILS
LANE USED AS CYCLE PATH AtlD FOOTPATH SHOULDER

38
39
 I

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

FOOTPATH ONLY
I.IT{SIDE SHOULDER

Footpath 1.25

- 2.00 - 1.75 - 1.50

Paved stop if e<4% if e>4% S=e

if e<5% if e>5% S=e

STRUCTURE
2. OUTSIDE SHOULDER

WITH FOOTPATH ANO GUARDRAILS

Footpath
75 - .50 - or .50 if 1.00 shoulder

UNDER STRUCTURE

A = 1.50 if Vr > 60 km/ hr.

A = 1.25 if Vr.l 60 km/ hr.

Shouldcr 3.00 or 2.50

FIGURE 2€ SHOULDER DETAIL FOOTPATI{ ONLY FIGURE 2-10 ALIGIIIMENT ltrl CURVE SHOULDER OETATL
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

Considering the above recommendations, Width is defined
as "extendingfrom the edge of the surfacing to the point where
shoulder slope intersect the side slope. " The Urban colleclor
road usually has no shoulder, instead, parking lanes of 2.40 me'
ters or preferably 3.00 meters wide with gutters are specified.
2-6 The Cross Slope
These types of cross sections allow the inner lane to ac-
commodate high speed traffic because it is flatter than the outer
lanes.
On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface makes
the centerline almost flat unless gutters are sufficiently deep
enough to convey water. A combination of uniform slope with
parabolic curve is used instead of ttre parabolic sections.

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the

roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from the ce,lrter- Slope 1% to 2%
line of the uro lane highway except where super elevation of
curyes directs all water towards the inside.
For high type pavemen! the crown or slope is often Iyo tD
2o/o. However, steqter slopes are strongly recommended be-
cause rain water, flow away more rapidly reducing the water
thickness on the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction
of multi lane hrghways makes driving comfortable, but with
heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadwqy. FIGURE 2.12 HIGH TYPE PAVEMENT CROSS SLOP€ i

Center Line

FIGURE 2.13 PARABOLIC PAVEMENT SECTION

FIGURE 2.1 1 PAVED AND GRAVEL SHOULDER CROSS SLOPE

The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from3o/ota 6% although
4Yo is the most cornmon. For a gravel shoulder, 4%to 60/o slope
is satisfactory and 7o/o slope is effective drainage for turf (grass)
surfaces.
2-7 Cut or Fill Slope
Eadh fill of normal height is safe on a slope of I:2 ratios.
Meaning, the first number represents the horizontal distance
while the second number is the vertical distance.

42 43
 Elements of Roads and Highw*ys
Designing the Highway

2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.

3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:l ratio except on
solid rock or special kind of soil.

EARTHFILL OF NORMAL HEIGHT CUTS THROUGH ORDINARY UNDISTURBED

1: 2 RATIO EARTH 1:1 RATIO

FIGURE 2.14 FIGURE 2.15

Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earthfill re-

main in place with a ratio of 1:1 slope. On the otlrer hand, rock
cuts could be as steep as l:2 and sometimes 1:4 proven to be VISIBLE FLAT SLOPE
stable. Receirtly, slopes had been geirerally lowered for safer
operations and to facilitate plant growth. Plants reduced erosion
ROCK CUTS RATIO FROM 1:2 ro 1:4
and decreases maintenance costs.
FIGURE 2-16 ROCKCUT RATIO FROM 1:2 OR 1:4
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope

The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes

l. With back slope of 3:l or even flatter, cars could be di-
intersect the original ground surface, cross section must be
rected to back into the road and will come to stop or con-
tinue down the slope with no risk of over turning. rounded to blend the slope with the natural ground surface.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent When the side slope requires e,nrbankrnent with suitable retain-
grirng the roadway safer appearance. tng urall, any of the following materials could be used depend-
rqg uponthe natural conditions.
3. With visible slope for being low and fla! vehicles could
be positioned or parked closer to the edge, and on two
lane roadway facilities parkmg would be farttrer from the
l. Fland placed stones. ,,./,
opposlng traffic. 2. Cerre,nt nrbbles masonry.
3. Concrete blocks.
Recommended Policy on Geometric Design
4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. T or counter forted designs.
1. The 6:l slope ratio could be adopted on embankment 6. Cribs assembled fromtimber.
than 1.20 meters high, and 4:l ratio on a higher fill.
less 7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal elements.
 Designing the HighwaY
Elements of Roads and HighwaYs

