/SOURCE OF SAND FOR AN NAFUD SAND SEA,

KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA

by

DeWayne J. Faulkender

B.S., Kansas State University, 1959

A MASTER'S THESIS

submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Geology

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Manhattan, Kansas

1986
 A11206 8OO19

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose of study 1

Origin of study 2

Location and Accessibility 2

CIimate 4

Vegetation and Wildlife 5

Culture 6

Previous Investigations 7

Field Procedures 8

Acknowledgements 9

GEOLOGY OF WESTERN SAUDI ARABIA 11

Stratigraphy 11

Structure 19

Geologic History 20

Quaternary Geomorphology and Climate 28

AN NAFUD SAND SEA 30

Present Climate 30

Sediment Studios 37

Sample Preparation 37

Analytical Methods 38

Paleozoic Sandstone 43

Potential Bedrock Source of An Nafud Sand 43

Stratigraphy and Petrography 44

 Eolian Sand Results and Discussion 54

Grain Size 54

Sorting 58

Roundness and Sphericity 58

Mineral Composition 59

Quaternary History 64

Dune Systems 64

Source of Sand 71

Lake Deposits 74

Topographic and Gravity Surveys 80

Discussion 84

Summary 86

REFERENCES 88

APPENDIX A Sieve Analyses of An Nafud

Sand Samples 93

APPENDIX B Identification of Heavy Minerals

from An Nafud Sand Samptes by

X-ray Diffraction 129

APPENDIX C Heavy-Mineral Grain Count for

14 An Nafud Sand Samples 132

APPENDIX D Heavy-Mineral Frantz Fractions for

24 Paleozoic Sandstone Samples 134

APPENDIX E Identification of Minerals from

Paleozoic Sandstone Samples

by X-ray Diffraction 136

ABSTRACT

iii
 ILLUSTRATIONS

page
Figure 1. L o c a t i o n map of study a r e a (shaded),
K i n g d o m of Saudi A r a b i a 3

F i g u r e 2. G e n e r a l i z e d t e c t o n i c map of the
n o r t h e r n part of the A r a b i a n Shield .....17

F i g u r e 3. G e n e r a l i z e d geology of An Nafud region,

K i n g d o m of Saudi Arabia. E m p h a s i s on
P a l e o z o i c s a n d s t o n e and dune c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . . . 2 2

F i g u r e 4. Stratigraphic section, Tabuk and

J a w f - S a k a k a regions 24

Figure 5. A v e r a g e annual rainfall in mm, for

meteorological stations in An Nafud region....32

Figure 6. Photographs of v e g e t a t i o n cover and

deflation, An Nafud sand sea 33

F i g u r e 7. W i n d - r o s e d i a g r a m s for m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
s t a t i o n s in An Nafud region 36

Figure 8. Location of dune samples in An Nafud

sand sea, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 39

Figure 9. Paleozoic sandstone rock-sample locations 41

Figure 10. P a l e o z o i c sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25 45

Figure 11. Paleozoic sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25 47

Figure 12. P h o t o g r a p h s of P a l e o z o i c sandstone strata,

An Nafud sand sea 50

Figure 13. P a l e o z o i c sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25 51

Figure 14. P a l e o z o i c sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25 53

Figure 15. P a l e o z o i cnicols,

crossed - M e s o z o ixc 25sandstone, 56
Figure 16. H i s t o g r a m s of grain size from sieve
a n a l y s e s of dune s a m p l e s from An Nafud
sand sea 57

Figure 17. H e a v y - m i n e r a l h i s t o g r a m s and

d i s t r i b u t i o n of total grain c o u n t s
of dune s a m p l e s from An Nafud sand sea 61

iii
Figure 18. Areal d i s t r i b u t i o n of dravite (tourmaline)
in An Nafud sand sea 62

Figure 19. Areal d i s t r i b u t i o n of z i r c o n in

An Nafud sand sea 62

F i g u r e 20. Areal d i s t r i b u t i o n of e p i d o t e in
An Nafud sand sea 63

F i g u r e 21. Vertical aerial p h o t o g r a p h s ( s t e r e o s c o p i c

p a i r ) of linear dunes from the n o r t h w e s t e r n
part of An Nafud sand sea 65

Figure 22. Vertical aerial p h o t o g r a p h s ( s t e r e o s c o p i c

pair) of linear dunes from the e a s t - c e n t r a l
part of An Nafud sand sea 66

F i g u r e 23. Vortical aerial p h o t o g r a p h s ( s t e r e o s c o p i c

p a i r ) of t r a n s v e r s e and b a r c h a n o i d - r i d g e
d u n e s from the central part of An Nafud
sand sea 67

F i g u r e 24. Vertical aerial p h o t o g r a p h s ( s t e r e o s c o p i c

p a i r ) of massif dunes (star d u n e s ) from the
e a s t e r n part of An Nafud sand sea 68

F i g u r e 25. Schematic cross sections illustrating

typical s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e t t i n g s of
P l e i s t o c e n e and H o l o c e n e lake b e d s ,
An Nafud sand sea 75

F i g u r e 26. T o p o g r a p h i c map of An Nafud region 81

F i g u r e 27. T o p o g r a p h i c and s i m p l e B o u g u e r g r a v i t y -
a n o m a l y p r o f i l e s a c r o s s An Nafud sand sea,
n o r t h - c e n t r a l Saudi A r a b i a 83

iv
 TABLES

page

Table 1. Outcrop sequence, northwestern Saudi Arabia ...14

Tabie 2. I d e n t i f i e d heavy m i n e r a l s , weight

p e r c e n t of t o t a l s a m p l e ( s ) , a n d r a t i o
of l i g h t f r a c t i o n t o h e a v y f r a c t i o n
for each Paleozoic sandstone
s a m p l e d i n An N a f u d s a n d s e a a r e a 46

Table 3. S t a t i s t i c a l v a l u e s f o r An N a f u d s a n d
s a m p l e s u s i n g moment statistical
formulas at one-phi intervals 55

Table 4. R a d i o c a r b o n - d a t e d l a c u s t r i n e and
i n t e r d u n e d e p o s i t s in Saudi Arabia's
n o r t h e r n sand seas 77

v
 INTRODUCTION

Purpose of Study

The main objcctivc of t h i s s t u d y is to identify the

s o u r c e of the sand in An N a f u d (The G r e a t D e s e r t ) sand sea,

a source that must fulfill three requirements:

1. An a d e q u a t e v o l u m e of s o u r c e rock must have been

available.

2. The source rock must have been e r o d i b l e and

accessible to e o l i a n activity.

3. The source rock must lie u p w i n d of the sand sea.

Related objectives arc:

1. Determination of the areal distribution and

characteristics of A n N a f u d sand (grain size,

sorting, skewness, and kurtosis).

2. Determination of the h e a v y - m i n e r a l c o n t e n t of the

sand, compositional p e r c e n t of individual minerals,

and their areal distribution.

3. Determination of the h e a v y - m i n e r a l composition and

percentages of the P a l e o z o i c sandstone strata

flanking the An Nafud sand sea.

4. Description of recent and p a l e o c l i m a t i c conditions.

5. Description of m o r p h o l o g y of A n N a f u d sand sea

including dune types, interdune areas, vegetation

and its influence on s a n d stabilization,

and e v a l u a t i o n of geologic processes acting in the

sand sea at the p r e s e n t time.

1
 O r i g i n of Study

The idea for this study evolved in t h e s p r i n g of 1980

during a two-week field t r i p to Ar R u b al K h a l i (Empty

Q u a r t e r ) by Cole S m i t h , John W h i t n e y , Mark G e t t i n g s , and the

author, all from the U . S . Geologicat S u r v e y , and H. A.

McClure from the Arabian A m e r i c a n Oil Company. John Whitney

was engaged in t h e s t u d y of surficial deposits of the

Arabian Peninsula ( S a u d i A r a b i a ) , a n d he r e c o g n i z e d that no

geotogicat studies on the sand s e a s of S a u d i Arabia had been

published. This was discussed during the r e t u r n trip from

Ar R u b at K h a l i to J e d d a h , S a u d i Arabia, and the author's

interest in s u c h a s t u d y w a s h e i g h t e n e d . Because the author

was involved in g e o d e t i c surveying in n o r t h e r n Saudi Arabia,

the logical choice for t h e s t u d y of a s a n d sea was An Nafud.

The t h e s i s p r o p o s a l , T h e S o u r c e of S a n d for A n N a f u d Sand

Sea, was presented to, and accepted by, the D e p a r t m e n t of

Geology, Kansas State University in D e c e m b e r 1981.

Location and Accessibility

An Nafud sand sea covers about 70,000km2 in

north-central Saudi A r a b i a b e t w e e n 27°10' N . -

29°20' N . l a t i t u d e a n d 38°10' E . - 42°50' E .

longitude (Fig. 1). An N a f u d sand sea, at its eastern

extremity, merges w i t h Ad D a h n a , a s a n d sea that extends in

a circular arc from the e a s t e r n e d g e of An N a f u d to the

northwestern corner of Ar R u b al Khali (Fig. 1).

No roads e x i s t w i t h i n An N a f u d sand sea. Access to An

2
 — ^

^'AMMAN .
<7

Sakaha

°Tabuk 28°

Ad Dammam
^ oQasim
AL SHARjAH
KiN&OOM OF
°AI Madinah *AR RtYAD
MASQAT

ARABIAN SHtELD COVER ROCKS

SAUD!/ ARAB)A
Jeddahk oMAKKAH

\L MUKALLA

'ADEN

36° 39° 42° 45° 48° 51° 54° 57°

Figure 1. Location map of study area (shaded), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

(modified from U . S. Geological Survey, 1972). 1 inch = 120 miles
Nafud is e i t h e r by h e l i c o p t e r or a w e l l - e q u i p p e d four-wheel

drive vehicle. Asphalt highways, nearest to A n N a f u d , are

at H a i l , J a u f , and Tayma (Fig. 1). All other roads leading

to A n N a f u d a r e track roads. Jubbah, the only village

within An N a f u d , is located about 100 k m s w e s t - n o r t h w e s t of

Hail, near the s o u t h e r n margin of An N a f u d (Fig. 1). No

fuel or w a t e r is a v a i l a b l e within An N a f u d sand sea.

Collection of s a n d a n d rock samples was carried out by

helicopter; two c r o s s i n g s were carried out by vehicle, one

in N o v e m b e r 1983 and a n o t h e r in O c t o b e r 1984.

Climate

Precipitation in A n N a f u d n o r m a l l y occurs between late fall

and late s p r i n g and characteristically is in t h e f o r m of

brief, local, intense rainstorms. If r a i n f a l l is

substancial, the stable sand will absorb and store moisture,

thus reducing evaporation. The moisture is t h e n available

to s u p p o r t perennial vegetation and the g e r m i n a t i o n of

annuals.

Mean annual temperatures arc 18°C to 20°C in

northwestern Saudi Arabia, including An N a f u d and the

sandstone area to t h e w e s t (Whitney and o t h e r s , 1983).

Areas southwest of An N a f u d a r c s o m e w h a t w a r m e r , averaging

20°C to 22°C. e a s t a n d southeast of An N a f u d , in

tho interior regions, mean annual temperatures a r e still

warmer, averaging 22°C to 24°C (Bindagji, 1980).

Average summer temperature (June-August) for An N a f u d area

4
is 36°C. Winter average temperatures

(December-February) for A n N a f u d range f r o m 8°C to

12°C a n d a r e w a r m e r toward the interior, ranging from

12°C to 16°C ( B i n d a g j i , 1980). Cooler winter

temperatures in A n N a f u d help reduce evaporation and are

partly responsible for the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of w a t e r in

supporting vegetation.

Vegetation and Wildlife

Vegetation density is least along the m a r g i n s of An

Nafud and in g e n e r a l increases toward the interior.

However, areas within the e x t r e m e interior display dead

vegetation, indicating a recent period of aridity.

Vegetation types include trees (4 to 5 m h i g h ) , s h r u b s , and

grasses. F e w of the desert plants are edible by humans.

Desert truffles, h e r b s , and s e e d s of the mesembryanthemum

are among the ones used by the b e d o u i n . Desert flowers

appearing after sporadic rains are mostly dwarf varieties of

the iris, chamomile, lily, and scarlet pimpernel.

Wildlife within An Nafud includes scorpions, snakes

(sand viper and sand boa are most c o m m o n ) , fox, rabbit,

porcupine, hedge hog, jerboa, gerbil, and sand rat. Birds

also abound in A n N a f u d and the s u r r o u n d i n g area and include

e a g l e s , hawks, f a l c o n s , v u l t u r e s , o w l s , and ravens. Species

favored by t h e b e d o u i n include sand grouse, quail, and

coursers. The ostrich was last s i g h t e d in An N a f u d area in

the early 1950's, but ostrich egg fragments can still be

5
found in s o m e d r y take b e d s . Rare, but occasionally sighted

in A n N a f u l area, are ibex, gazelle, wolf, hyena, and

jackal.

Culture

Bedouin of the R a s h i d tribe inhabit An Nafud sand sea

and the s u r r o u n d i n g area. Their primary diet is s h e e p , goat,

or c a m e l meat, together with rice. Each bedouin family owns

a flock of s h e e p or a h e r d of g o a t s or c a m e l s ; some families

o w n all three. The family lives in a g o a t - h a i r tent that is

both warm during the winter m o n t h s and cool during the

summer months, depending upon how th s i d e s a r e c l o s e d or

opened. Cooking is d o n e in large c o o k p o t s over open fires,

normally inside the t e n t . All of the c o o k i n g and the

herding of a n i m a l s a r e d o n e b y t h e w o m e n or c h i l d r e n . The

social structure o u t s i d e of the family is v e r y restrictive

for w o m e n a n d y o u n g ladies. After p u b e r t y , all women must

wear a veil and abiya (long, black, wrap-around outer

g a r m e n t w h e n o u t s i d e of t h e t e n t or in t h e p r e s e n c e of other

than family members. Social gatherings are segregated into

g r o u p s of m e n a n d g r o u p s of w o m e n , a n d the f a m i l y dwelling

is d i v i d e d accordingly. Children that have not reached

p u b e r t y m a y be w i t h e i t h e r group. The primary social

activity for m e n is g a t h e r i n g together to d r i n k tea and

c o f f e e , at l e a s t t w o to t h r e e times a day. This is a time

to d i s c u s s business and areas that have received rain, and

to tell stories. Because the entire social structure is

6
governed by Islamic principles and t e a c h i n g s , both men and

women (if t h e y so d e s i r e ) m e e t a t f i v e p r e d e t e r m i n e d times

for p r a y e r . prior to p r a y e r time, the hands and f e e t must b e

washed; prayer time is r i g i d l y a d h e r e d to a n d takes

precedence over all other activities.

Bedouin move according to t h e r a i n s that determine the

availability of grazing areas for their a n i m a l s . Before the

introduction of a u t o m o b i l e s , the e n t i r e camp was moved using

c a m e l s a s t h e m o d e of transportation. T o d a y , as they have

been for a t least the last ten y e a r s , t r u c k s arc used

exclusively for m o v i n g both the c a m p and a n i m a l s . As a

direct r e s u l t of t h i s increased mobility, over-grazing has

caused degradation of p a s t u r e land; the b e d o u i n can move

their animals from area to a r e a so f a s t t h a t the vegetation

is u n a b l e to g r o w a n d mature.

An Nafud sand sea provides excellent grazing for sheep,

goats, and camels, and therefore is i n h a b i t e d by b e d o u i n the

year round. The most serious obstacle to life w i t h i n An

Nafud sand sea is w a t e r . T h e r e are no w a t e r wells except in

the e x t r e m e eastern portion of A n N a f u d , t h e r e f o r e , all

water m u s t be hauled in to t h e a n i m a l s b y p i c k u p or tanker.

Small catchment basins have been constructed by hand in many

of the Q u a t e r n a r y lake b a s i n s . Mater in t h e m supplements

the water supply when rainfall is significant.

Previous Investigations

No f i e l d - b a s e d geologic studies of A n N a f u d sand sea,

7
except by Whitney and others (1983), have been published.

The work by B r a m k a m p and R a m i r e z (1963), B r a m k a m p and others

(19630, Bender (1975), Brown and others (1963), Helal

(1965), Powers and others (1966), the U. S. Geological

Survey and Arabian American Oil C o m p a n y (1963), and Saudi

Arabia Ministry of A g r i c u l t u r e a n d M a t e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) all entailed

general geologic studies of the P a l e o z o i c sandstone of

northern Saudi Arabia. Geologic studies of A n N a f u d sand

sea by Breed and others (1979) and Fryberger (1979) were

based on information derived from interpretation of Landsat

images that cover the area and did not involve fieldwork.

