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Lecture02 Basics Part02
Lecture02 Basics Part02
Lecture02 Basics Part02
Source: https://www.iop.org/explore-physics/understanding-our-environment/cosmic-rays#gref
Cosmic rays
Source: https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/207353-cosmic-ray-induced-radiation-powered-life-in-subsurface-pockets-of-the-universe
Cosmic rays
Source: https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/207353-cosmic-ray-induced-radiation-powered-life-in-subsurface-pockets-of-the-universe
Source: Barrantes et al. (2018)
Cosmic rays
• Viktor Hess
• several balloon flights in 1912
• up to 5350 m a.s.l.
Hess (1912) Kohlhörster (1913,1914)
Source: Carlson & De Angelis (2010) Source: Association Pro ISSI (2003)
Cosmic rays
• Viktor Hess
• several balloon flights in 1912
• up to 5350 m a.s.l.
• Hess & Anderson won Nobel
prize in physics in 1936 for the
discovery of cosmic rays.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/PIA16938-RadiationSources-InterplanetarySpace.jpg
Cosmic rays
Source:
https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/styles/ori
ginal_image_size/public/solar-radiation-
1140x640.png?itok=mzv1I2O3
Map of isodynamic curves of the cut-off rigidity for the year 2020. Cutoff
rigidity is given in GeV. (Source: Gerontidou et al., 2021)
Spatial variability
of cosmic ray fluxes
Cutoff rigidity changes over time
as Geronidou et al. (2021) show.
water
200
100
(14 m a.s.l.)
0
1 10
Neutron
Hydrogen Source: Zreda et al. (2012 )
e.g. Nitrogen
Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Oxygen
Cosmic-ray neutrons
Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Nitrogen
1 eV 1 keV 1 MeV
Source: Köhli et al. (2015 )
Cosmic-ray neutrons
Cosmic-ray neutrons
Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Nitrogen
Cosmic-ray neutrons
Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Nitrogen
Cosmic ray neutron devices for
snow water equivalent estimates
Cosmic ray neutron sensor
• Kodama (1980)
• Proportional counter tube filled with BF3
Cosmic ray neutron sensor
• Laval & Paquet (2007)
• Proportional counter tube filled with 3He
Cosmic ray neutron sensor
• Converter elements:
• 3He + n → 3H + 1H
• 10B + n → 7Li + 4He
• 6Li + n → 4He + 3H
Technical specifics
• Aluminum capsule (81cm long, 20cm
diameter, 14kg)
• Proportional counter filled with 3He-gas
• Moderator: 2.5 cm cylinder of high-
density polyethylene
• 50mA at 12V
• manufactured by Hydroinnova LLC
Derivation of conversion functions
• The neutron count rates are exponentially related to the snow water
equivalent (through the number of hydrogen atoms)
• The various devices were calibrated in different ways.
Calibration – Kodama
• Empirically defined
• Solid circles:
at Arai (sea level, Japan)
• Open circles:
at Okutadami (7980 m a.s.l., Japan)
• 2-part equation
Source: Kodama (1979)
Calibration – EDF (Electricity of France)
• Sensor buried below pool (6m diameter)
• Water level up to 2500 mm w.e.