9. Tied back piling. 8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross
each roadway separately. A 4.20 to 6.60 meters median
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands'
width provides protection for turning vehicles'

2-8 Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is deter-
mined from tJre estimated traffic volume for the design year
(AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service.
AASFilO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway
with four lanes in each direction for an inner freeway and four
more lanes in each direction on the outside. There are some in-
stances where a reversible lane is located at the center of free-
ways with unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as
partition - separation of opposite traffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide
enough to prevent vehicles running out of control from
reaching the opposite traffic.
I l. The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is fa-
vored, but specific value is not-stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1
butpreferably l0:1.

2-9 Highway Median 13. Dense planting ofrose hedges serves as safety crash bar-
riers.
Recently, median in various forms, becomes absolute re-
qurrement for highways because, it offers the following advan- For Narrow Median, there are four means of reducing cross
tages: median accidents:

l. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, con- 1. Provide detemng devices.

flicts, and accident between opposing streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic
stream ofcross traffic, and pedestrian could traverse each
strearn at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left tum lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is highly rec-
ommended. For rural sections of freeway, the 18 to 27
msters wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that, 3.00 to 9.00
meters median width is appropriate in suburban or moun-
tainous situations.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or
wider is preferred because it allows the use of independ-
ent profiles and at the same time minimizes cross over
accident.
2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers'
3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
4. Provide G.M. barriers.
Deterring Devices. - Two sets of double strip painted on
the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low curbing and
shallow ditches.
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices. The line
chain link fence I meter high supported by steel post aug-
mented by cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non-traversable
rigid barriers are metal guard rail.
G.M. Barriers. A high non-mountain sloped face concrete
barriers called New Jersey. It is cast or extruded in place or pre-
cast in section and set in position by crane.

47
46

_t
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

Widening .20 Widening

h = .02 to.04

Vr. 120 km / hr. or eventually Vr. 100 km.l hr.

Vr. <1(X) kmlhr.

Turf or stabilization 5.60

Vr. < 100 km I hr.

.20
D

r-*t
5
___r---* ] ll T_l S' S

| 1.00 I
I |.-l
I stabilization 1.80 Turf oi stabilization Stabilization 1.80 |

Vr. > 80 km / hr.

Vr. 3 00 km I hr.

Vr. < 100 km I hr.

FIGURE 2.I7 MEDIATTI UNDER STRUCTURE
FIGURE 2-t8 STRAIGIIT ALIGNMENT MEDlAltl lltl CURREilT SECTION

49
48
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

--fi
V
O1
ol
dl
6,
J
ol

ov@
:-
^qo
Noo

9':
@aio

3*3
ooo r 09'e ol 00 e
I
I
€oY I
E

z
s
ul
=

Medlan > 3.00 meters

FIGURE 2.I9 MEDIAN ON STRUCTURES F]GURE 2.20 MEDIAfII APPROACH

50
5l
 1

Elements of Roads and Highways { Designing the llighway

BARRIER CURB

5 12.5

lN'ul,o
tll

I
.7
a=z.s/ I

ot
rut
zt
5l
zl
10 20
Stope 30:20
ol 10 ll \---t-r
FI
ffil
q,
'll? (
I
zl
'l I

repForls FIGURE 2- 22 MOUNTABLE CURB

I
I
I 2-10 The Grade Line
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the high-
way as a measure how the centerline of the highway rises and
fall.
FIGURE 2.2,I DECELERATION LANES A]iIO II{SERTION LAiIES
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road

\o !c cil o
F]
d centerline. It is a series of straight lines connected by parabolic
vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.
p oo

=9o\.o\o In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the fol-
o
E] lowing:
€ €C-F-\On
s 1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting
z Fl c{oo o\ sigtrt distances in relation to grade line, economy is one
(h
main consideration.
o
oo
90\€c-\o
2. In mountainous areas, fte grade line must be considered
I q) balanced excavation against embankrnents to get the
o
minimum overall cost.
\O
*o l&
t- C- F- ral
3. In flat are4 the grade line is set almost parallel to the
rr ground surface but sufficiently above the ground for
a tn
FI drainage purposes.
o "l =9a€ 4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with suffi-
4 z oo

O\€l"-\O cient covering.