G e o l o g i c work by Whitney and others (1983) entailed studies

to d e t e r m i n e the Q u a t e r n a r y geologic history of An Nafud

sand sea. As p o i n t e d out by Helal (1965), some confusion

exists in t h e literature concerning names and ages of

Paleozoic formations in n o r t h e r n Saudi Arabia. The geologic

section recorded on the U . S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey and Arabian

American Oil C o m p a n y m a p (1963) will be used exclusively

throughout this paper; formation descriptions are modified

by the a u t h o r , based on h i s f i e l d investigations.

Field Procedures

Fieldwork was carried out completely by helicopter from

three different field camps. By using a grid sampling

t e c h n i q u e , 35 dune s a m p l e s were c o l l e c t e d for textural and

compositional studies. Samples were collected at

approximate intervals of 3 0 m i n u t e s of latitude and 30

8
minutes of longitude. All dune samples were collected about

one meter below t h e d u n e c r e s t on t h e s l i p f a c e s i d e of each

dune sampled. Twenty-four rock samples were collected from

t h e a r e a of o u t c r o p of P a l e o z o i c sandstone formations.

Selective sampling was necessary because the Paleozoic

sandstone is a t least 2 , 0 0 0 m t h i c k . Samples were collected

from the S i q , Q u w e r i a , Ram and Umm Sahm, T a b u k , and Jauf

formations of P a l e o z o i c a g e , a n d the Sakaka Formation of

Paleozoic? and Mesozoic? age. Paleozoic sandstone lies to

the s o u t h , s o u t h w e s t , w e s t , and n o r t h w e s t of A n N a f u d sand

sea.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are extended to M a u r i c e B r o c k , R o b e r t Greene,

J o h n W h i t n e y , a n d L a w r e n c e R o o n e y , e a c h of w h o m provided

guidance, encouragement, and c o n s t r u c t i v e advice. Without

their help this paper would not have been completed.

Because of m y a b s e n c e from a c a d e m i c life for a number

of y e a r s , the need for a d v i c e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e . Sincere

gratitude is e x p r e s s e d to t h e c o m m i t t e e members: James R.

Underwood, Jr., thesis supervisor, the late H e n r y V . Beck,

Joseph L. G r a f , J r . , Page C. T w i s s , and Wayne Williams,

Kansas State University, for p r o v i d i n g such advice.

Many thanks go to B i l l Thompson for h i s s u p e r b help

with the illustrations. Acknowledgement is a l s o m a d e of the

Hydrology Division, Water Resources Department, Ministry of

Agriculture and W a t e r , R i y a d h , Saudi A r a b i a for furnishing

9
the wind and rainfall data for A n N a f u d a r e a , w h i c h are

quoted in t h i s thesis.

A very special thanks to t h e a u t h o r s family: wife

Marlene, son J e f f , and d a u g h t e r Twinkle, for their patience

and encouragement throughout. They made many sacrifices in

order that degree requirements could be completed.

10
 GEOLOGY OF W E S T E R N SAUDI ARABIA

Stratigraphy

T h e r o c k s of the Arabian P e n i n s u l a are defined

physiographically as the A r a b i a n Shield (Precambrian) and

Cover Rocks (younger than Precambrian). In w e s t e r n Saudi

Arabia, Precambrian rocks are exposed to t h e g r e a t e s t extent

along the coastal ranges and the central interior.

Crystalline r o c k s of w e s t e r n Arabia occupy a 770,000

km2 trapezoidal segment separated from the African

Shield by the Red Sea rift. The granitic framework within

the exposed area is s i m i l a r to t h a t of o t h e r shields in that

it c o n t a i n s b e l t s of P r e c a m b r i a n g r a n i t i c or d i o r i t i c rocks,

in p l a c e s gneissic. Two major belts intersect at right

angles beneath the Sahl Rakbah in t h e s o u t h - c e n t r a l part of

the s e g m e n t , o n e extending northeastward from the Red Sea

coast, the other n o r t h w e s t w a r d from the s e d i m e n t a r y cover of

t h e w e s t e r n Ar R u b al K h a l i (Empty Q u a r t e r ) . The belt

extending northeastward from the Red Sea rift has features

of injection and m a g m a t i z a t i o n and is f l a n k e d by a

retrogressively metamorphosed g r o u p of b a s i c igneous rocks,

slate, and quartzite. The northwestward trending trending

belt has c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of o r t h o g n e i s s (Brown, 1960).

Greenwood and others (1982) interpreted t h e s e b e l t s as being

t h e r e s u l t of two c o m p r e s s i o n a l orogenies that occurred

8 0 0 - 7 6 0 and 6 9 0 - 6 4 0 My a g o . A variety of igneous rocks,

including granodiorite, adamellite, monzonite, and

albite-pyroxene granite, is a s s o c i a t e d with the b e l t s , and

11
may be slightly younger than the g n e i s s e s . The gneisses may-

b e r o o t s of syntectonic batholiths (Brown, 1960). Somewhat

younger batholiths and s t o c k s of c a l c - a l k a l i c granite arc

both concordant and discordant. In m a n y p l a c e s , widespread

t y p e s of granite crop out as a m i x t u r e of t w o or three

granites of u n c e r t a i n age. Young intrusive rocks are

soda-rich granite (with p e r a l k a l i n e facies), syenite, and

rhyolite cropping out in p l u g s , s t o c k s , a n d ring dikes of

rather small extent individually; some batholiths near the

eastern e d g e of the shield s e g m e n t a r e of a y o u n g e r magma

scries. In t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n p a r t of the s h i e l d , volcanic

necks associated with erruptions of rhyolite, dacite, tuffs,

and related rocks occur (Brown, 1960).

Brown and J a c k s o n (1960) have divided the Arabian

Precambrian basement complex into three d i s t i n c t sedimentary

groups:

1. T h e Hali Schist-Basih Greenstone-Lith Complex.

These rocks include chlorite-sericite schist,

amphibolite schist, graphite schist, metadiorite,

m e t a g a b b r o , m a r b l e , q u a r t z i t e , and volcanic rocks

metamorphosed to g r e e n s c h i s t . This g r o u p of rocks,

about 21,000 m thick, is w e l l exposed along Wadi

Hali and Wadi Basih near the v i l l a g e of Al Lith.

2. Halaban Andesite-Murdama Formation.

T h e s e u n i t s c o n s i s t m a i n l y of andesite,

felsite, d a c i t e , and trachyte together with

12
 agglomerate and conglomerate in t h e lower p a r t , and

low-grade metamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite,

q u a r t z i t e , and graywacke) in t h e u p p e r part. This

g r o u p of rocks is a b o u t 1,000 m thick.

3. Fatima Formation.

Karpoff (1957) applied the n a m e "Fatima

Series" to a s e c t i o n that includes the Abla

Formation and Shammar Rhyolite. This group of

sedimentary and volcanic rocks is partially

metamorphosed and has been gently folded and cut by

porphyritic s i l l s a n d d i k e s of a n d e s i t e and

rhyolite. These strata are composed of arkose,

s h a l e or s l a t e , s i l t s t o n e , tuffaceous wacke,

s a n d s t o n e , and thin s t r o m a t o l i t i c limestone

members; total thickness is a b o u t 7 0 0 m.

Paleozoic sandstone, where exposed, lies unconformably

on t h e P r e c a m b r i a n p l u t o n i c and sedimentary rocks. The An

Nafud area is u n d e r l a i n by 1 9 0 0 to 2 6 0 0 m of Paleozoic

sandstone, shale, and subordinate carbonate rocks without

unconformity; lithologic components are dominantly sandstone

(Table 1). A b o u t 7 5 p e r c e n t of P a l e o z o i c sediments are

sandstone, the r e m a i n d e r being s h a l e or s i l t s t o n e , mostly

marine as indicated by the a b u n d a n t occurrence of acritarchs

and chitinozoans (Saudi Arabia Ministry of A g r i c u l t u r e and

Water, 1968). The relatively thin marine shale units and

the much thicker sand bodies indicate that marine incursions

13
 Generalized lithologic Map Thickness Major stratigraphic
Age Formation
description designation (m) divisions

Quaternary Surfical deposits Gravel, sand, silt, Qe, Qu, Qd

and alluvium, duricrust
Tertiary Lava flows Basalt QTb

Limestone; subordi-
nate dolomite and Ka 142 Carbonate rocks
Aruma
shale. Lower part
grades to sandstone.
Cretaceous
Sandstone; subordi-
Sakaka nate shale, rare MPs 42 Terrigenous rocks
dolomite lenses.

Sandstone, limestone Dj 299

Devonian Jauf and shale

(Tawil M e m b e r ) Sandstone Dt
Tabuk Sandstone and shale DSQt 1072
Silurian Terrigenous rocks
and OCs= Saq
Umm Sahm
OCur
Ordovician Saq Ram Sands tone 600
Quweira Cq
Cambrian Siq (Wajid?) Cs

Precambrian basement complex

Table 1. Outcrop sequence, northwestern Saudi Arabia (modified from P o w e r s and
others, 1966).
were relatively short, whereas much longer intervening

continental episodes resulted in t h e d e p o s i t i o n of thick,

massive, crossbedded sandstone.

The Wajid Sandstone (Table 1) u n c o n f o r m a b l y overlies

the b a s e m e n t complex in s o m e a r e a s of t h e s o u t h e r n shield,

and is u n c o n f o r m a b l y overlain by the Upper Permian Kuff

Formation. Powers and others (1966) considered the Wajid

Sandstone to b e E a r l y P e r m i a n or o l d e r . However, recent

palynological investigations of w e l l cores (McClure, 1980)

along the s o u t h e a s t shield strongly suggest a

Cambrian-Ordovician age for t h e t e r r i g e n o u s units of the

lower W a j i d , w h i c h a l s o suggests a possible correlation

between the lower Wajid and the c o a r s e terrigenous units of

the basal Siq F o r m a t i o n in n o r t h w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia.

R o c k s of C a r b o n i f e r o u s ago have not been reported in

western Saudi A r a b i a , e x c e p t at two s i t e s : one near Ar'Ar

(formerly Badinah) in t h e e x t r e m e n o r t h of the Kingdom and

the other near Qasim in t h e n o r t h - c e n t r a l portion (Saudi

Arabia Ministry of A g r i c u l t u r e and Water, 1968). In western

Saudi Arabia the e n t i r e period from Late D e v o n i a n to Late

Permian was undoubtedly a t i m e of u p l i f t a n d erosion (Powers

and o t h e r s , 1966).

Western Saudi Arabia is n e a r l y d e v o i d of Mesozoic

strata, except for. t w o k n o w n locations: in t h e s o u t h e r n part

of w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia at Jabal Abu Hasa (lat 17°40'

N., long 42°53' E . ) w h e r e m a r i n e sandstone and shale of

Jurassic age unconformably overlie the o l d e r Wajid Sandstone

15
(Whitney, 1983) and in n o r t h w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia where the

Sakaka Sandstone of M e s o z o i c ? or P a l e o z o i c ? ago

unconformably overlies the Lower D e v o n i a n Jauf Formation

(Fig. 2). Strata of M e s o z o i c a g e c r o p o u t a l o n g a

north-northwest trending line through central Saudi Arabia,

forming the T u w a y q Escarpment (Table 2 and Fig. 2).

Presumably western Saudi Arabia was subjected to erosion

throughout m o s t of the M e s o z o i c Era (Brown, 1970).

Early Tertiary deposits are few a n d of limited extent

in w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia, except in t h e e x t r e m e northwest

part. Brown (1980) studied a marine limestone of Paleocene

a g o a t U s f a n , a b o u t 5 5 km n o r t h w e s t of J e d d a h ; Madden and

others (1979) described a vertebrate fauna from

Paleocene-age estuarine deposits e a s t of T a i f at Jabal Umm

Himmar ( l a t 21°10' N . , l o n g 45°25' E.).

Late Cretaceous to l a t e E o c e n e d e p o s i t s of marine

origin crop out north and northwest of A n N a f u d (Bayliss,

1981). Farther south, near Harrat Uwayrid, silicified

boulders, ranging f r o m 2 0 cm to 5 0 cm in d i a m e t e r and

containing Eocene marine fossils, have been recorded by

Brown (1970). Brown (1970) beleived that the b o u t d e r s may

have been transported from Eocene deposits near Jordan.

Whitney (1983), however, speculated that the d e p o s i t may

represent a tag d e p o s i t rather than a t r a n s p o r t e d deposit.

W o r k by R . G r e g o r y (oral communication, 1 9 8 1 ) on the

northern Harrats has shown this deposit to b e more

widespread than previously thought. The author visited- the

16
 EXPLANATION

Figure 2. G e n e r a l i z e d t e c t o n i c m a p of the n o r t h e r n p a r t of the

A r a b i a n S h i e l d ( m o d i f i e d f r o m B r o w n , 1 9 7 2 , and
Greenwood, 1972).

17
deposit in 1 9 8 1 a n d 1982; it lies u n c o n f o r m a b l y on

Precambrian rocks and is o v e r l a i n by Tertiary-Quaternary

basalt. The original Eocene deposit probably was subjected

to e r o s i o n a l p r o c e s s e s , and the more dense and resistent

rock remained as lag from the original rock.

Marine and n o n - m a r i n e sedimentary rocks of m i d d l e and

late Tertiary age are found along the Red Sea c o a s t , and

Oligocene basalt flows occur at high and tow a t t i t u d e s along

the coastal ranges (Brown, 1970). Flat-lying plateau basalt

of tate O t i g o c e n e to e a r l y M i o c e n e a g e c o v e r s lateritic

profites of O t i g o c e n e a g e in w e s t e r n S a u d i Arabia (Madden

and others, 1979; Brown, 1970). Atong the Red Sea coastat

plain Pliocene marine sedimentary rocks arc exposed (Brown,

1970). At higher elevations, depoists of P l i o c e n e age have

been dated from their freshwater fauna and probably

represent the d e v e l o p m e n t of individual depressions on the

widespread terminal, middle Tertiary peneplain (Brown,

1970). L a v a f l o w s of P l i o c e n e age are found at high and low

altitudes and range in a g e from 1 2 . 3 M y n o r t h of An N a f u d to

9 . 1 M y n o r t h of al M e d i n a to 6 . 8 M y s o u t h of J e d d a h (Brown,

1970).

Ouaternary sediments in S a u d i Arabia are composed

mainly of r e s i d u a l alluvial, tuffaceous, lacustrine, and

eolian deposits (Whitney, 1983). Eolian deposits, the most

abundant, cover about one t h i r d of the p e n n i n s u l a mainly in

the form of targe and small sand seas. Quaternary pluvial

deposits have been subjected to e o l i a n processes during arid

18
periods, resulting in a c o m p l e x history of sedimentation and

erosion.

Structure

The shield is b o r d e r e d by P a l e o z o i c , M e s o z o i c , and

Cenozoic rocks that dip baisnward (shelf area). The dip is

so s l i g h t a s to b e imperceptible to t h e e y e . Data collected

over the y e a r s from topographic, structure drill holes, and

seismic surveys define a constant homocline with a width of

a b o u t 400 kms and a c o n s t a n t dip (mainly northeast) of

1° to 2 ° in t h e P a l e o z o i c strata to 0°20' in

the M e s o z o i c and C e n o z o i c strata (Powers and others, 1966).

This homocline represents a n a r e a of u n u s a l tectonic

stability, with only slight changes in t h e s t r i k e a n d dip

that are undoubtedly related to g e n t l e flexures of the

basement complex. This gentle flexing has been responsible

for the p r i m a r y structural features found in t h e C o v e r Rock

s t r a t a , m a i n l y , the e a s t - n o r t h e a s t plunging Central Arabian

Arch and the much more extensive north plunging Hail Arch

(Fig. 2)., both named by P o w e r s and others (1966). Major

f a u l t s on t h e A r a b i a n shield trend northwest and

north-northwest (Fig. 2). The Najd wrench fault is t h e most

p r o m i n e n t and extends across the central shield in a

northwesterly direction. In t h e n o r t h - n o r t h w e s t , the Najd

fault zone disappears under Paleozoic rocks. Field

investigations by B r o w n (1960) have shown that the block

north of the Najd fault zone has moved northwest with

19
respcct to the block s o u t h of the zone. Faults e a s t of the

Gulf of A q a b a a n d faults diverging from the Najd fault zone

in t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n p a r t of the shield also display the same

left-lateral r e l a t i v e m o v e m e n t . N o r t h of the Najd fault,

along the e a s t e r n e d g e of t h e s h i e l d , b e d s of Procambrian

age are overthrust to t h e w e s t . This overthrusting has

caused the formation of c o n g l o m e r a t e beds along the leading

e d g e of the o v e r t h r u s t blocks as they moved w e s t w a r d . The

entire fault system is i n d i c a t i v e of a regional

northwest-southeast force couple (Brown, 1960). High-angle

normal faults have developed along t h e c r e s t of the ramp on

the Red Sea r i f t or d i v e r g e from it in a northerly

direction. These faults follow older lineaments and, in

places, have been superposed on P r e c a m b r i a n lineaments.