trl
j ti & .2 5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is gov-
E
u) €F-\or
erned by the expected level of water flood.
a
x
E
xtsl r-\O\Or 2-11 Vertical Curve Over Crest
A q
Fl q)
E oo o
All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established
E nssS V)
minimum over crests. This is govemed by the sight distance
X &n
-d
requirements but sometimes a case of riding, may demand
!? Fl
6 Xg
E $cnco(a H,O longer curves than the sight distance.
o-
! 'tr9 Some designers prefer no vertical curye to be shorter than
a.l
F] 9?
q>
j \o \o 300 meters. AASHTO 5t'ggested that the minimum curve lengtb
tr u)
,R6
v5 varies with the design speed in meters distance equals to 8 times
ao
tr og the velocity in kilometers per hour.
B
frl rat >:()
r4
=o.
tuz " The vertical distance from the intersecfion ofthe straight
!f cf) <r grade line to the curve is equal to one eight ofthe product oJ-
d
I the algebraic dffirence in grades and the length of the curve in

xg E
$$38hpi U)
stations. This is called the maximum correction. TIte rate at
which the curve departs vertically from both tangent grade line

55
54
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

is proportional to the square of the horizontal distance from the 2-13 Stopping Sight Distance
end of the curve. The correction at any intermediate point is
obtained by: The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest dis-
tance that a driver could see the topof an object 15 centimeters
l. Multiplyrng the maximum correction by the square of the (6") above the road surface where the design height of the
horizontal distance between the near end of the curve and driver's eye abovc the pavement is 105 centimeters.
the point.
Z. Divide this product by the square of one half the length
ofthe curve.

2-12 Right of Way

Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly.
Based on experience from the past, highway agency now con- 1.05 m. eye level
Object 15 cm.
sider it a good practice to acquire right of way wide enough to above the pavement
sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.
A successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the
roadway from direct access to adjoining property and some 1o- FIGURE 2-23 MEASURING STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
cal roads or streets. If local traffic and land use are to be
opened, it must be served by service roads originally planned as Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
part of the main freeway. Frontage road shall be permitted m
enter coruresfing cross streets only at a distance of at least 100 l. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is
meters for rural road and 50 meters f,or urban conditions. seen and before the driver applies the brakes.
Z. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies
brakes for the vehicle to stop.
TABLE 2-5 MINIMTM RIGHT OF WAY WIDTHS FOR RI]RAL
AND URBAN F'RDEWAYS AT GRADE IN METER The distance covered could be expressed by the follow-
ing formula:
Number width RURAL URBAN
Rcstricted No Normal with Normal No
of Frontagc No Frontage d: tm/s
Lanes Road Road Frontace Rd. Frontacc Rd. F Rd
2 60 45 Breakingdistance: d : (m/s)2
4 68 53 4l 2 gmf
6 60 5l 89 53

8 83 68 59 96 60 d: (m/s)2
19.6 f
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design
Where : m,/s - Initial speed, in meter per second

56 57
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

t = Detection, recognition, decision and

2-14 The Passing Sight Distance
response initiation ( brake reaction time )
gm = Acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters
The passing sight distance is the longest distance that a
per second squared
driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the driver's
f= Coefficient of friction between the tire
eye level is 1.05 mgters above the pavement surface. The rela-
and pavement.
tionship between the passing sight distance, the algebraic dif-
ference in grades, and the length ofvertical curve is represented
The above formula assumes that the highway level is flat. If
by the following equations:
the car is traveling uphill, the braking distance is decreased, and
for downhill, braking distance is increased. 'lhe braking dis-
tance on slope is expressed by the following formula:
, L : 25 - 943 where S is greater than L
A
Braking distance (m) d = (.m/ s )2 L : AS2 where S is less than L
1e.8(f+g) 943 L is lurgth in meters
Where: g= Longitudinal slope of tlre roadway or
L:
a/o
length required ofvertical curve
Grade / 100 :
S specified sight distance
Uphill grade is positive ( + )
4= algebraic difference in grades expressed in perceirt
Downhill grade is negative ( - )

TABLE 2{ Ii'INIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE WET ROAD

Dcsign Assumed Break Reaction inc Sicht Di

Specd Specd for Time Dstance Cocf. of Computed Rounded for
Km/ph Condition -
Sec. Mctcr Friction m€tcr Design (rn.)