Geologic History

Results of m a n y investigations show that the eastern

margin of the Red Sea and the a s s o c i a t e d coastal structures

in S a u d i Arabia have a long geologic history, starting with

the d e p o s i t i o n of P r e c a m b r i a n eugeosynclinal sedimentary and

volcanic rocks before 1,000 My and e x t e n d i n g to deposition

of R e c e n t sediments. The northeastern flank of the Red Sea

rift valley is in a s h i e l d area affected possibly by four

Plutonic events: 1 , 0 0 0 , 7 3 5 ? , 6 6 0 - 6 7 0 , and 570 My (Brown,

1970). The Arabian Shield is c o m p o s e d of two major gneissic

belts that also contain b e l t s of P r e c a m b r i a n granitic and

dioritic rocks. One belt extends northeastward from the Red

20
Sea coast and the other n o r e t h w e s t w a r d from the sedimentary

cover of Ar R u b al K h a l i . G r e e n w o o d and others (1982)

interpret these belts as recording two c o m p r e s s i o n a l

orogenies that occurred 800-760 amd 6 9 0 - 6 4 0 My ago.

Near t h e e n d of the P r o t e r o z o i c , peneplanation of the

shield occurred and probably continued into E a r l y Cambrian.

T h e a g e for this erosional period is b a s e d on the

relationship between the d e f o r m e d sedimentary Jubaylah

Formation and o v e r l y i n g , nearly horizontal, sequence of

Cambrian-Ordovician sandstone. Binda (1981) suggested an

a g e of 6 0 0 - 5 7 0 M y for the Jubaylah F o r m a t i o n , based on

microfossil and radiometric evidence, whereas Powers and

others (1966) correlated the unfossiliferous

Cambrian-Ordovician sandstone of n o r t h e r n Saudi Arabia with

a trilobite-bearing unit in J o r d a n . Following the late

Proterozoic to E a r l y C a m b r i a n erosional p e r i o d , the Siq.

Q u w e i r a , Ram, and Umm Sahm sandstone units were deposited.

Outcrops of N u b i a n - t y p e sandstone strata of

Cambrian-Ordovician age lap u p o n the shield from Jordan

southeastward to 4 5 ° E . longitude, where they are, in

turn, overlapped by P e r m i a n limestone. Sandstone outliers

of P a l e o z o i c a g e o c c u r in t h e c e n t r a l shield, proving that

lower P a l e o z o i c sandstone covered most, if n o t a l l , of the

basement complex now exposed (Brown, 1970). Deposition

continued throughout the S i l u r i a n and Early D e v o n i a n , during

which time the Tabuk and Jauf formations were deposited

(Figs. 3 and 4).

21
Figure 3. Generalized geology of An Nafud region. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Emphasis on Paleozoic sandstone and dune classification
(modified from U.S. Geological Survey and Arabian American Oil Co.. 1963).
 EXPLANATION

Eolian sand (also shown as

individual dune type) Sheet sand
Jauf Formation

Transverse and barchanoid ridges

Alluvium and related surficial deposits Tawil Member of the Tabuk Formation

Duricrust (j Lower Tabuk Formation Linear

Umm Sahm and Ram sandstones Linear and massif

Basalt S
—<

Undifferentiated sandstone, marl, and Complex: Includes linear, transverse

limestone formations Quweira Sandstone and massif

Contact
Siq Sandstone
Aruma Formation

Precambrian complex: Igneous, metavoicanic. Dune-form transition zone

Jilh Formation and metasedimentary rocks

International border
Khuff Formation

Cross section (see Fig. 4)

Sakaka Sandstone
 Um

Vertical exaggeration 20X

S t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n , Tabuk and J a w f - S a k a k a regions(from Saudi Arabia

M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and W a t e r , 1 9 6 8 ) .
 The geologic history of the A r a b i a n shield during the

early Mesozoic Era is n o t w e l l known. Presumably the craton

was above sea level during this time and was subjected to

erosion throughout the era (Brown, 1970). There is

evidence, however of a b r i e f transgression of a Jurassic

sea. The evidence is p r e s e r v e d at only one known location

in w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia; at Jabal Abu Hasa (lat 17°40'

N., long 42°53' E . ) m a r i n e s a n d s t o n e and shale

unconformably overlie the o l d e r Wajid Sandstone (Whitney,

1983). Cretaceous rocks, in n o r t h e r n Saudi Arabia, display

the first d e f i n i t e s i g n of d e v e l o p m e n t of the Hail Arch.

Sandstone of M i d d l e C r e t a c e o u s age was deposited

continuously across t h e c r e s t of t h e H a i l Arch (Fig. 2)

essentially parallel to t h e s t r i k e of t h e P a l e o z o i c strata

(Powers and others, 1966). Upper Cretaceous rocks show

sharp facies change from marine carbonate rocks on t h e east

flank to c o n t i n e n t a l sandstone across the c r e s t , and were

the last b e d s to b e d e p o s i t e d over the arch b e f o r e the

s t r i k e of the interior homocline was shifted n o r t h by the

rising basement (Powers and others, 1966). Upper Cretaceous

and Eocene strata thicken in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s from the crest

of the Hail Arch (Powers and others, 1966).

Early Tertiary deposits w e s t of the Hail Arch are few

and of limited extent. For this reason it is v e r y difficult

to d e t e r m i n e how far s o u t h the Hail Arch influenced

depositional and erosional trends prior to R e d Sea rifting

(Whitney, 1983). Field investigations by B r o w n (1970) and

25
Madden and others ( 1 9 7 9 ) of P a l e o c e n e deposits have shown

that a Paleocene s e a e x t e n d e d a t l e a s t a s far s o u t h as

Jeddah and T a i f . The eastern boundary of this Paleocene sea

probably was the s o u t h e r n extension of the Hail Arch (Madden

and o t h e r s , 1979). Recent work by Bayliss (1981), north and

n o r t h w e s t of A n N a f u d , h a s s h o w n that marine deposition

occurred from Late C r e t a c e o u s to l a t e E o c e n e , the major

marine transgression occurring during middle Eocene.

Marine and non-marine sedimentary deposits of middle

and tate T e r t i a r y a g e a r e found along the Red Sea coast.

Oligocene basalt flows are present at high and tow attitudes

atong the w e s t e r n coastal ranges (Brown, 1970). Highly

weathered Oligocene residual deposits appear to be t h e last

record of the Arabian Shield as a low-lying, low r e l i e f , and

quiescent craton (Whitney, 1983). The flat-lying plateau

basalts of O t i g o c e n e age probably represents the first

crustal or sub-crustal activity that eventually led to the

formation of the Red Sea r i f t a n d u p l i f t of the w e s t e r n edge

of the shield (Whitney, 1983). T h e o n s e t of rifting in the

Red Sea is n o t well constrained. Brown (1970) believed that

major rifting occurred j u s t b e f o r e or d u r i n g early Miocene

when f l a n k s of the rift v a l l e y were ramped upward. Coleman

and others (1979) believed that the intial crustal

attenuation occurred 2 0 to 2 4 M y a g o , b a s e d on d a t e s of

tholeiitic basalts ( of s o u t h w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia) which are

interpreted to b e t h e f i r s t m a g m a t i c p r o d u c t s of the

newly-formed Red Sea rift. Schmidt and others (1982)

26
studied Tertiary r o c k s of the s o u t h e r n T i h a m a and concluded

that the shield flood basalts and volcanic sedimentation

represented by the Baid Formation (early to m i d d l e Miocene)

represent deposits of c o n t i n e n t a l rifting that preceded the

actual formation of the Red Sea rift.

The Pliocene was a period of e p e i r o g e n y in A r a b i a and

is r e f l e c t e d in P l i o c e n e d e p o s i t s (marine limestone and

shale) along the Red Sea coastal plain, where sediments that

were originally deposited below sea level now are exposed

(Brown, 1970). The late P l i o c e n e through late Pleistocene

was most likely a humid period. Studies by Anton (1980) and

Hotzl and others ( 1 9 7 8 ) of t h e e x t e n s i v e gravel deposits of

the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a , r o d s o i l s of the coastal mountains of

western Saudi Arabia, weathering products of shield rocks

and younger b a s a l t s , e r o s i o n of slopes along the Red Sea

coastal ranges, and alluvial fans both upon the shield and

below the w e s t e r n coastal ranges support the interpretation

of a h u m i d phase for this period. However, Whitney and

others (1983) and Hotzl and others (1978), believed that

arid episodes also occurred during this p e r i o d , that the

sand s e a s of S a u d i Arabia began to f o r m , p o s s i b l y a s early

as late M i o c e n e , b u t t h e g r o w t h w a s e p i s o d i c rather than

continual and extended into the late Pleistocene.

27
 Quaternary Geomorphology and Climate

S t u d i o s of a n c i e n t c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s during the

Quaternary a r e few in S a u d i Arabia. The first general

observations pertaining to p a l e o c l i m a t i c conditions of

Arabian sand seas were those reported by H . S t . J o h n Philby

(1933). Philby, during his travels t h r o u g h Ar R u b al Khali

(Empty Q u a r t e r ) , recognized and described lake beds lying

between dunes and the vast gravel plains common in many

a r e a s of this sand sea. Philby equated his observations

with a wetter climate sometime in t h e r e c e n t past.

The extensive gravel s h e e t s of Ar R u b al K h a l i also

were recognized by Holm (1960) as e v i d e n c e of wetter

climatic conditions during the Q u a t e r n a r y Period. In

addition, Holm related former h i g h s t a n d s of sea level in

eastern Arabia to a w e t t e r climate, and thus explained the

existence of s a b k h a d e p o s i t s a s h i g h a s 150 m a b o v e present

sea level. Faunal remains of a n t e l o p e w e r e found by Holm

(1960) associated with lake b e d s in Ar R u b al K h a l i and

convinced h i m of c l i m a t i c fluctuations within the

Pleistocene. Studios of the Q u a t e r n a r y geology of Saudi

A r a b i a both by Holm (1960) and by B r o w n (1960), working

independently, convinced them that the f o r m a t i o n of Arabia's

sand seas was a relatively recent event related to aridity

in t h e Quaternary.

In e a s t e r n Arabia, a series of d u r i c r u s t benches were

studied by C h a p m a n (1971, 1974). Chapman concluded from his

studies that the d u r i c r u s t s were formed during arid

28
conditions rather than pluvial conditions. Radiocarbon

dates determined by C h a p m a n for the d u r i c r u s t benchcs were

i n a d e q u a t e , and he w a s unable to f i t t h e t e r r a c e sequence

into an e s t a b l i s h e d Pleistocene sequence. Whitney (1983)

disagreed with Chapman's model of d u r i c r u s t formation and

believed that duricrusts in S a u d i Arabia were formed during

a pluvial rather than an arid period, based on radiocarbon

dates determined by W h i t n e y for d u r i c r u s t s in A r a b i a ' s sand

seas, cover rock, and shield areas.

Radiocarbon dates from P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene

lacustrine deposits in Ar R u b al K h a l i by M c C l u r e (1976,

1978) indicate that the most recent arid periods were late

Pleistocene ( 1 7 , 0 0 0 y r s to 9 , 0 0 0 y r s B P ) a n d H o l o c e n e (6,000

y r s B P to p r e s e n t ) a n d that the intervening pluvial periods

were 36,000 yrs to 1 7 , 0 0 0 y r s B P a n d 9 , 0 0 0 y r s to 6 , 0 0 0 yrs

BP.

The first detailed studies of Q u a t e r n a r y surficial

deposits in S a u d i A r a b i a w e r e c a r r i e d out by A l - S a y a r i and

Zotl (1978). Surficial deposits in e a s t e r n Saudi Arabia

wore studied and in m a n y c a s e s isotopically dated. As a

r e s u l t , the dates for p l u v i a l periods were refined to 30,000

y r s to 2 5 , 0 0 0 y r s B P a n d 9 , 5 0 0 y r s to 4 , 5 0 0 y r s B P a n d agree

closely with the pluvial periods defined by M c C l u r e (1976,

1978).

S t u d i e s by Hotzl and others (1978) have shown that arid

climatic conditions began in e a s t e r n Arabia during late

Pliocene - early Pleistocene, the first dunes developing

29
during this change to a n a r i d climate. Their conclusion is

based on t h e d u n e s in t h e w e s t e r n Ar R u b al K h a l i that rest

on late P l i o c e n e - early Pleistocene gravel plains and A

Jurfurah dunes near the A r a b i a n Gulf t h a t r e s t on the

regression plain and on the d e l t a i c f a n of W a d i a s Shaba.

Studies by H o t z l and others (1978) indicated that arid

conditions prevailed, in e a s t e r n A r a b i a , t h r o u g h o u t the

remainder of the P l e i s t o c e n e and through Holocene, with

brief sporadic periods of h u m i d climatic conditions.

Recent studies by Whitney ( 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 3 ) of surficial

deposits in w e s t e r n Saudi Arabia have provided additional

information pertaining to Q u a t e r n a r y climatic conditions.

Whitney (1982) and Whitney and others (1983) obtained

radiocarbon dates for c a l c a r e o u s lacustrine and duricrust

deposits from A r a b i a ' s sand seas and shield areas.

Lake-forming activity took place 33,000 yrs to 2 1 , 0 0 0 y r s BP

a n d 9 , 0 0 0 y r s to 5 , 0 0 0 y r s B P , w i t h intense activity

occurring 30,000 yrs to 2 4 , 0 0 0 y r s B P a n d 8 , 0 0 0 y r s to 6,000

yrs BP, and primary eolian activity occurring between 20,000

yrs and 10,000 yrs BP. Whitney (1983) concluded, from his

studies, that the increase in e o l i a n a c t i v i t y in the last

5 , 0 0 0 yrs has n o t b e e n as intense as in t h e late Pleistocene

episode.

AN N A F U D S A N D SEA

Present Climate

In m o s t p a r t s of the w o r l d , p r e s e n t - d a y climatic

30
conditions arc usually relatively easy to describe.

However, records on annual rainfall, wind direction, and

wind speed in S a u d i Arabia have been kept only for a few

years and only for a f e w localities. The available data must

be interpreted with caution.

Figure 5 shows the average annual rainfall for

meteorological weather stations in A n N a f u d region. Larger

rainfall amounts (74 mm to 111 m m ) o c c u r along the

southeastern e d g e of A n N a f u d . In c o m p a r i s o n , A n Nafud

region and the P a l e o z o i c bedrock region to t h e w e s t average

a b o u t 5 0 mm a y e a r precipitation. The only meteorological

station lying w i t h i n An Nafud sand sea is a t J u b b a h where an

average of 41 mm a y e a r , b a s e d on six y e a r s of record, has

been recorded. Precipitation normally occurs between late

fall and late s p r i n g in A n N a f u d . Rainstorms are usually

localized, rather than regional.

Vegetation in An N a f u d is r e l a t i v e l y dense, including

the slipfaces (Fig. 6), compared with vegetation density in

the s o u t h e r n Ad D a h n a a n d Ar R u b al K h a l i , a n d is t h e result

of a n u m b e r of factors that include: (1) a greater

percentage of stable sand in An N a f u d ; (2) a s l i g h t l y higher

average annual rainfall then other sand sea a r e a s ; (3) lower

average winter temperatures; and (4) p o s s i b l e lower average

wind speeds that, in t u r n , r e d u c e the q u a n t i t y of new

sediment being added to t h e s a n d sea. Vegetation density is

least along the m a r g i n s of An N a f u d . This condition is

directly related to v a r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions in each

31
 EXPLANATION

SCALE 1 4 000 000

:s M ?s _KX) ^ S t a t i o n location

Figure 5, A v e r a g e a n n u a l r a i n f a l l in m m , for m e t e r o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s in An N a f u d
r e g i o n . D a t a , a s of 1 9 8 3 , f r o m H y d r o l o g y D i v i s i o n , W a t e r R e s o u r c e s
D e p a r t m e n t , S a u d i A r a b i a M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and W a t e r , R i y a d h , S a u d i
A r a b i a (base m a p from U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , 1 9 7 2 ) .
(a) Active deflation in stable eolian sand. Note the exposed plant
roots (center of photograph) and dry grass (lower center of
photograph). Scale 1:10 (center of photograph)

(b) Typical vegetation cover, central part. An Nafud sand sea. Note
vegetation on slipface and eroded lakebed below slipface (central
part of photo). Scale 1:400
Figure 6. Photographs of vegetation cover and deflation. An Nafud
sand sea.
33
fringe area. Atong the west and southwest margins, a

smaller percentage of d u n e s is s t a b l e , w i t h a small amount

of n e w sediment being added intermittently that, in turn,

inhibits plant growth. In t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n extension and

along the n o r t h e r n m a r g i n , sand thickness ranges f r o m 2 m to

25 m, as c o m p a r e d to 1 0 0 m to 2 0 0 m in o t h e r a r e a s of An

Nafud. This reduced sand thickness limits the v o l u m e of

moisture that can be stored in t h e s a n d , r e s u l t i n g in

limited plant growth.