30 30-32 2.5 22-24 0.40 3r.8-35.8 36-38

45 40-50 2.5 3l-33 0.35 53.4-58.8 60-60
60 55-60 2.5 4044 0.32 80.1-94.2 82-97
75 65-75 2.5 48-55 0.30 I12.8-138.3 112-142 FIGURE 2- 24 MEASURING PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
90 80-90 2.5 57-66 0.29 r50.2-t90.2 I 57-195
100 85-95 2.5 6t-71 0.29 t65.0-217.2 165-2t7 The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is
105 90-100 2.5 &77 0.28 183.9-252.0 181.255
generally practical only cn flat grades because the longer verti-
110 90-ll0 2.5 67-83 0.28 200.1-283.0 202-285
120 95-120 2.5 71.88 0.27 222.3-324.9 225-330
cal curves are required to provide passing sight than stopping
sight distance.
Source: A Policy on Gcomctric Dcsign F = (m/s)i - Se
9.8 Rm

58
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Designing the Highway
Where: (m / s) : Meter per second invite accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of differem
Rm : Radius in mster radius from end to end or compounded curve is not a good prac-
Se = Super elevation (slope ratio) rise tice, unless suitable transitions between them are provided.
per second
To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor
practice. A long flat curve is acceptable at all times. It is pieas-
The maximum coefficient of side friction on dry pavement
ing to look at, with less probability of future obsolescence.
as determlned by curve tests ranges between 0.4 and 0.5 value
Alignment should be provided with tangent because there are
with normal pavemsnt and smooth tires is about 0.35 at 75
drivers who hesitate to pass on curyes. A short curve appears
kilometers per hour.
like kinks. A long flat curve is preferred for small changis in
direction.
TABLE 2.7 AASHTO MIMMUM PASSING SIGI{T DISTAI{CE
FON DESIGN T}f TWO-I.ANE I{IGIfl$AYS
Minimum Passing 2-L6 Circular Curves
Ovcrtaking
Vehicle A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to centrifugal
Km/hr. force. This force is balanced by equal and opposite forces de-
veloped through the super elevation and side frictions. How-
35 35 48 243 244
50 42
ever, neither the side friction on the super elevation, could
58 327 320
65 )) 70 ,i'11 overcome nor exceed the maximum control and limit on the
440
80 65 82 552 5s0
sharpness of the curves with a prescribed design speed. The
95 75 9l &2 u0 sharpness of a curve is dependent on its radius. Sharpness is
100 80 96 693 690 expressed in terms of the curve degrees, and the degrees of
110 86 l0:. 747 740 curve is inversely proportional with the radius.
t20 90 105 780 780
135 95 ll0 822 820 Formula: D = 5.729.58
Rrdi*
TABLE 2-8 AASHTO RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM
COEFFICIENT OF SIDE FRICTION
Radius = 5.129.58
D
Design Spced Km/hr. 48 ll3 129
Cocflicient of Friction .16 .10 .08 Where: D = degree of curve and the radius
Degree of curve SI : 0.328 D

2-15 Road Alignment
Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change
from flat to sharp curve and long tangents followed by sharp
curve should be avoided because it will onlv create hazard and
Solution using the above formula will give
following results:
The degree of curve is expressed either by the Arc defini-
tions or the Chord definitions.

60
6l
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

TABLE 2-9 DEGREE OF CT]RVES l. For design speed of 50 kilometers per hour, the normal
of Rndirs Meter Decree of Curvc Radius cross slope is l'- 21' or even flatter curves.
2. For a 120 kilometers per hour design speed road, the
00 30' 3A9r.7s 60 00' 291.06
nofmal cross slope is 0'- 15' or flatter curves without su-
lo 00' 1,146.38 100 00' t't4.63
per elevation.
20 00' 873.19 200 00' 87.32

ln each of this solution, the total side friction is less than

Arc Definitions - The degree of curve is the central angle 0.04 for an adverse cross slope of 0.02.
subtended by a 30 meters arc ofthe curve.
Chord Definitions - The degree of curve is the central an- 2-17 Super Elevation -,Runoff
gle subtended by 50 meters chord.
Curved sections of roadways are usually super elevated.
Radius = 50 Provisions for gradual changes from one point to the other
Sine % D should be considered. The centerline of each individual road-
way at profile grade is maintained while raising the outer edge
TABLE 2.10 SHARPEST PERMISSIBLE HORIZONTAL CT]RVES and lowering the inner edge to attain the desired super eleva-
FOR GIVEN DESIGN SPEED AND SI]PER ELEVATION
tion. It is done by raising-up the outside edge of the pavement
with relation to the centerline until the outer half of the cross
MaximumPermissible Degree of Curve D, or
Minimum Radius Design Speed
section is flat. Then, the outer edge is raised until the cross sec-
tion is straight. Finally, the e,lrtire cross section is rotated as a
Km/hr. 35 50 65 80 91 t13 121 whole until firll super elevation is reached.

Super Condition
Elev. for use .t7 .16 .15 .t4 .13 .12 .ll

0.04 Dcsirable for

down arterials D 45 19 l0 6 3.7s
Rm 39 92 175 291 466

0.10 Max for Rural D 58 25 13.25 8.25 5.25 3.5 2.25

highway and Rm 30 70 132 198 333 499 776
suburban frccway

Sourcc: A Policy on Gcometric Design Lane surface

The maximum allowed super elevation rate before was 0.12

but now it is 0.10 except on low volume gravel roads. The Pol-
icy on Geometric Design recommend that : FIGURE 2-25 SUPER ELEVATION OF CURVES

62
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

TABLE 2.1I SUGGESTED MII{IMI.]M LENGTII OF SIJPER 2-t8 Widening of Curves

ELEVATION RI]NOFF F'OR2-LANE A3.60 METERS LANE

A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp

LENGTH OF RUNOFF FORDESIGN SPEED in Meter
curve for two lanes pavement under the following reasons:
Super clevation l. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavernent edge.
Rate Km./hr. 35 50 95 ll5 130 2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-
tracking of front and rear wheels.
.02 9.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the
.04 18.0 2r.0 25.5 28.5 33.0 36.0 39.0
front wheel to the roadway center line.
.06 28.5 33.0 37.5 43.5 48.0 54.0 60.0
4. For a7.20 msters wide roadway, an additional width of 30
.08 37 .5 43.5 5l .0 57 .0 @.5 72.0 79 5
centimeters is necessary on an'open curve highway.
.10 48.0 54.0 63.0 72.0 8r.0 90.0 99.0

Reverse circular curves are seldom used on modern high-

Sourcc: A Policy on Geometric Design
AASHTO recornmended the run off leirgth to vary both
with the super elwation rate and the design spee4 but with
minimum sst for appearance and comfort to riders. A roadway
that lies in a cut, where the grade line is nearly flat, may create
sag by lowering its inner edge. This may not drain surface wa-
ter.
It is advisable to make the super elevation by raising the
outer edge elevated tvrice ttre usual distance. Where the align-
ment is of tangent connected by a circular curve, super eleva-
tion is started on a tange,ft before tlrc curve is reached and full
super elwation is accomplished at a distance beyond the point
of curve. It is therefore recornmended that 600A ta 80% of the
runoffbe on a tangent.
For wider roadway, the length give,n on Table 2-9 should be
increased as follows:
Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%
Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%
ways, but reverse cuwes that are provided with proper
length easemsnts between them are acceptable. If no
easement curve is allotted, curves on opposite directions
should be separated by tangent several meters long.
There are roads with compound curves that change abruptly
from one sharpness to another. Where the radii of the com-
pound curves are Jifferent, sudden change confuse the drivers
and in turn they shift position within the lane and sometimes
veer out of it. For this reason, compound circular curve of dif-
ferent radii is considered as poor design.
AASFilO recommends that the radius of the flatter curve
for rural highways should never be more than 50olo greater than
that of the sharper one. For urban intersection, this easement
curve is considered which introduces the changes in radius
gradually. Super elevation changes along this transition section.
2-19 Island
An island is a defined area bstwesn traffic lanes for control
of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge. Within an inter-
section, median is considered an island. This definition makes
evident that an island is no single physical type.

65
 _
T

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

It may range from an area delineated by barrier curb to a

pavement area marked by paint. On at-grade intersection in
which traffic is directed into definite paths by island is termed

Mlf
as Channelized Intersections.

Island is included in the design of intersections for the fol-

lowing purposes:
l. Separation of vehicular flows.
2. The angle between intersecting Prohibited turns may be
Separation of conflicts.
streams of traffic can be smooth prevented
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas. and favorable
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of in-
tersections.