Based on a v e g e t a t i o n t r a v e r s e by J . W h i t n e y , U.S.

Geological Survey, and Dr. E. Schulz, Geographisches

Institut, University of W u r z b u r g (FRG), from Hail to the

central An N a f u d , W h i t n e y and o t h e r s (1983) concluded that

the plant a s s e m b l a g e becomes drier toward the interior of An

Nafud, which suggests that the central portion is m o r e arid

than other areas. This shift in v e g e t a t i o n assemblage is

accompanied by a s l i g h t increase in t h e n u m b e r of active

dune crests toward the interior.

Wind data for A n N a f u d a r e a a r e p r o v i d e d in F i g u r e 7;

wind roses were calculated from individual monthly station

reports. Each vector represents the p e r c e n t a g e of

observations for sixteen p o i n t s of the c o m p a s s , e x c e p t for

Al Ula, where only eight were recorded. Mean wind velocity

for e a c h s t a t i o n , c a l c u l a t e d from the total observations of

all wind directions, serves as a w i n d - i n t e n s i t y factor for

comparing stations.

Mean wind-velocity values are greatest in t h e northwest

34
(8.5 k n o t s ) and southwest ( 7 . 6 k n o t s ) of A n N a f u d (Fig. 7)

and are below the m i n i m u m required speed to t r a n s p o r t sand

(Fryberger, 1979). Mind-storm data are not available.

B e c a u s e of this, all wind data m u s t be interpreted with

caution, however, the low mean wind speeds arc reflected in

An Nafud sand sea by the low percentage (5 to 8 p e r c e n t ) of

active dunes.

Standard deviations were calculated for the mean wind

velocity at each station (Fig. 7), and the generally low

values indicate t h a t t h e r a n g e of w i n d speeds between

maximum and minimum was small. Near the n o r t h w e s t edge of

An N a f u d , o n e s t a t i o n has a standard deviation of 0.476,

greater than the range (0.043-0.183) of a l l stations,

possibly indicating much higher wind velocities there. This

station also recorded the h i g h e s t mean wind velocity but has

only t h r e e y e a r s of record.

The prevailing wind direction was calculated from the

total observations at each station, and ranges from 12 - 3 1

percent between stations. Dune orientation strongly

supports the view that the sand transporting wind is from

the p r e v a i l i n g - w i n d direction at each station, however,

without specific individual wind-storm d a t a no absolute

conclusion can be d r a w n . The prevailing w i n d w e s t of An

Nafud sand sea is f r o m the n o r t h w e s t (Fig. 7), with strong

secondary winds from the north and w e s t . Dune trends in the

west and southwest of An N a f u d indicate that the primary

sand-transporting winds came from the w e s t - s o u t h w e s t and

35
 SCALE 1 4000000 V - Mind vetocity data
M ;s M tso ^ xxn.s*—. X - Mean Mind^vetocity

Figure 7. Wind rose d i a g r a m for m e t e r o r o l o g i c a l stations in An Nafud region. D a t a ,

as of 1 9 8 2 , from H y d r o l o g y D i v i s i o n , Water R e s o u r c e s D e p a r t m e n t , Saudi
Arabia M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and W a t e r , R i y a d h , Saudi Arabia (base map
from U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , 1 9 7 2 ) .
southwest (Fig. 7). Longitudinal d u n e s of the central An

Nafud have an e a s t - w e s t orientation, indicating that

dune-forming winds were from the n o r t h w e s t and southwest,

whereas northeast-facing cresentric slipfaces on these dunes

suggest that southwesterly winds were the l a s t to a l t e r the

primary dune shape. The small percentage (5 to 8 p e r c e n t of

total d u n e a r e a ) of a c t i v e d u n e s a n d rather dense vegetation

in A n N a f u d support the view that both storm- and

prevailing-wind speeds have decreased during late Holocene,

resulting in d e c r e a s e d eolian activity.

Sediment Studies

Sample Preparation. -- E a c h d u n e sample was split and

approximately 200 gms selected from each split sample for

sieve analysis and heavy-mineral separation. Rock samples

were crushed to a U . S . S t a n d a r d M e s h s i z e of 30.

Tribromomethane ( B r o m o f o r m ) of specific gravity 2.89 was

used for s e p a r a t i n g the heavy-mineral fraction from 14

eolian sand s a m p l e s and 24 c r u s h e d - r o c k samples. After

separation, the heavy and light fractions from each sand and

rock sample were washed, dried, and weighed.

Because the P a l e o z o i c sandstone is e x t r e m e l y friable

t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of the s e c t i o n , all rock samples except

three were treated with resin prior to thin-section

preparation. A thin section was prepared for e a c h of 24

rock samples.

37
 Analytical Methods. -- T h i r t y - f i v e eolian sand samples

were sieved into one phi class intervals. Testing was done

with U. S. Standard Sieves: sizes 10, 18, 3 5 , 6 0 , 120, and

230 (minus one phi to f o u r phi) plus p a n , on a Soil Test

(Model CL-323) motorized sieve s h a k e r , for a p e r i o d of 15

minutes for e a c h s a m p l e . Results from the e o l i a n - s a n d sieve

analyses are listed in A p p e n d i x A. One-phi intervals were

chosen because of the large a r e a of study (70,760 km2)

and b e c a u s e this interval provides adequate textural data

necessary for w i n d - d i r e c t i o n analyses in An N a f u d sand sea.

Moan grain size( iJLR- ) and sorting using

100
moment statistics as d e f i n e d by McBride (1971), were

calculated from sieve-analysis data for e a c h sample. A

histogram of grain size was constructed from sieve analysis

data for e a c h of 3 5 An N a f u d sand samples, and plotted on a

separate An N a f u d base map. The histograms of grain size

and the c o m p u t e d values for m e a n - g r a i n size and sorting were

interpreted for the p u r p o s e of d e t e r m i n i n g the distribution

of textural characteristics of A n N a f u d sand and, thus, the

primary dune-forming wind direction.

The heavy-mineral fraction f r o m e a c h of 14 s a n d samples

(Fig. 8), separated by b r o m o f o r m , was e x a m i n e d with a

binocular m i c r o s c o p e , and individual grains were hand picked

as instructed by W. C . O v e r s t r e e t , U. S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey

(oral communication, 1980). Each individual grain was

mounted on a g l a s s slide for identification by X-ray

diffraction (nickel-filtered c o p p e r koe r a d i a t i o n ) . A split

38
Figure 8. L o c a t i o n of d u n e s a m p l e s in An N a f u d s a n d s e a ,
K i n g d o m of S a u d i A r a b i a . (Base m a p from U . S .
Geological Survey, 1972)

HS = H e a v y m i n e r a l s e p a r a t i o n
X R D = M i n e r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n by X - r a y
diffraction

39
p o r t i o n of e a c h of the 14 h e a v y - m i n e r a l fractions, from

individual sand samples, was mounted on a glass slide

(mounting medium = USP collodion). Each slide was examined

with a petrographic microscope to d e t e r m i n e the

heavy-mineral assemblage for e a c h sand sample. The

heavy-minerals determined by X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n served as a

cross-check for the h e a v y - m i n e r a l s determined with the

petrographic microscope.

The frequency distribution of e a c h m a j o r mineral within

the h e a v y - m i n e r a l f r a c t i o n , of t h e 14 s a n d samples studied,

was determined by counting 200 individual grains from each

s a m p l e by the r i b b o n m e t h o d (Galehouse, 1971, p.391). Rare

and o p a q u e m i n e r a l s were placed in s e p a r a t e groups, except

for goethite. A histogram was then prepared for e a c h of the

14 s a n d samples studied. The 14 i n d i v i d u a l histograms were

then merged into one h i s t o g r a m to s h o w the frequency

distribution of e a c h individual heavy mineral within An

Nafud sand sea. Roundness and sphericity values for sand

grains within each sand sample were determined visually from

the c h a r t by K r u m b e i n and Sloss (1963, p. iii) for visual

estimation of roundness and sphericity.

A thin section was prepared for e a c h sample of

Paleozoic sandstone (Fig. 9). Each thin section was

examined with a petrographic microscope to identify the

heavy-mineral assemblage in e a c h rock sample and to

determine the textural characteristics of e a c h rock sample.

A point count was to be d o n e o v e r each thin section to

40
 25 0 25 50 75 100 125150175200

Figure 9. Paleozoic sandstone rock-sample locations.

U. S. Geological Survey and Arabian American Oil

Co., 1963).
 EXPLANATION

EoHan sand (also shown as

individual dune type) Sheet sand
Jauf Formation

Alluvium and related surficial deposits Tawil Member of the Tabuk Formation Transverse and barchanoid ridges

Duricrust Lower Tabuk Formation Linear

Umm Sahm and Ram sandstones Linear and massif

Basalt

Undifferentiated sandstone, marl, and Complex includes linear, transverse

limestone formations Quweira Sandstone and massif

Contact
Sig Sandstone
Aruma Formation

Precambrian complex: igneous. metavolcanic. Dune-form transition zone

Jilh Formation and metasedimentary rocks
international border
Khuff Formation

Cross section (see Fig. 4)

Sakaka Sandstone
determine the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of each heavy mineral

identified. However, the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of heavy minerals in

cach thin section was so low that a p o i n t count of each

heavy mineral present would bo invalid. Therefore, each

crushed rock sample was separated using bromoform. The

mineral concentrate was then separated on a Frantz

separator, into m a g n e t i c and nonmagnetic mineral classes

(Appendix D). After separation of each mineral concentrate,

individual grains were selected from cach magnetically

separated group, in e a c h rock sample, and identified by

X-ray powder diffraction (Appendix E), u s i n g nickel-filtered

c o p p e r koc r a d i a t i o n . The heavy-minerals determined by X-ray

diffraction for each rock sample served as a c r o s s - c h e c k for

the heavy-minerals determined from each thin section for the

same rock sample.

Paleozoic Sandstone

Potential Bedrock Source of An Nafud Sand. -- Paleozoic

sandstone is e x p o s e d to the south, southwest, and west of An

Nafud sand sea and is b e l i e v e d to be the p r i m a r y source of

An N a f u d sand. Evidence that supports this belief is: (1)

dune orientation within An Nafud sand sea strongly suggests

that dune-forming winds were from the west and

west-southwest during the late P l e i s t o c e n e and early

Holocene, (2) the potential source material lies u p w i n d of

the sand sea, (3) the e x p o s e d area of Paleozoic sandstone is

43
the s a n d s t o n e is e r o d i b l e and was accessible to eolian

activity during the late P l e i s t o c e n e and early Holocene.

This evidence strongly supports the v i e w that the Paleozoic

sandstone is the primary source for An N a f u d sand, but more

conclusive evidence is p r o v i d e d by a c o m p a r i s o n of the heavy

minerals from the p o t e n t i a l sand source with the heavy

minerals in An N a f u d sand.

Stratigraphy and Petrography. -- All Paleozoic

sandstone formations are quartz arenites, based on

parameters by F o l k (1980). Formations can o n l y be

identified, in the field, by c o l o r and erosional

characteristics. The description and classification of each

Paleozoic sandstone formation is b a s e d upon field

observations, hand specimens, study of thin sections by

petrographic microscope, and X-ray diffraction analyses (see

Appendix B). Because Paleozoic sandstone formations are

nearly homogeneous throughout the section, except for slight

differences in h e a v y - m i n e r a l concentration and composition,

only typical examples (photographed thin sections) of each

formation are presented.

The Siq Sandstone lies u n c o n f o m a b l y upon the basement

complex and is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a 7 0 m thick basal

conglomerate composed entirely of quartz pebbles and gravel

derived from the u n d e r l y i n g Precambrian complex. The

remainder of the formation is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

interstratified conglomerate beds. 0.1 to 0 . 3 m thick.

44
 1 mm 1 mm

(a) Lower Siq sandstone. Quartz
arenite, composed of angular
to subrounded detrital quartz
with microcrystalline aggregates
of quartz and some secondary quartz
overgrowths. Cementation slight.
(b) Middle Siq sandstone. Quartz
arenite, composed of rounded
to well-rounded detrital quartz.
Note secondary growth and
cementation of detretal quartz
by quartz. Cementation slight.

Figure 10. Paleozoic sandstone, crossed nicols. x 25.

Table 2 . Identified heavy m i n e r a l s , weight percent of total
sample(s), and ratio of light fraction to heavy fraction
for each Paleozoic sandstone sampled in An Nafud sand sea
area. Minerals identified by X-Ray powder diffraction and
petrographic m i c r o s c o p e .
*Not identified in An Nafud sand samples.

Age Paleozoic Major Minor No. of Weight % Ratio

Sandstone Minerals Minerals Samples LF/HF

Mesozoic Dravite Zircon

or Sakaka Rutile 2 0.79 125: 1

Paleozoic Anatase
Fluor-
apatite

Devonian Jawf Dravite Fluor- 1 0.06 1800: 1

apatite

Tabuk Goethite Hematite 6 11.64 8 *1

Rutile Anatase
Silurian Dravite Zircon
Epidote

Umm Sahm Goethite Rutile 6 1.36 72: 1

and Hematite Sphene*
Ordovician Ram Dravite Fluor-
Chromite * apatite*
Anatase

Quweira Goethite Rutile 4 2.06 48: 1

Anatase Zircon
Chromite * Hematite
Dravite

Cambrian Siq Dravite Zircon 4 8.02 11: 1

Chromite * Diopside *
Anatase Hematite
Rutile

46
 1 mm 1 mm

(a) Lower Quweira sandstone. (b) Middle Quweira sandstone.

Quartz arenite, composed of
subrounded to rounded detrital
quartz with microcrystalline
aggregates of quartz. Cementa-
tion slight.
Quartz arenite, composed of sub-
rounded detrital quartz with
some secondary growth and cementation
of detrital quartz with secondary
quartz. Cementation slight.

Figure 11. Paleozoic sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25.

composed of quartz pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. The Siq

Sandstone is a p o o r l y cemented, coarse- to medium-grained

quartz arenite composed of angular to r o u n d e d quartz grains

(Fig. 10 a and b). Major heavy minerals are dravite

(Mg-tourmaline), rutile, anatase, and chromite, and minor

heavy minerals are zircon, hematite, and diopside (Table 2).

Dravite grains are light to dark green, highly rounded to

subangular, anhedral, and subhedral, and exhibit extremely

well-developed authigenic terminations. Anatase is yellow,

reddish-brown, worn, corroded, euhedral fragments of

octahedral crystals.

The Q u w e i r a Sandstone (Fig. 11 a and b) is conformable

with the u n d e r l y i n g Siq Sandstone and overlying Ram

Sandstone. Two distinguishing characteristics of the

Quweira Sandstone are color and erosion patterns. The

sandstone is b a n d e d , the b a n d s (about 0.1 m thick) ranging

in c o l o r from brown to d a r k brown, to red to purple.

Because some layers of sandstone possess a slightly higher

degree of cementation, the sandstone tends to form overhangs

or ledges in s o m e localities. However, the cementation is

slight throughout the m a j o r portion of the formation. The

Quweira Sandstone is an q u a r t z a r e n i t e composed of m o r e than

92 percent coarse- to f i n e - g r a i n e d quartz, but in general is

medium-grained. Major heavy minerals are goethite, anatase,

and chromite and minor heavy minerals are zircon, hematite,

and diopside (Table 2). Anatase is y e l l o w , tight-brown, and

sometimes colorless, occurring in m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e quartz

48
aggregates.

The Ram and Umm Sahm sandstones (Fig. 12) are

considered as one u n i t in g e o l o g i c literature because the

Ram Sandstone is limited in e x p o s u r e and both are

petrographically simitar. The Ram and Umm Sahm sandstones

are conformabte with the u n d e r tying Quweira Sandstone and

the o v e r l y i n g Tabuk Sandstone. Both sandstones are quartz

arenites composed of more than 95 percent coarse- to

fine-grained quartz (Fig. 13 a and b). Conglomerates. 0.1

to 0 . 3 m thick, composed of well-rounded quartz pebbles and

boulders are common throughout both formations,

Interstratified ironstone beds about 0 . 2 m thick are common

in the lower and middle portions of the Umm Sahm Sandstone.

Some ironstone beds display casts of trilobite tracks.

Cementation is s l i g h t throughout both formations, except in

the u p p e r Umm Sahm where cementation increases slightly.

Major heavy minerals are dravite, hematite, goethite, and

chromite; minor heavy minerals are rutile, sphene. and

fluorapatite (Table 2). Dravite grains are light to dark

green and usually well rounded.

The Tabuk Formation is m o r e than 1 . 0 0 0 m thick and is

conformable with the u n d e r tying Ram and Umm Sahm sandstones

and the o v e r l y i n g Jauf Formation. This formation is

predominantly sandstone, but interstratified shale and

siltstone beds of varied thickness occur throughout the

section. Shale beds normally contain both invertebrate and

plant fossils. The lower and middle sandstone units are

49
 (a) Quweira sandstone overlain by a Tertiary-Quaternary basalt flow.
27°00' N., 37°05' E.

(b) Ram and Umm Sahm sandstones. Looking west, south edge of
An Nafud sand sea, 27°35' N., 40°05' E.
Figure 12. Photographs of Paleozoic sandstone strata, An Nafud
sand sea.

50
 1 mm
(a) Lower Ram and Umm Sahm
sandstone. Quartz arenite,
composed of subrounded to well-
rounded detrital quartz, with
some secondary growth and
slight cementation of detrital
quartz with quartz.
Figure 13. Paleozoic sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25.
1 mm
(b) Middle Ram and Umm Sahm
sandstone. Quartz arenite,
primarily produced by
cementation of detrital quartz
with quartz. Note subrounded to
rounded outline of original
detrital quartz.
quartz arenites composed of m o r e than 96 p e r c e n t medium- to

fine-grained quartz (Fig. 14 a and b). In c o n t r a s t , the

upper Tabuk Sandstone (Tawil Member) is a f e r r u g i n o u s quartz

arenite containing 46 to 81 p e r c e n t medium-grained quartz,

slightly cemented by goethite and hematite. Goethite and

hematite concentrations range from 19 to 5 4 p e r c e n t in the

upper Tabuk Sandstone. Major heavy minerals identified in

the T a b u k terrigeneous sediments are dravite, rutile, and

goethite. Associated minor heavy minerals are anatase,

zircon, epidote, and hematite (Table 2). Dravite grains are

light-to-dark green and usually well rounded. Anatase is

colorless, light-green or light-brown, authigenically zoned,

thin, tabular euhedral crystal fragments, and also occurs as

crystal composites associated with authigenic aggregate

material.

The Jauf Formation consists of interstratified beds of

sandstone, fossiliferous shale, and limestone (biosparite).

is c o n f o r m a b l e with the u n d e r l y i n g Tabuk Sandstone, but is

unconformable with the o v e r l y i n g Sakaka Formation. Only one

sample, near the contact with the T a b u k Formation, was

collected from this formation inasmuch as the strata crop

out in o n l y one locality in the study area and the entire

upper portion is c o v e r e d by scree. This sample could be

from the u p p e r Tabuk Sandstone (Tawil Member). The

sandstone is an q u a r t z a r e n i t e composed of more than 98

percent, medium to f i n e grained, rounded- to well-rounded

quartz grains. The major heavy mineral is d r a v i t e and the

52
 1 mm
(a) Lower Tabuk sandstone.
Quartz arenite, composed of
subrounded to rounded detrital
quartz. Quartz cementation
slight.
1 mm
(b) Middle Tabuk sandstone.
Quartz arenite, composed of
rounded to well-rounded detrital
quartz and microcrystalline aggregates
of quartz. Cementation slight.

Figure 14. Paleozoic sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25.

minor heavy mineral is f l u o r a p a t i t e (Table 2).

The Sakaka Formation consists of interstratified beds

of sandstone, shale, and limestone. Terrigenous sediments

of the S a k a k a Formation arc quartz arenites composed of more

than 96 p e r c e n t quartz grains. Quartz grains are rounded to

well rounded and range from coarse to f i n e grained (Fig. 15

a and b). Cementation is n o r m a l l y slight, but in some

places cementation by q u a r t z does occur. Major heavy

minerals are dravite, rutile, anatase, and fluorapatite.

The minor heavy mineral is z i r c o n (Table 2).

Eolian Sand Results and Discussion

Grain Size.-- Mean grain size for each sample was

calculated using moment statistics (Table 3). A histogram

(grain s i z e ) was prepared from the sieve analysis of each An

Nafud sand sample and plotted according to sample location

(Fig. 16). The grain size distribution was then interpreted

in order to: (1) indicate the direction of prevailing

dune-forming winds and sand source, (2) c o n s t r u c t a model of

dune-field development, and (3) s t u d y the distribution of

grain size throughout the sand sea.

An Nafud sand is m e d i u m grained in the w e s t e r n portion

of the d u n e field and grades into finer sizes from west to

oast across the dune field (Fig. 16). The overall

grain-size distribution agrees with the dune orientation in

An Nafud and strongly suggests that the prevailing

dune-forming winds were from the west and west-southwest and

54
Table 3. Statistical values for An Nafud sand samples using
moment statistical formulas at one-phi intervals

Sand Sample Mean Grain Sorting

Number Size
in 0 units in 0 unit

035 1.9 0.5

036 1.9 0.6
037 1.4 0.7
038 2.2 0.6
039 1.8 0.6

181 1.7 0.6

184 1.6 0.5
210 1.6 0.5
180 1.6 0.8
185 1.7 0.7

152 2.1 0.8

151 2.7 0.9
150 2.4 0.8
143 2.4 0.7
144 1.8 0.6

145 1.8 0.5

153 2.6 0.6
154 2.2 0.7
142 2.1 0.7
141 2.0 0.6

140 1.7 0.5

170 1.9 0.6
202 2.4 0.7
162 2.1 0.7
161 1.9 0.5

146 2.0 0.6

165 2.2 0.6
164 2.5 0.7
163 2.2 0.7
203 2.5 0.6

022 1.8 0.9

218 2.4 0.5
228 2.5 0.3
238 2.3 0.5
248 2.6 0.4

55
 1 mm
(a) Lower Sakaka Sandstone. Quartz
arenite. Primarily a mosaic of
quartz produced by cementation of
detrital quartz with quartz. Note
well-rounded outline of original
detrital quartz.
1 mm
(b) Middle Sakaka sandstone. Quartz
arenite. A mature sand slightly
cemented by quartz. Some Micro-
crystalline aggregates of quartz.
Cementation slight and porosity high.

Figure 15. Paleozoic-Mesozoic sandstone, crossed nicols, x 25.

 29°

28° 29°

27° 27°
100 KM

Figure 16. Histograms of grain size from sieve analyses of dune

samples from An Nafud sand sea. (Base map from U. S.
Geological Survey, 1972)
that the sand source lies w e s t and southwest of An Nafud.

The grain-size distribution in the extreme northwestern

extension and along the n o r t h e r n margin of An N a f u d does not

reflect a gradational trend, as d o c s the m a j o r dune system

of An N a f u d . Fine-grained sand occurs in b o t h areas and is

probably the result of: (1) a finer sand source to the west

and northwest and (2) m o r e variable wind conditions in the

area that tend to r e w o r k the sand resulting in finer grain

size.

Sorting.-- A sorting value for each sample was

calculated using moment statistics (Table 3). Sorting

values are: 0.00 to 0 . 3 5 phi, very well sorted; 0.35 to

0.50 phi, well sorted; 0.50 to 0 . 7 0 phi, moderately well

sorted; and 0.70 to 1 . 0 0 phi, moderately sorted (Folk,

1980). Sorting improves from west to e a s t across the

southern half of An N a f u d , and the sand is m o d e r a t e l y well

sorted in the n o r t h e r n half, except in the north-northwest

corner where moderately active sand prevails. In general,

the m o d e r a t e l y well-sorted sand lies in the linear dunes,

the w e l l - s o r t e d sand in the transverse and barchanoid ridge

dunes, and the very well-sorted sand in the star dunes of An

Nafud sand sea. As e x p e c t e d , sorting generally improves in

the downwind direction.

Roundness and Sphericity.-- The determination of

roundness and sphericity for each sand sample was made by

58
using the chart by K r u m b e i n and Sloss (1963, p 111) for

visual estimation of roundness and sphericity; the x-axis,

roundness, is n u m b e r e d 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9, and the

y-axis, sphericity, is n u m b e r e d 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9.

Higher numbers indicate an increase in r o u n d n e s s and

sphericity. AM sand samples have roundness values of 0.5

or greater; the less w e l l - r o u n d e d sand is located along the

western and northwestern edges of the sand sea. Sphericity

values a r c 0 . 7 or 0 . 9 for all samples; those with a

sphericity of 0 . 7 lie in the w e s t e r n and northwestern areas.

Most of the grains are rounded to w e l l - r o u n d e d and have a

high degree of sphericity, indicative of an e o l i a n , very

mature sand.

Mineral Composition.-- Heavy minerals from the sand

samples were examined to identify: (1) the source for the

dune sand, (2) p o s s i b l e correlation of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

heavy-minerals with the paleowind regime, and (3)

potentially significant economic mineral deposits. The

major heavy-mineral assemblage from the d u n e sands includes:

dravite, zircon, epidote, rutile, goethite, magnetite,

hematite, and limonite (Appendices B and C). Dravite and

zircon are the m o s t abundant heavy-minerals; minerals that

appear in m i n o r amounts are: wilkeite (Apatite Group, Dana,

1949, p. 7 0 6 ) , gorceixite (Hamlinite Group, Dana. 1949, p.

711), goyazite (Hamlinite Group, Dana, 1949, p. 711),

gahnite (Dana, 1949, p.489), hinsdalite (shows certain

59
relations to H a m l i n i t e Group, Dana, 1949, p. 738). The

preceding phosphate minerals a r e not rare in An N a f u d sand

sea a r e a , because phosphate deposits (Bayliss, 1981) are

common in n o r t h e r n Saudi Arabia.. Figure 17 depicts

graphically the frequency distribution of the heavy-minerals

identified in the dune samples; the rarer minerals are

grouped together. The o p a q u e and iron-rich minerals, except

goethite, also are placed in one group.

T h e areal distribution of dravite (Fig. 18) changes

abruptly along an east-west line in the m i d d l e of the sand

sea. This change probably is the result of the wind regime

inasmuch as the n o r t h e r n portion of An N a f u d is d o m i n a t e d by

linear dunes; or possibly the sand deposited in this area is

from a dravite-poor source. The concentration of dravite is

greatest in the southern part of the sand sea. Zircon,

Figure 19, shows a distinct pattern of higher concentrations

in the n o r t h w e s t e r n a r e a and decreasing concentration to the

north, northeast, and east. The distribution of zircon

coupled with that of dravite provides a definite indication

that An Nafud has more than one sand source. Epidote,

Figure 20, shows higher concentrations on the n o r t h e r n side

and in the southwestern corner but is e v e n l y distributed

over most of the sand sea. The distributions of rutile and

goethite (Fig. 17) b o t h show a s l i g h t l y higher concentration

in the central and northwestern parts, gradually decreasing

to one percent in the eastern An N a f u d . These were not

mapped inasmuch as they reflect the same direction of

60
0
Sample 035 Samp)e039 S a m p l e 141 Sample 143 S a m p l e 151
2 7 ° 5 5 ' N . , 3 9 ° 0 5 ' E. 2 8 ° 4 8 ' N., 3 9 ° 2 2 ' E. 28°15* N., 40°45* E. 28°45' N., 4 0 ° 1 5 ' E. 2 9 ° 1 0 ' N., 4 0 ° 0 8 ' E.

Sample 161 Sample 162 S a m p l e 164 Sample 180

2 9 ° 1 5 ' N . , 4 0 ° 5 4 ' E. 2 8 ° 1 5 ' N., 4 1 ° 1 5 ' E. 2 8 ° 4 5 ' N., 4 1 ° 1 5 ' E. 2 8 ° 1 5 ' N., 4 1 ° 4 5 ' E. 2 7 ° 4 5 ' N., 3 9 ° 4 5 ' E.

Sample 2 0 3 S a m p l e 210 Sample 2 2 8

2 7 ° 4 5 ' N „ 3 9 ° 1 5 ' E. 2 9 ° 0 5 ' N., 4 1 ° 4 3 ' E. 2 8 ° 1 5 ' N., 3 9 ° 4 5 ' E. 2 8 ° 2 6 ' N., 4 2 ° 1 2 ' E.

EXPLANATION

Dravite

Epidote

Zircon

Goethite

Rutile

Hinsdatite, wilkeite, gahnite, goyazite, gorceixite

Opaque m i n e r a l

Distribution of totat grain

c o u n t s f r o m d u n e sampies

Figure 17. Heavy-mineral histograms and distribution of

total grain counts of dune samples from An Nafud
sand sea.

61
 EXPLANATION

Figure 18. Areal distribution of dravite (tourmaline) in An

Nafud sand sea. Rased on frequency, in percent,
of heavy-mineral grain counts of dune samples.
(Base map from U.S. Geological Survey, 1972)

EXPLANATION

Figure 19. Areal distribution of zircon in An Nafud sand

sea. Based on frequency, in percent, of
heavy-mineral grain counts of dune samples.
(Base map from U. S. Geological Survey, 1972)
62
 0 100KM

Figure 20. Areal distribution of epidote in An Nafud sand

sea. Based on frequency, in percent, of
heavy-mineral grain counts of dune samples.
(Base map from U. S. Geological Survey, 1972)

63
dune-forming wind, overall west to e a s t , as dravite,

epidote, and zircon.

In s u m m a r y , the heavy-mineral concentration decreases

west-to-cast across An Nafud sand sea. Mean-grain size

decreases west-to-east across An N a f u d , sorting improves

west-to-east across An N a f u d , and sand grains increase in

roundness and sphericity west- to -east across An Nafud.

Therefore, both the textural characteristics of An Nafud

sand and the h e a v y - m i n e r a l distribution across An Nafud

strongly suggest that the prevailing dune-forming winds were

from the w e s t and west-southwest, except in the northwest

extension, where a northwesterly wind may have been

dominant. The heavy-mineral distribution over An N a f u d sand

sea a l s o indicates that An N a f u d sand may have originated

from more than one source, however, the distribution is

dependent upon the heavy-mineral assemblage of cach

Paleozoic sandstone and the direction each exposure of

Paleozoic sandstone lies from An Nafud sand sea.

Quaternary History

Dune Systems.-- Major dune forms (Bagnold, 1941; 1951)

of An Nafud include linear, transverse, barchanoid ridge,

and massif (superimposed star dunes). Aerial photographs

(stereoscopic-pairs, Figs. 21, 22, 23, and 24) show the

major dune f o r m s and their orientation. Based on the

orientation of the barchanoid ridge and transverse dunes in

the western and southwestern areas of An N a f u d , these dunes

64
Figure 21. Vertical aerial photographs (stereoscopic pair) of linear dunes from the northwestern
part of An Nafud sand sea. Average dune height: 100 ft. Average spacing between dunes:
3,000 ft. Scale 1:120,000 (Courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey Saudi Arabian Mission,
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia).
Figure 22. Vertical aerial photographs (stereoscopic pair) of linear dunes from the east-central part
of An Nafud sand sea. Note blowouts in dune troughs and complex dunes on the broad crests.
Average dune height: 250 ft. Average spacing between dunes: 6,000 ft. Scale 1:120,000
(Courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey Saudi Arabian Mission, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia).
Figure 23. Vertical aerial photographs (stereoscopic pair) of transverse and barchanoid-ridge
dunes from the central part of An Nafud sand sea. Average dune height: 100 ft. Average
dune spacing: 5,000 ft. Scale 1:120,000 (Courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey Saudi
Arabian Mission, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia).
Figure 24. Vertical aerial photographs (stereoscopic pair) of massif dunes (star dunes) from the
Figure vertical of An Nafud sand sea. Average dune height: 250 ft. Average dune spacing:
4,500 ft. Scale 1:120,000 (Courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey Saudi Arabian Mission,
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia).
are interpreted to h a v e b e e n formed by w e s t , west-southwest,

and southwest winds. Linear dunes in the c e n t r a l An Nafud

(east-west orientation) were formed by n o r t h w e s t and

southwest winds. In the e a s t e r n portion of An N a f u d , near

the transition point between An Nafud and Ad Dahna, massif

dunes have been formed by m u l t i d i r e c t i o n a l winds. In the

northwest extension of An N a f u d , linear (seif) dunes

trending northwest-southeast are dominant. In the extreme

northern portion of An N a f u d , dune forms are minimal and

sheet sand dominates the landscape.