T
5 Arrangement to favor a promineirt turning movemerf.
6. Location of traffic control devices.

To confine vehicles in a definite location without proper

route for vehicles and pedestrian, everyone's action could not
be predicted by others and these are usually the main cause of
confrsion which lead to accidents.

By
streams
charurelization, the angle or route between intersecting
of traffic can be smooth and favorable. Drivers are
commanded to merge into moving traffic strearns at flat angle
and right speed being controlled over vehicles approaching an
A ItH'l

Speed of vehicles controlled

over approaching intersections
Funneling vehicles into narrowing
opening prevent oveftaking and
passing conflict area

intersection.

When cross traffic meets at flat angle, head on collision

cotrld be more serious. A right angle at 75'to 105" is most fa-
vorable glving the driver that opportunity to assess or calculate
the position and speed of oncoming vehicles. By channeliza-
r* -ll/-
tion, funneling is also effective in preventing overtaking and t(
passing in conflict areas. A well studied super elevation is an
II
tl
imporfant adjunct to channelization that regulates the vehicle
Ir
speed and: Refuge provided for turning Drivers commanded to merge
vehicles into moving trafftc streams.
1. Prohibited turns are prevented.

FIGURE 2- 26 GENERAL TYPES AND SHAPES OF AN ISLAND

 - Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or
crossing velucles and pedestrians.
4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time,
hence, conflicts can be avoided.
5. It provides location for the traffic control devices like
signs, signals and refuge for pedestrians.
Under this type, weaving and merging movements are sepa-
rated. It also provide an opporfunity to speed adjustment clear
of the fieeway. When Freeway meets Freeway where traffic
movement is heavy, interchange is provided with directional
left tum in all four quadrants.

2-20 Types of Interchange

The tlpes and form of freeway intercharrge requires selec-
tion of the conformation that is best suited to a particular situa-
tion and demand. The functions of freeway interchanges are:
l. To provide separation befween two or more traffic arteries.
2 To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to
the olher or betwesn local roadway and the freeway"

The simplest and low cost form of interchange is the dia-

mond type. It is recornmended where the freeway crosses non-
freeway arterial. The cloverleaf type interchange is recom-
mended for fi'eeway and arterial intersections. Intersecting ar-
terjes are separated and free of intersections.
Y - Type lnterchanges

Objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design

l. It requires large area ofland.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to
traverse the longer loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270' iLdtrt. turn and
travel greater distance beooming very unpleasant and
hazardous due to the sharp curyes and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave
those entering the adjacent loop from the through road-
way.

Alternative cloverleaf design with collector distributor road

is recommended for one or two through street if the cost of
FIGURE 2.27 TYPES OF FREEWAY INTERCHANGES
added land paving and structures can be justified.

tt9
6b
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

Directional Interchanges

Partial Cloverleal

Through freeway with rotary flyover

with roundabout
A Pollry on G.omctlic Dosign

FIGURE 2.28 TYPES OF FREEWAY INTERCHANGES FIGURE 2-29 CHANNELIZED INTERCT-.IANGES

'to 71
 I
I

Designing the Highway

Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
l. For right angle intersections with linle trafhc. fie use of
street sigh is more than sufficient.
2. For Y intersection or other related conformation where
vehicles meet at unfavorable angles may require chan-
nelization.
3. 'lhe flared design will involve the following:
a. Widening the entering trafEc lane to allow decelera-
tion of tbe car and clear of through traffic.
b. Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleratiotr
and merging fiom the traffic streams.
4" Intersections must accornmodate large trucks. and the ra-
dius of all curves must be suffrcient enough to accom-
Four Level modate them.

A careful traffic count and projected future improvement

must precede the design of all critical sections. Based from the
dat.e gathered on trafftc count, the lane capacitl'could be deter-
mined including the ttumber of lanes to be constructed.

llll
Three Level
)f_* ____)[ _
Three Level Flared - T
Unchannelized - T

a)N
FIGURE 2-30 FULLY DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGES
| \
Figure (a) Roadway at four levels is appropna]9
to**on ln
whgre land is very expensive'
level of roadways required to
I t rHREE LEG rNrERSEcrroNs
(b) an<l (c) rs more open design 3,

rneet control or grades and slight distance'