The primary dune system of An Nafud basically is

stabilized; the d u n e system is not m o v i n g nor is any

appreciable amount of n e w sand being added. Mobile,

unstable sand is s u p e r i m p o s e d on the c r e s t s of older dunes,

except for a small area of m o b i l e dunes in the northwestern

extension of An N a f u d . Field observations suggest that the

active sand on the crests is not new sand but reworked older

sand that has b e c o m e available as a r e s u l t of deflation of

exposed older dunes. The active dunes along the c r e s t s of

older dunes a r e 5 to 10 m high and are generally linear and

star dunes, indicating variable wind conditions during the

recent past and at the present time. The active and mobile

sand constitutes only 5 to 8 p e r c e n t of the total sand area

of An N a f u d . Studies by B r e e d and others (1979) and

Fryberger and Ahlbrandt ( 1 9 7 9 ) based on interpretation of

Landsat images of An N a f u d , have correctly assessed the wind

directions responsible for formation of the m a j o r dune

69
system. These studies did not, however, identify three

important conditions that characterize An N a f u d today: (1)

relatively dense vegetation on the o l d e r dune system, (2)

stability of the primary older dune system, and (3) active

dunes superimposed on the o l d e r stable dunes. Those

observations are especially important because An Nafud,

based on u n p u b l i s h e d meteorological data, has b e e n described

as p o s s e s s i n g a high-energy wind environment with the

highest potential for sand movement of a n y of the world's

sand seas (Fryberger and Ahlbrandt, 1979). The field

observations of vegetation cover, dune stability, and the

relatively small volume of m o b i l e sand in An N a f u d , suggest

that Landsat images must be used with caution.

Dunes in the n o r t h w e s t extension of An N a f u d arc active

and the least stable when compared with dunes in o t h e r areas

of An N a f u d . This condition most likely results from

slightly higher wind speeds in the a r e a , less rainfall,

sparse vegetation, and the possibility of new sand being

added to the a r e a . The prevailing nothwest wind in the

northwest extension is r e f l e c t e d by an increase in d u n e size

and thickness south and southeast across the area.

Therefore, if new sediment is b e i n g added to the northwest

extension, the T e r t i a r y - Q u a t e r n a r y gravel plains northwest

of the e x t e n s i o n are the probable source.

Dune orientation strongly suggests that An N a f u d is a

unidirectional sand sea, that is, the primary dune system

was formed by w e s t - s o u t h w e s t prevailing winds. Radiocarbon

70
dates determined for An N a f u d lacustrine deposits strongly

suggest that An N a f u d sand sea was formed between about

2 0 , 0 0 0 yrs to 9 , 0 0 0 yrs BP. Field observations support the

fact that the p r i m a r y dunes composing about 95 percent of

the sand sea are not active in the present arid climate.

Available wind data suggest that winds in An N a f u d region

have become more variable in the recent past, compared to

the wind regime during formation of An N a f u d sand sea.

Field observations, vegetation density, rainfall data, wind

data, and isotopic dates of lacustrine deposits indicate

that stabilization of the p r i m a r y older dunes of An Nafud

began after 5 , 0 0 0 y r s BP and that stabilizing conditions

prevail at the present time in An Nafud.

Source of Sand.-- Results from the study of dune

orientation, sand thickness, An Nafud sand samples in

relation to s a n d - g r a i n s i z e and sorting values, and

heavy-mineral distribution within An N a f u d support the

concept that the d u n e - f o r m i n g wind was from the

west-southwest. Dune orientation is p r i m a r i l y north-south

with east facing slipfaces. Sand thickness decreases

southwest to n o r t h e a s t across An N a f u d . Sand thickness is

greatest along the southwest and south-central margin of An

Nafud sand sea. Sand-grain size decreases from west to east

across An Nafud and sorting impoves from moderately

well-sorted in the w e s t to v e r y - w e l l sorted in the eastern

extremity of An N a f u d sand sea. Therefore, if the

71
dune-forming wind was from the w e s t - s o u t h w e s t , the heavy

minerals identified in An N a f u d sand samples should

decrease, west to e a s t across An N a f u d , according to their

specific gravity. The isopleth maps (Figs. 18, 19, and 20)

show that the heavy minerals identified in An N a f u d sand do,

in g e n e r a l , decrease from west to e a s t a c r o s s An Nafud,

providing further evidence that the d u n e - f o r m i n g wind was

from the w e s t - s o u t h w e s t . Therefore, if the dune-forming

wind was from the w e s t - s o u t h w e s t and if the Paleozoic

sandstone was the source of sand for An N a f u d sand sea, then

the heavy minerals identified in An Nafud sand should

correlate with the h e a v y minerals identified in the

Paleozoic sandstone.

The major heavy minerals identified in An N a f u d sand

samples are dravite, zircon, epidote, goethite, rutile, and

opaque minerals (see A p p e n d i c e s B and C, for complete

analyses). Major heavy minerals identified in the Paleozoic

sandstone samples are dravite, rutile, anatase,

fluorapatite, goethite, hematite, and chromite. Minor heavy

minerals arc zircon, epidote, sphene, and diopside (see

Appendices D and E for complete analyses).

Heavy minerals identified in the P a l e o z o i c sandstone

samples, but not identified in An Nafud sand samples include

anatase, sphene, diopside, fluorapatite, and chromite. With

respect to a n a t a s e and sphene, anatase is t r i m o r p h o u s with

rutile and brookite; and both anatase and rutile occur as

alteration products of sphene. Sphene is a minor

72
constituent in one sample from the Umm Sahm and Ram

sandstones. Diopside, pyroxene group, was identified as a

minor heavy mineral in one sample from the Siq Sandstone.

Fluorapatito was identified in one rock sample from the

Sakaka Sandstone and from one rock sample from the lower Umm

Sahm and Ram sandstones. The Sakaka Sandstone crops out in

only one location near the n o r t h w e s t edge of An N a f u d , and

the lower Umm Sahm and Ram sandstones crop out in one

location south of the south central margin of An Nafud.

Thus, if fluorapatito is a d e t r i t a l heavy mineral in An

Nafud sand it w o u l d be rare. Chromite appears as a major

heavy mineral in the Siq, Quweira, Umm Sahm, and Ram

sandstones, but was not identified in An N a f u d sand samples.

However, gahnite ( Z n - s p i n e l ) and magnetite were identified

in An N a f u d sand samples. Therefore, the heavy minerals

identified in An N a f u d sand samples correlate very well with

the heavy minerals identified in the P a l e o z o i c sandstone

samples, except for chromite.

!n c o m p a r i n g An N a f u d heavy-mineral suite with that of

each Paleozoic sandstone formation, the best correlation is

with the heavy-mineral suite identifed in the Tabuk

formation. In addition, the exposure of the T a b u k Sandstone

is larger in areal extent than the other Paleozoic sandstone

formations, and this large a r e a of exposure lies to the west

and west-southwest of An Nafud sand sea. Therefore, the

evidence strongly suggests that the d u n e - f o r m i n g wind was

from the w e s t - s o u t h w e s t and that the T a b u k Sandstone was the

73
primary source of An N a f u d sand; the Siq, Quweira, Umm Sahm,

and Ram sandstones contributed, but to a lesser degree.

Lake Deposits.-- Quaternary climatic conditions of An

Nafud can b e s t be projected from data derived from climatic

and geologic studies of the late T e r t a r y and Quaternary

systems in e a s t e r n and southern Saudi Arabia, and then

substantiated from field observations and isotopic dating of

Quaternary lacustrine deposits in An N a f u d sand sea. As is

true for the o t h e r sand s e a s of Saudi Arabia, major problems

do e x i s t in a t t e m p t i n g to p r o j e c t An N a f u d climatic

conditions during the Q u a t e r n a r y : (1) the sands that

underlie An Nafud sand and associated lacustrine deposits

(Fig. 25), (2) the limited exposure of lacustrine deposits

and bedrock surfaces, and (3) the sparsity of reliable

elevations on e x p o s e d surfaces.

Two different sands, a white sand and a beige to light

brown sand, underlie An N a f u d sand and lacustrine deposits

(Fig. 25). The white sand is c o m p o s e d entirely of

coarse-to-medium quartz grains, cross-bedded with little or

no c e m e n t a t i o n ; some exposures display root casts. All

grains arc well rounded and frosted. The beige to light

brown sand is c o m p o s e d of medium quartz and zircon grains,

with zircon constituting less than one percent of the total

sand grains; all grains are well rounded, frosted, and iron

stained. Where exposed, the b e i g e to light brown sand is

unconsolidated, and no b e d f o r m s are evident. The textural

74
 Active dune
Pleistocene lake
Vegetation deposit Deflation scoops.

Stable Pleistocene dune

Holocene lake deposit

Active dune

Figure 25. Schematic cross sections illustrating typical

stratigraphic settings of Pleistocene and
Holocene lake beds, An Nafud sand sea (from
Whitney and others, 1983).

75
characteristics of both sands strongly suggest that they are

eolian deposits. However, there is a p o s s i b i l i t y that the

white sand was, originally, a sandstone (Tertiary or older)

that was leached with a subsequent loss of cementing

material and secondary minerals during a pluvial episode and

a resulting higher water table. Detailed geologic studies

are required to r e s o l v e this question.

In g e n e r a l , the w h i t e sand is n o r m a l l y exposed in the

west, southwest, and southern areas of An N a f u d , and the

beige to light brown sand in the c e n t r a l and eastern

portions of An N a f u d . In s o m e places in An N a f u d , both

sands were found exposed in a s p e c i f i c sequence, but o n l y if

two d i f f e r e n t levels of lacustrine deposits were present

(Fig. 25). The older white and beige eolian sand and

lacustrine deposits that underlie the y o u n g e r An Nafud sands

and that a r e exposed in interdune areas, provide the first

evidence of a l t e r n a t i n g dry and wet phases in the region.

Samples of calcareous lake-bed deposits from separate

An N a f u d interdune areas were collected by the a u t h o r and

John Whitney (U.S. Geological Survey) and isotopically dated

by M e y e r Rubin (U.S. Geological Survey), Table 4. Included

in T a b l e 4 are isotopically dated samples, collected by John

Whitney, of organic material from An N a f u d and of lake-bed

deposits from areas south and southwest of An N a f u d . In

conjuction with Table 4, and of great importance in

projecting Quaternary climatic conditions of An N a f u d , is

Figure 25 that illustrates typical strati g r a p h i c settings of

Table 4. Radiocarbon-dated lacustrine and interdune
deposits in Saudi Arabia's northern sand
seas. ** Deposits dated by Ganard and
others, Pers. Comm., 1982. (From Whitney
and others, 1983).
Laboratory Radiocarbon /
Sand Sea Location Number Material Years B.P.

An Nafud 27°36'N/38°50' E B-3461 Organic 5,280 ± 100

Nafud As Sirr 26°10'N/44°19' E B-2988 CaCO3 5,480 ^ 70

Nafud Urayk 25°35'N/42°40' E B-3466 CaC03 5,640 ^ 90

An Nafud 28°10'N/40°50' E Q-3118** Organic 6,685 ± 50

Nafud Urayk 25°37'N/42°39''E B-3523 CaCO3 8,440 ^ 90

An Nafud 28°50'N/40°15''E M-4835 CaC03 24,340 * 300

An Nafud 28°10'N/40°50''E Q-3117** CaCO3 25,630 * 430

An Nafud 28°15'N/41°15 'E W-4847 CaCO3 25,750 ± 310

Nafud Urayk 25°20'N/40°15 'E W-4987 CaCO3 26,400 ± 400

An Nafud 28°15'N/39°45 'E W-4864 CaC03 27,120 ^ 420

An Nafud 28°15'N/41°15 'E N-4855 CaC03 27,570 * 500

An Nafud 27°50'N/41°04'E W-4838 CaCO3 29,000 * 600

Nafud Urayk 25°32'N/42°36 'E W-4972 CaCO3 >31,000

An Nafud 28°45'N/40°45 'E W-4959 CaCO3 >32,000

An Nafud 29°35'N/40°13 'E W-4978 CaCO3 >38,000

77
lacustrine deposits and associated older and younger eolian

sands in An N a f u d dune areas.

Radiocarbon dates determined for samples W-4959

(greater than 3 2 , 0 0 0 y r s B P ) and W-4978 (greater than 38,000

yrs BP), Table 4, m u s t be interpreted with caution, because

isotopic dates greater than 3 0 , 0 0 0 yrs, determined from

calcareous deposits, have a low reliability factor.

However, those two dates when considered with the fact that

the lake-bed deposits found in An Nafud lie on

unconsolidated eolian sand, certainly suggest that a period

of a r i d i t y and at least one pluvial episode occurred prior

to 3 0 , 0 0 0 yrs BP. According to M c C l u r e (1976), a pluvial

phase began at a b o u t 36,000 yrs BP in s o u t h e a s t e r n Saudi

Arabia. Studies by W h i t n e y (1983) indicate that a pluvial

episode began at a b o u t 3 3 , 0 0 0 yrs BP in w e s t e r n Saudi

Arabia.

The major grouping of radiocarbon dates for An Nafud

lacustrine deposits is b e t w e e n 2 9 , 0 0 0 yrs and 24,000 yrs BP;

these dates undoubtedly define a pluvial episode with

intervening periods of a r i d i t y . One significant aspect of

the d a t a in T a b l e 4, is that they indicate an a b s e n c e of An

Nafud calcareous lacustrine deposits prior to 2 4 , 0 0 0 yrs BP.

although it is c e r t a i n l y possible that some exist. However,

based on the radiocarbon dates from Table 4, an intense

period of a r i d i t y and eolian activity probably occurrcd

between approximately 22,000 yrs and 9 , 0 0 0 yrs BP, and An

Nafud sand sea was most likely created during this period.

78
 During the c o u r s e of field work in An N a f u d no

calcareous deposits of Holocene age were found. Numerous

small pan d e p o s i t s occur in the lee of the targe barchanoid

ridge dunes. The pan deposits, composed mainly of

gypsiforous sand, were [aid down in small natural basins,

similar to m i n i a t u r e playas, by e p h e m e r a l stands of water.

Pan deposits cannot be dated by p r e s e n t methods but probably

arc early Holocene in age, inasmuch as they were formed

after emplacement of the present dunes ( 2 2 , 0 0 0 yrs to 9,000

yrs BP), thus suggesting that a pluvial episode did occur

between 9 , 0 0 0 yrs BP and the p r e s e n t . This episode was of

less intensity than the late P l e i s t o c e n e pluvial episode

( 2 9 , 0 0 0 yrs to 2 4 , 0 0 0 yrs BP). Radiocarbon dates for two

samples of organic material from An N a f u d (Table 4 ) of 6,685

y r s BP and 5 , 2 8 0 y r s BP support the v i e w that a pluvial

period did occur between about 9 , 0 0 0 yrs to 4 , 5 0 0 yrs BP,

and studies by M c C l u r e (1976), Al-Sayari and Zotl (1978),

and Whitney (1983) have shown that a pluvial episode did

occur from early to m i d d l e Holocene in o t h e r areas of Saudi

Arabia. A plausible explanation for the absence of early to

middle Holocene calcareous take b e d s in An N a f u d is that the

pluvial episode ( 9 , 0 0 0 yrs to 5 , 0 0 0 yrs BP) was not as

intense in n o r t h e r n Saudi Arabia as it was in the southern

and eastern regions of Saudi Arabia, and therefore, An Nafud

lacustrine deposits were limited in e x t e n t and thickness.

Field observations that support this view are: (1) faunal

remains of a n t e l o p e were not found by the a u t h o r in An Nafud

79
but w e r e found in take-bed deposits of Holocenc age in Ar

Rub al Khali, (2) t o o l s of Mesolithic and Neolithic age were

not observed, except on the e x t r e m e fringes of An Nafud sand

sea, and (3) interdune areas have been subjected to

deflation for an extended period of time, based on the depth

of deftation around older vegetation and the d e p t h of tag (2

cm to 4 c m ) on the w i n d w a r d s i d e of An N a f u d dunes.

Therefore, if thin calcareous lake beds of early to middle

Holocone age did exist, they w e r e m o s t likely destroyed by

eolian processes during the last 4 , 0 0 0 to 5 , 0 0 0 yrs.

Topographic and Gravity Surveys. -- T o p o g r a p h i c and

gravity surveys were carried out simultaneously along lines

A-A' and B-B' (Fig. 26), by the a u t h o r and M. G e t t i n g s , U.S.

Geological Survey. Elevations wore estabtished by doppler

satellite receivers and altimeter. A base station was

established at c a m p and the e l e v a t i o n was determined by the

doppler method and referenced to m e a n sea level. Elevations

were estabtished (doppler m e t h o d ) at intervals of a b o u t 40

kms and gravity stations (elevations by a l t i m e t e r ) at

intervals of a b o u t 10 kms a l o n g both profiles. Attimcter

elevations were referenced to the base station and dopplcr

stations along each profile and corrected for temperature

and humidity. Dopplcr elevations were established

alternately, where possible, on the sand surface and then on

bedrock of Q u a t e r n a r y , Tertiary, or Paleozoic age.

Based on e s t a b l i s h e d elevations and a d d i t i o n a l

80
Figure 26. T o p o g r a p h i c m a p of An N a f u d r e g i o n . An N a f u d sand sea outlined by
d a s h e d l i n e . E l e v a t i o n s , in m e t e r s , r e f e r e n c e d t o m e a n s e a l e v e l .
A - A ' a n d B - B ' a r e t o p o g r a p h i c and g r a v i t y p r o f i l e l i n e s (map by
F a u l k e n d e r a n d G e t t i n g s , 1 9 8 1 ) . C o n t o u r i n t e r v a l = 40 m , s c a l e
1:2,000,000.
elevations from maps by B r a m k a m p and others (1963) and Brown

and others (1963), a topographic map was compiled for An

Nafud sand sea (Fig. 26). Figure 26 shows a decrease in

elevation from south to n o r t h of about 300 m and from west

to o a s t of about 180 m. The entire An Nafud surface stopes

gently to the n o r t h e a s t , except in t h e southwest and

northwest corners, where north-flowing drainage is apparent.

The contours do not indicate a topographic basin, but rather

a planar surface inclined uniformly to the northeast. From

southwest to n o r t h e a s t the elevation decreases about 210 m.

Figure 27 illustrates the topographic profiles three

dimensionally. Sand thickness is greatest in the south

(about 150 m), but is thinner west to e a s t , averaging

between 6 0 m to 100 m. Thus, An N a f u d sand sheet forms a

wedge of sand that lies on the gently northeast-dipping

Phanerozoic surface.

Gravity data for both profiles (Fig. 27) were

interpreted by M. G e t t i n g , U.S. Geological Survey, using a

density value of 2.67 gm/cm3 for An N a f u d sand (oral

comm., 1983). Largo, simple Bouguer anomalies that occur

along both profiles indicate a number of faults that appear

to be horst-graben structures. These deep-seated structures

most likely reflect faults in the Precambrian basement

complex. South and north of the northwest extension, faults

(striking northwest and southeast) cut the Phanerozoic

rocks. Tertiary and Quaternary sandstone and mart are

present in a g r a b e n - l i k e structure in t h e northwest area

82
Figure 27. Topographic and simple Bouguer gravity-anomaly profiles across An Nafud
sand sea, north-central Saudi Arabia. Horizontal scale: 1:2,000,000 (M.
Gettings, U. S. Geological Survey, Pers. Comm. 1983).
(29°30' N . lat - 40°00' E . long) of An N a f u d where

sand cover is thin and discontinuous. The gravity profiles,

therefore, most likely define the southeasterly extension of

the fault system in the n o r t h w e s t extension of An Nafud sand

sea.

Mean sea-level elevations and interpreted gravity data

along both profiles strongly suggest that the surface

underlying An N a f u d sand is a p e n e p l a n e , sloping gently to

the n o r t h e a s t and that the faults underlying An Nafud are

deep-seated, that is, w i t h i n the Precambrian basement

complex. An N a f u d sand sea, therefore, was not formed in a

topographic low, but was most likely the end product of wind

regime and sand source. These conclusions are based on

three factors: (1) the dune-forming winds are believed to

have been from tho west and west-southwest during late

Pleistocene and early Holocene, (2) the most extensive

exposure of Paleozoic sandstone is w e s t and southwest of An

Nafud, and (3) the wind regime was most likely from the west

and northwest during late Holocene to the present. All of

these factors would contribute to thicker sands in the

southern and southwestern areas of An Nafud.

Discussion

The late P l e i s t o c e n e - H o l o c e n e environmental history of

An N a f u d sand sea is c h i e f l y a history of alternating

climate changes that resulted in a l t e r n a t i n g episodes of

vigorous eolian activity and dune system stability. Dated

84
lacustrine deposits from An N a f u d fall primarily into two

periods of pluvial activity. Maximum lacustrine activity

took place in late Pleistocene (32,000 yrs to 2 4 . 0 0 0 yrs

BP); the largest number of dated take sediments were

deposited between 27,800 yr sand 25,500 yrs BP in A n Nafud

sand sea. A second lake-forming episode occurred in early

to m i d d l e Holocene time between 8,500 yrs and 5,000 yrs BP,

and appears to have had a period of maximum activity between

about 6,500 yrs and 5,200 yrs BP. Both pluvial periods

correlate well with pluvial activity in o t h e r parts of Saudi

Arabia. However, the early to m i d d l e Holocene pluvial

period in A n N a f u d appears to h a v e been of lessor intensity

in A n Nafud sand sea then in o t h e r parts of Saudi Arabia.

For example, the early to m i d d l e Holocene lake-bed deposits

in A n Nafud arc limited in n u m b e r and are relatively thin

compared with lake-bed deposits of the same age in A r Rub al

Khali sand sea in s o u t h e a s t e r n Saudi Arabia.

Because eolian sand lies stratigraphiclly above and

below lacustrine deposits in A n N a f u d , maximum eolian

activity must have occurred there between pluvial periods

when the dune-forming wind achieved its highest velocity.

Wind data for An Nafud sand sea indicate that wind velocity

has decreased in the recent past, resulting in a d e c r e a s e in

eolian activity and dune mobility. The sand over more than

ninety percent of An N a f u d has become stable in the recent

past as the wind velocity decreased and vegetation cover

increased. Active deflation in A n Nafud sand sea appears to

85
have decreased recently because most of the deflation

depressions observed in t h e field or on aerial photographs

contain vegetation.

Heavy-mineral data from the Paleozoic sandstone and An

Nafud sand samples, show that the two mineral suites have a

high degree of correlation, and that the best correlation

occurs between the Tabuk Sandstone (Silurian-Ordovician age)

heavy-mineral suite and An Nafud sand heavy-mineral suite,

except for chromite. Therefore, heavy-mineral data strongly

suggest that the Tabuk Sandstone was the primary sand source

and that the remaining Paleozoic sandstone formations were,

most likely, a secondary source. The histograms showing the

distribution of grain size in A n N a f u d sand sea, support the

concept that the dune-forming wind was from the

west-southwest and that the sand source lies to the

west-southwest of An N a f u d . The supporting facts arc: (1)

grain size decreases from west to c a s t across An N a f u d , (2)

sorting improves west to c a s t across An N a f u d , and (3) the

concentration of dravite, zircon, and epidote decrease from

west to c a s t across An Nafud sand sea.

Summary

The conclusions from this study arc: (1) the evidence

strongly suggests that the primary source of sand for An

Nafud sand sea was the Tabuk Sandstone; secondary sources

from the other Paleozoic sandstone formations, (2) the

dune-forming wind was from the west-southwest, (3) An Nafud

86
sand sea began to d e v e l o p during the late Pleistocene, (4)

the average wind velocity for An N a f u d region has decresed

in the recent past, and (5) An N a f u d sand sea is, at the

present time, a stable sand sea. These conclusions are

based on a v a i l a b l e climatic data, radiocarbon-dated

lacustrine deposits, field observations, dune forms,

textural and minoralogical studies of An N a f u d sand samples,

and minoralogical studies of Paleozoic sandstone samples.

Suggested areas of study for future work in A n Nafud

are: (1) a c o m p a r i s o n of quartz types in A n N a f u d sand and

Paleozoic sandstone, (2) a d e t a i l e d study of lacustrine

deposits in r e l a t i o n to p a l e o c l i m a t e and possible economic

mineral deposits, and (3) a d e t a i l e d study of the textural

parameters of An Nafud sand as related to d u n e forms.

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P a l e o c e n e v e r t e b r a t e s f r o m c o a s t a l d e p o s i t s in t h e
H a r r a t H a d a n a r e a , A l - T a i f r e g i o n , K i n g d o m of S a u d i
Arabia: U.S. Geological Survey Saudi Arabian Mission
P r o j e c t R e p o r t 2 6 9 , 2 9 p.

M c B r i d e , E. F . , 1 9 7 1 , M a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t m e n t of s i z e
distribution data, in P r o c e d u r e s in s e d i m e n t a r y
p e t r o l o g y , R. E. C a r v e r , e d . : N e w Y o r k ,
Wiley-lnterscience, p.109-127.

M c C l u r e , H. A., 1 9 7 6 , Radiocarbon chronology of late

Quaternary lakes in t h e A r a b i a n d e s e r t : Nature, v. 263,
p. 7 5 5 - 7 5 6 .

M c C l u r e , H . A . , 1 9 7 8 , A r R u b al K h a l i , in A l - S a y a r i , S. S.,
and Zo'tl, J . G . , e d s . , Q u a t e r n a r y P e r i o d in S a u d i
A r a b i a : New York, S p r i n g e r - V e r i a g , p. 2 5 2 - 2 6 3 .

M c C l u r e , H. A., 1 9 8 0 , P e r m i a n - C a r b o n i f e r o u s g l a c i a t i o n in
the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a : G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y of A m e r i c a
B u l l e t i n , v. 9 1 , p. 7 0 7 - 7 1 2 .

P h i l b y , H. St. J o h n , 1933, The Empty Quarter: London,

C o n s t a b l e , 4 3 3 p.

P o w e r s , R . W . , R a m i r e z , L. F . , R e d m o n d , C . D . , a n d El b e r g ,
E . L . , J r . , 1 9 6 6 , G e o l o g y of t h e A r a b i a n
P e n i n s u l a - - S e d i m e n t a r y G e o l o g y of S a u d i A r a b i a : U . S .
Geological S u r v e y P r o f e s s i o n a l P a p e r 5 6 0 - D , 1 4 7 p.

Saudi A r a b i a M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e a n d W a t e r , 1 9 6 8 . T h e
G r e a t N a f u d s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n , K i n g d o m of S a u d i Arabia:
P a r s o n s B a s i l , C o n s u l t a n t , R i y a d h , S a u d i A r a b i a , v. 3,
5 0 0 p.

91
S c h m i d t , D. L., H a d l e y , D. G . , a n d B r o w n , G. F . , 1982,
Middle Tertiary continental r i f t a n d e v o l u t i o n of t h e R e d
S e a in s o u t h w e s t e r n S a u d i A r a b i a : S a u d i A r a b i a n Deputy
M i n i s t r y for M i n e r a l R e s o u r c e s O p e n - F i l e Report
U S G S - 0 F - 0 3 - 6 , 5 6 p.

U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , 1 9 7 2 , T o p o g r a p h i c m a p of t h e A r a b i a n
P e n i n s u l a : U.S. Geological Survey Saudi Arabian Project
R e p o r t 135, s c a l e 1:4,000,000.

U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y and A r a b i a n A m e r i c a n Oil Company

( A R A M C O ) , 1 9 6 3 , G e o l o g i c a l M a p of t h e A r a b i a n Peninsula:
U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geological
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s M a p I - 2 0 A, s c a l e 1:2,000,000.

W h i t n e y , J . W . , 1 9 8 2 , O v e r v i e w of t h e g e o m o r p h o l o g y of
w e s t e r n Saudi A r a b i a and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for future
r e s e a r c h : Saudi A r a b i a n D e p u t y M i n i s t r y for M i n e r a l
Resources Open-File Report USGS-0F-02-6, 1 9 p.

W h i t n e y , J. W., 1983, E r o s i o n a l h i s t o r y and surficial

g e o l o g y of w e s t e r n S a u d i A r a b i a : S a u d i A r a b i a n Deputy
M i n i s t r y for M i n e r a l R e s o u r c e s T e c h n i c a l Record
U S G S - T R - 0 4 - 1 , 9 0 p.

W h i t n e y , J. W., F a u l k e n d o r , D. J., a n d R u b i n , M . , 1 9 8 3 , T h e
environmental h i s t o r y a n d p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n of t h o n o r t h e r n
s a n d s e a s of S a u d i A r a b i a : S a u d i A r a b i a n D e p u t y M i n i s t r y for
M i n e r a l R e s o u r c e s O p e n - F i l e R e p o r t U S G S - Q F - 0 3 - 9 5 , 3 9 p.
 A P P E N D I X A
Sieve Analyses of An Nafud Sand Samples
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Kafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date 28 Nov 19880 Sample No. 151

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of T o t a l Sample + Tare Ems

Tare Wt. gms
Mt. of T o t a l Sample 201.4 gms
Sum of R e t a i n e d Wt. 501.3
Loss 0.1 gms

U. S. Standard RRetained
Sieve
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing

10 (-1 0)404.4494.40.018 ( 0 0) 457.6 457.6 0.0 100.0

35 ( 1 0)441.1432.98.24.14.195.960 ( 2 0)438.929.818.98.11120 ( 3 0)458.5300.234.953.846.2230 (4 0)479.3I^ ^ I

 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date 15 Dec. 1980 Sample No. 181

Type of S a m p l e Eolian Sand

Wt. of T o t a l Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms
Wt. of T o t a l Sample gms
Sum of R e t a i n e d Wt. 201.5 gms
Loss 0.1 gms

U. S.. Standard Retained

Sieve Size Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum % Sum %
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing

10 (-10) 434.9 434.9 0.0

18 ( 0 0)457.6457.60.0100.0035 ( 1 0) 441.0 432.9 8.1 4.0 96.0

60 ( 2 0)569508.9160.979.883.816.2120 ( 3 0)410.638 02 .61 .296.0(50)230(40)396.0386.19.94l999.90.1

 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date /fy/ Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample 4 gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss /p,-2- gms

Retained
U. S.i Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
/
60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )
/

Pan
/
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. . Faulkender D a t e J2 Sample Ko. /313.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. ^ Ems

Loss /0./ Ems

i—'
o

Retained
U. S.: Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Re t a i n e d Passing
10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
?
35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Kt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum o f Retained Ht. 7 gms

Loss (Q,/ gms

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Ht. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
(P. 0

35 ( 10)

60 (2 0)
/sir.
120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )
/

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date /t^'. Sample Ko.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare Ems

Tare Wt. Ems

Mt. of Total Sample gms

Sum o f Retained Wt. % Rms

Loss <3 . <3 gms

t—*
o
-p-

Retained
U. S.^ Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passins
10.(-10)

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10) / -Z

60 ( 2 0)
/ J

120 ( 3 0 )
J ^ ^ Z 7

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
,3 /
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date V ^ * / ^ Sample Ho. /

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Ht. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. f^d? gms

Mt. of Total Sample gtns

Sum of Retained Mt. 7, 7 gms

Loss rO, / gms

Retained
U. S.^ Standard
Mt. Sample Wt. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing
10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
^ <2
35 ( 10)
^ ^ 7 -

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
-7.5Y./ <3. <3
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. . Faulkender Date ^ S a m p l e No. J?^

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Kt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss / gms

Retained
U. S.; Standard
Wt. Sample Ht. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Re t a i n e d Passing

10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
-J

60 (2 0)
/
120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencsr Date .IFJ? Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Mt. of Total Sample + Tare O gms

Tare Mt. ? gms
Mt. of Total Sample / gms
Sum of Retained Mt. Rms
Loss <9./ gms

Retained
U. S.; Standard
Mt. Sample Mt. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-10)
rj.
18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
rj. /

60 ( 2 0)
/ / J , J*

120 ( 3 0 )
y 'J./

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date ^ / ^ O Sample Ko.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Kt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Mt. of Total Sample 7 gms

Sum of Retained Mt. gms

Loss gms

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Ht. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Samde Retained Retained Passing

10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)
/
120 ( 3 0 )
d) 3

230 ( 4 0 )
/ / . 7

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date <7 Z ^ C , Sample Ho.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare JT/^L^Z— gms

Tare Wt.

Wt. of Total Sample J ^ f / gms

Sum of Retained Wt.

Loss 7 gms

t—*
o

Retained
U. S.; Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing
10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)
J l ? . <<
120 ( 3 0 )
/
230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
J? ^ /
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare ^ gnis

Tare Wt.

Wt. of Total Sample Z, gms

Sum of Retained Wt. / gms

Loss gms

Retained
U.S. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing
10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
7/7^.
35 (1 0)
J

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )
3*

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date /J* J^tJ, Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. F Z / gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss / gms

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Re t a i n e d Passing

10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
r ^ f Z g J , ^
35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)
^ ^ ^ /
120 ( 3 0 )
/
230 ( 4 0 )
^ ^ z A ^

Pan

)
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare / gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. ? gms

Loss ^ gms

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing
10 (-1 0 ) 3 '
18 ( 0 0)
-AtX? y 7. y

35 (1 0)

60 ( 2 0)
^ // ^ J?/,

120 ( 3 0 )
^ /
230 ( 4 0 )
2.

Pan
J? r /
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date Sample No. /-^J?

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare Z d ) . <L gms

Tare Wt. ^ / gms

Wt. of Total Sample

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss gms

Retained
U. S. Standard
Wt. Sample wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Re t a i n e d Passing
10 .(-1 0 )
<3

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 (2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan /
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date Z^zfC. Sample Ho.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample ^ gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss Q gms

t—'
t—*

Re t a i n e d
U. S S tandard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Samde Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-1 0 )
. <3

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)
^
120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )
/ / Z

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

by D. J . Faulkencer Date ,2'd' Sample Ko.