7-21 Highway Intersection at Grade

T- with Turning RoadwaY
highways except freeways have intersections
at grade'
All
connecting roads'
lntersection area is considered part of every
turning mov€ment oocur' FIGURE 2.31 INTERCHANGE AT GRADE
In this area'all crossing and
73
72
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Designing the Highway

Y - with Turning RoadwaYs

A
THREE LEG INTERSECTIONS

l\
AN*
-=N
ll
T' \ /
/F- .'
channerized-Y
Flared Type

FOUR LEG INTERSECTIONS

Four leg channelized type

intersections

tl
/\

-AN--
Four leg channelized type Rotary intersections M ulti-leg Intersections
intersections roundabout

FIGURE 2-32 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE FIGURE 2-33 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

 Elements of Roads and l{ighways
Designing the Highway

2-22 Freeway Entrance and Lxit TABLE 2.12 SAMPLING OF MINIMUM FOR FREEWAY
ON AIID OFF TIIE RAMPS
The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway systems
is governed by the flow characteristics of vehicles, and the driv- On Ramp or OffRamp Design Speed Km/hr.
Freeway
er's behavior near on and offthe channel.
Speed 20 30 40
Km/hr. L = Length of Ramps in Meter

OnRamp
80 228 189 150 48 5l
95 350 321 273 177 5l
i, ll0 4't7 450 400 303 174
:

PARALLEL ENTRANCE Off Ramps

80 130 ll5 95 68
95 159 147 t29 tO2 72
110 185 170 153 129 102

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design

FIGURE 2- 34 DESIGN OF FREEWAY INTRANCES

,t' single lane on ramp vehicle flows into the outer continu-
mg freeway lane. The design is either a taper blending into the PARALLEL TYPE FREEWAY EXIT
through lane or an auxiliary lane parallel to the through lane. In
either case, sufficient length is required to allow the vehicles to
accelerate and merge into the ongolng vehicle stream at a speed
near that of the freeway.

Vehicles leaving the freeway need distance to accelerate

and clear of the flow of ongoing traffic. In situation where one
lane could not meet the traffrc demand, two lane exits is neces-
sary. In that situation, an auxiliary lane must be added to the TAPER TYPE FREEWAY EXIT
freeway at least 800 meters before the point of exit. Even with
one lane exit, an auxiliary lane is necessary for it reduces con-
fusion and congestions.
FIGURE 2-35 DESIGN OF FREEWAY EXIT

76
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
2-23 Railroad - Highway Separation
The main question asked on a railroad and highway separa-
tion is: 'Iilhere one is to go over- the railroad or the highway?
If the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself is
lighter *a *" highway load is much smaller than the railroad
loads. With regards to the vertical clearance height, the railroad
requires a minimum of 7.00 meters as against 4.80 meters clear
distance above the highwaY.
If the highway goes under the railroad, special provision is
required for the removal of rainwater that falls wrthrn the^op-
poiirrg area. If the ground water is high in the vicinity of the
Lror.ittg, the roadway must be sealed against leakage and be
made heavy enough to prevent from floating.
2-24 Bicycle Lane
Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy crises
and traific problems. It requires separate road for the riders that
is entirely separate from the vehicular traffic. The design speed
is 20 to 30 kilometers per hoor for flat section. The width is
2.00 meters minimum for a 2-way travel. The grade of the lane
is 57o maximum on short distances.
78
CTIAPTE
soIL
3-1 Soil and its Origin
From the earliest civilization up to the present time, soil is
the most important material that influenced mankind in his
struggle for survival. The material where man grows his food,
build his homes, roads, and ultimately his final destination.
The soil referred to in this study, is the materiat used to
build with, or on that acts in combination with other forces of
nature to make structures and land forms. The material classi-
fied under the field of Geotechnics.
Soil may be defined as the accumulation of unconsolidated
sediments and deposits of solid particles as a result of the
rntegration of rocks. On the other hand rocks may be defined as
natural aggregate of minerals connected by strong bonding of
attractive forces classified as consolidated materials.
Scientifically, most of the non-organic materials idelrtified
as soil has originated from rocks as the parent material. Rock
tlpes are classified into three major classes in accordance with
their own origln or method of formations:
l. Igneous rock.
2. Sedimentary rock.
3. Metamorphic rock
Igneous Rock is the result from the cooling and hardening
of molten rock called magma ttrat has originated from deep
within the earth. The rapid cooling of molten magma called lava
which was blown up by volcano solidifies into small crystal and
79