Sample Eolian Sand

Total Sample + Tare 3 gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample / gms

Sum of Retained Wt. (7 gms

Loss 7, gms

Ln

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing
10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
77,2, ^

60 ( 2 0)
^7-7 7

120 ( 3 0 )
7 /

230 ( 4 0 )
<77 7

Pan 3 i /
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Mt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Mt. gms

Mt. of Total Sample J7<0<3.(9 gms

Sum o f Retained Mt. ^dJC*. gms

Loss gms

Retained
U. S.^ Standard
Mt. Sample Mt. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Samde Retained Re t a i n e d Passing

10.(-10)
^ ^ / 7 ^ /

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 ) 7

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date /767; Sample No. / 7 7

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare j$"7/, ^ gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample / gms

Sum of Retained Wt. / gms

Loss gms

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum %
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Samde Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-10)
-777.2

18 ( 0 0)
-73*7 '7

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 ) 3
-7-5'7 F

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. . Faulkender Date i /^J) Sample Kc. y^*^*

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare T' gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample J ^ / ^ gms

Sum of Retained Wt. -f? gms

Loss J), gms

Retained
U.S. Standard
Wt. Sample wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-10)
O /

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
^
60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
ci)./
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date /L5' Sample Ko. J?

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare 7 gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss O . / gms

Retained
U. S.; Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing
10.(-10)

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan

]
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date Sample Ho.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare JT7/. 3* gms

Tare Wt.

Wt. of Total Sample

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss / gms

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing
10 .(-1 0 )
<3
18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
/
60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )
^ v. ^

230 ( 4 0 )
- 7

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date .^i'//. Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. J?/).?.'? gms

Loss / gms

Retained
U. S.j Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing

10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
^ / 7 <3

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)
3 7 7 / 7Z. ^

120 ( 3 0 )
/ 77^, R <3

230 ( 4 0 )
-7/ ?,^ 7 / 7 7 7

Pan J? 7 7 . ^
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. . Faulkender Date Sample No. ^ ^ ^

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare ^13*7 Z gms

Tare Wt. ^ gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss <y<(3 gms

t—*
ho

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing
10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
/ <0.
35 ( 10)
d). <3
60 (2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )
/ 7 / ^

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Nafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date Sample No. ^ ^

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Ht. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. ^ 7, / gms

Mt. of Total Sample JL^/, gms

Sum of Retained Wt. gms

Loss ^ , ^ gms

i—*
K!

Retained
U. S.: Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Samde Re t a i n e d Re t a i n e d Passing
10 . ( - 1 0)
^
18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)
7 7 7 . ^
60 ( 2 0)
7 ^ 7 7 ^ - 7
120 ( 3 0 )
/ 7 7 7

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
7
^ ^ /
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Kafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Kt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Mt. of Total Sample B gms

Sum o f Retained Mt. .^f^) '. gms

Loss gms

i—'

Retained
U. S.. Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Ht. Percent Sum % Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing

10 (-10)

18 ( 0 0)

35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0) a J?-/ 7

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Kafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkencer Date ^ Sample Ho.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Mt. of Total Sample + Tare V gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample gms

Sum o f Retained Mt. ^(PJ?.--? gms

Loss O gms

Retained
U. S.; Standard
Wt. Sample Ht. Vt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
<9
35 ( 10)

60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )
<3

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
/ <3
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Kafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkender Date Jl^U^y^?^/ Sample Ko.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Kt. of Total Sample + Tare

Tare Wt.

Wt. of Total Sample

Sum of Retained Wt.

Loss

h-'
to

Retained
U. S.^ Standard
Wt. Sample Ht. Mt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing

10 .(-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
/ /
35 ( 10) -
<3, <3
60 ( 2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )
j s i f y . z

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Kafud Sand Samples

Tested by p. J . Faulkender Date /j ^/j/ Sample No.

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Wt. of Total Sample + Tare gms

Tare Wt. gms

Wt. of Total Sample J ? ^ / , g m s

Sum of Retained Wt. -Zd?/^ gms

Loss ^ gms

h-'

Retained
U. S.^ Standard
Wt. Sample Wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
Sieve Size
+ Sieve Sieve Sample Retained Retained Passing
10 .(-1 0 )
<3

18 ( 0 0)
/
35 ( 10)
%
60 ( 2 0)
J?
120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan

]
 SIEVE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
An Kafud Sand Samples

Tested by D. J . Faulkenner Date Sample No. ^Z^,^*

Type of Sample Eolian Sand

Ht. of Total Sample + Tare

Tare Wt. 2L gxis

Wt. of Total Sample grrs
Sum of Retained Wt. ^ Ems

Loss gms

t—-
ho

Retained
U. S. Standard

Sieve Size
Wt. Sample wt. Wt. Percent Sum X Sum X
+ Sieve Sieve SamDle Retained Retained Passing

10 (-1 0 )

18 ( 0 0)
<7*7^./

35 ( 10) -

60 (2 0)

120 ( 3 0 )

230 ( 4 0 )

Pan
 A P P E N D I X B

Identification of Heavy Minerals from An Nafud

Sand Samples by X-ray Diffraction

129
 Identification of Heavy Minerals
from An Nafud Sand Samples

Bv: D. J. Faulkender Date: "Rajab 2, 1401

FIELD NO. X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

210 Dravite

210 Dravite

154 Dravite

154 Zircon

154 Dravite

161 Dravite

161 Rutile

154 Rutile

154 No Lines

154 Wilkeite

154 Wilkeite

161 Dravite

161 Rutile

161 Goethite

161 Zircon

161 Zircon

161 Dravite

154 Gorceixite

154 Dravite

161 Goyazite, Gorceixite

154 Epidote

161 Dravite

130
 Identification of Heavy Minerals
from An Nafud Sand Samples

By: D. J. Faulkender Date: Rahi Thani 7, 1401

FIELD NO. X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

210 Dravite

210 Hinsdalite

210 Dravite

210 Dravite

210 Zircon

210 Zircon

210 Goethite

210 Rutile

210 Hematite

210 Gahnite

210 Dravite

131
 A P P E N D I X C

Heavy-Mineral Grain Count for 14 An Nafud Sand Samples

Heavy mineral grain count for 14 An Nafud sand
samples, 200 grains per sample, ribbon method
 A P P E N D I X D

Heavy-Mineral Frantz Fractions for 24 Paleozoic

Sandstone Samples

134
Heavy mineral Frantz fractions for 24
Paleozoic sandstone samples
 APPENDIX E

Identification of Minerals from Paleozoic

Sandstone Samples by X-ray Diffraction

136
 Identification of Minerals from
Paleozoic Sandstone Samples
By- D. J. Faulkender Date: Rajab 10, 1403

Field Frantz X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

No. Fraction Major Minor Trace
Minerals Minerals Minerals

013 0.5 M Dravite Goethite, Rutile Quartz, Epidote

013 1 M Quartz Dravite Rutile, Epidote

013 1 NM Quartz Zircon Rutile, Dravite

032 0.5 M Dravite, Mica (Muscovite? Quartz,

Chromite Phlogopite?) Kaolinite 1Md,
Rutile

032 1 M Quartz, Kaolinite lMd, Rutile, Anatase

Dravite Mica(Muscovite?
Phlogopite?)

032 1 NM Quartz Rutile Zircon,

Kaolinite lMd

041 0.5 M Dravite, Quartz, Rutile Anatase,

Chromite Hornblende,
Mica(Muscovite?)
Kaolinite lMd

041 1 M Dravite Mica (Muscovite?), Zircon,

Quartz, Rutile Kaolinite lMd,
Hematite,
Anatase

041 1 NM Quartz Rutile, Zircon, Mica

Kaolinite lMd (Muscovite?),
Epidote, Dravite,
Hematite, Anatase

042 0.5 M Dravite, Quartz Rutile,

Chromite Kaolinite lMd,
Anatase

042 0.5 NM Anatase Rutile, Quartz Zircon,

Kaolinite lMd,
Ilmenorutile

M = magnetic NM = nonmagnetic

137
 Identification of Minerals from
Paleozoic Sandstone Samples
By. D. J. Faulkender Date: Shaban 23, 1403

Field Frantz X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

No. Fraction Major Minor Trace

Minerals Minerals Minerals

043 O.5 M Goethite Anatase, Kaolinite Quartz, Dravite,

1Md Rutile

043 1 M Calcite, Anatase, Quartz, Hematite, Dravite,

Kaolinite Goethite, Rutile Gorceixite

043 1 NM Quartz Kaolinite lMd, Anatase, Rutile,

Calcite Dravite

044 HM Goethite Quartz Kaolinite lMd,

Hematite

044 0.5M Kaolinite lMd, Anatase, Quartz Quartz, Rutile

Goethtite

044 1 M Kaolinite lMd Quartz, Rutile Anatase, Zircon,

Calcite, Dravite

044 1 NM Quartz Kaolinite lMd, Rutile, Calcite

Zircon

045 0.3 M Goethite, Hematite, Quartz,

Anatase Rutile, Dravite,
Kaolinite

045 1 M Anatase Kaolinite, Quartz Goethite, Rutile,

Hematite

045 1 NM Anatase Quartz, Rutile, Zircon

Kaolinite lMd

047 0.5 M Dravite

047 0.5NM Quartz - Dravite,

Flourapatite

M = magnetic NM = nonmagnetic HM = hand magnet

138
 Identification of Minerals from
Paleozoic Sandstone Samples
By. D. J. Faulkender Date: Ramadan 5. 1403

Field Frantz x-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

No. Fraction Major Minor Trace
Minerals Minerals Minerals

048 0.3 M Anatase Dravite Goethite, Quartz,

Muscovite, Rutile

048 0.5 M Dravite Anatase, Quartz Rutile,

Mica (Muscovite?)

048 0.5 NM Quartz, Rutile Titanite, Anatase, Hematite,

Zircon Siderrite,
Dravite

051 0.5 M Quartz, Hematite, Anatase Rutile, Calcite

Kaolinite 1Md

051 0.2 M Quartz Kaolinite, Anatase, Rutile

Hematite

051 0.5 NM Anatase, Quartz Rutile, Kaolinite Dravite,

Chromite, Zircon,
Calcite

147 0.6 M Kaolinite lMd, Mica (Muscovite),

Dickite 2 Ml Hematite, Rutile

147 0.6 NM Quartz Kaolinite, Calcite, Anatase

Goethite, Hematite,
Rutile

147 0.3 M Goethite Quartz, Kaolinite, Zircon, Dravite,

Hematite Anatase

148 0.5 M Anatase, Rutile Diopside, Dravite, Dolomite, Quartz,

Chromite Mica (Muscovite)

148 1 M Dolomite Calcite

148 1 NM Dolomite Calcite

M = magnetic NM = nonmagnetic

139
 Identification of Minerals from
Paleozoic Sandstone Samples
By. D. J. Faulkender Date: Ramadan 5. 1403

Field Frantz x-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

No. Fraction Major Minor Trace

Minerals Minerals Minerals
281 0.4 M Dravite Quartz Goethite
Hematite
Kaolinite
Muscovite

281 0.4 NM Quartz, Rutile Zircon, Anatase, Hematite

Kaolinite Dravite Gorceixite

301 0.25 M Goethite Quartz, Hematite Dravite

301 0.8 M Goethite Quartz, Hematite Calcite

Kaolinite
Dravite

301 0.8 NM Quartz - Calcite,

Hematite, Zircon

302 0.3 M Quartz, Goethite Kaolinite Dravite

302 0.3 NM Quartz, Goethite Kaolinite,

Hematite Dravite

304 1 M Quartz, Hematite Kaolinite, Rutile, Muscovite,

Anatase, Goethite Dravite, Calcite

304 1 NM Quartz, Anatase Rutile Muscovite,

Kaolinite,
Calcite, Dravite,
Zircon, Hematite,
Goethite

311 0.5 M Quartz Calcite, Goethite Kaolinite,

Hematite

312 0.5 M Goethite Quartz, Dravite Hematite, Rutile,

Anatase, Calcite

312 0.5 NM Quartz, Rutile Anatase, Zircon Goethite

Hematite
Dravite

M = magnetic NM = nonmagnetic
140
 Identification of Minerals from
Paleozoic Sandstone Samples
By. D. J. Faulkender Date: Ramadan 5. 1403

Field Frantz X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS

No. Fraction Major Minor Trace

Minerals Minerals Minerals

152 1 M Quartz Flourapatite, Dravite,

Goethite Gorceixite,
Calcite, Flourite

152 0.4 M Quartz, Dravite, Chromite Gorceixite,

Goethite Anatase, Hematite

152 1 NM Flouropatite Quartz Hematite, Zircon,

Goethite

172 1 M Quartz, Anatase Rutile, Goethite Hematite

Kaolinite
Dravite

172 0.3 M Quartz, Kaolinite, Rutile Anatase, Dravite

Goethite

172 0.6 M Quartz, Kaolinite, Rutile Anatase, Dravite

Goethite

172 1 NM Quartz, Zircon Flour patite Rutile, Anatase,

Hematite

178 0.2 M Goethite, Kaolinite Zircon, Zoisite

Hematite

178 0.8 M Quartz, Kaolinite Muscovite,

Goethite Dravite, Hematite,
Anatase, Zircon

178 0.8 NM Quartz Zircon, Kaolinite, Dravite, Anatase,

Rutile, Titanite Muscovite,
Hematite

211 0.3 M Dravite, Quartz, Kaolinite Muscovite, Zircon,

Hematite Rutile, Anatase

211 0.3 NM Albite Morderite? Hematite

M = Magnetic NM = nonmagnetic

141
 Identification of Minerals from
Paleozoic Sandstone Samples
By: D. J. Faulkender Date: Ramadan 5. 1403

Field Frantz DIFFRACTION RESULTS

No. Fraction Major Minor Trace
Minerals Minerals Minerals

146 0.4 M Dravite, Chromite - Quartz

Kaolinite
Titanite
Anatase,
Muscovite

146 0.4 NM Quartz, Anatase Kaolinite, Rutile Dravite

Goethite
Muscovite
Zircon

184 0.5 M Dravite, Chromite Quartz, Kaolinite, Muscovite

Calcite
Homeblende

184 0.5 NM Quartz, Anatase Rutile, Kaolinite, Calcite

Zircon Hematite
Dravite

M = magnetic NM = nonmagnetic

142
 SOURCE OF S A N D FOR AN N A F U D SAND SEA,

KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA

by

DeWayne J. Faulkender

B.S., Kansas State University, 1959

AN A B S T R A C T OF A M A S T E R ' S THESIS

submitted in p a r t i a l fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Geology

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Manhattan, Kansas

1986
 An Nafud sand sea covers about 70,000 km2 in

north-contral Saudi Arabia. Major dune forms of An Nafud

include linear, transverse, barchanoid ridge, and massif

(superimposed star dunes). An Nafud sand-sheet forms a

wedge of sand that lies on the gently northeast-dipping

Phanerozoic surface.

An Nafud sand sea is c o m p o s e d dominantly of a stable

dune system. Both the stability of the m a j o r dune system

and the small percentage of a c t i v e dunes in the modern

environment indicate a significant decrease in the average

velocity and frequency of sand-moving winds since the time

of stable-dune deposition. Comparison of modern wind

directions with dune trends indicates that the southwesterly

and westerly winds responsible for dune formation in An

Nafud sand sea arc no longer prevailing winds.

Radiocarbon dating of calcareous lake deposits defines

at least two e p i s o d e s of pluvial activity and minimal eolian

activity: between about 3 2 , 0 0 0 yrs and 2 4 . 0 0 0 yrs BP and

during the H o l o c e n e between about 8 , 5 0 0 yrs and 5,000 yrs

BP. The main dune system overlies the 3 2 , 0 0 0 yrs to 24,000

yrs BP lake d e p o s i t s , whereas Holocene lake-beds are found

in m o d e r n interdune environments.

Paleozoic sandstone strata lie to the w e s t and

southwest of An Nafud sand sea. Results from the study of

dune orientation, sand thickness, An Nafud sand samples in

relation to s a n d - g r a i n size and sorting values, and heavy

mineral distribution within An Nafud sand sea support the

concept that the dune-forming wind was from the

west-southwest.

All Pateozoic sandstone formations are quartz arenites.

The best correlation between An N a f u d heavy mineral suite

and each Paleozoic sandstone formation heavy mineral suite

is w i t h the heavy mineral suite identified in the Tabuk

Sandstone. The exposure of the T a b u k Sandstone is larger in

areal extent than the o t h e r Paleozoic sandstone formations,

and this large a r e a of exposure lies to the w e s t and

west-southwest of An N a f u d sand sea.

The conclusions from this study are: (1) the evidence

strongly suggests that the p r i m a r y source of sand for An

Nafud sand sea was the T a b u k Sandstone, (2) the dune-forming

wind was from the w e s t - s o u t h w e s t , (3) An N a f u d sand sea

began to d e v e l o p during the late P l e i s t o c e n e , (4) the

average wind velocity has d e c r e a s e d in the recent past, and

(5) An Nafud sand sea is, at the present time a stable sand

sea.