Evolution of modern safety concepts

The nation has shifted from limited record-keeping and a culture of silence to
open reporting and AI for informed decision making.

Today, creating and maintaining a healthy and safe working

environment is an imperative for any business. It’s a must have. This was
not always the case.

As the world’s power sources evolved from animal, wind and falling
water to steam and electrical energy, the linemen who once labored to
bring telephone and telegraph to the rapidly expanding United States,
followed a natural evolution to be the same people who helped electrify
the nation. As the work became more specialized and less safe, a massive
increase in the mortality rate--of up to 50%--presented new challenges
and the need for these businesses to protect their workers.

The steep increase in the mortality rate was the catalyst for the creation
of safe worker laws and thus began a new era in the area of health and
safety. The first initiatives included the best practices and procedures
that were available at the time. Since then, our ability to track, and most
importantly remediate work associated safety issues has led us to a time
where lineman mortality rates are significantly reduced. Over the course
of a century, we have gone from limited record keeping and a culture of
silence to human performance and technology platforms that enable
open reporting, digitization of records, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) for
informed decision making.

OSHA, BLS and EMR

With the passage of the Williams-Stagner Act, the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) required businesses to “provide a
workplace free of recognized hazards.” Now requirements such as
OSHA, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), and Experience Modification
Rates (EMR) ensure that businesses paint a detailed picture of their
involvement in the safety of their employees.

Setting the rules and regulations aside, from a practical point of view, it
is good for a business to protect its employees. The perception of having
a safe, or unsafe, place to work matters to the public, potential customers
as well as current and potential employees and their families. Ensuring
that a workplace is safe also presents the challenge of constantly
updating and improving workplace health and safety programs to keep
up with the latest technological and regulatory developments.

The Incident Triangle

It is easy to recognize the sources of traumatic work injury and it is
important to focus on reducing their occurrence. Falls, electrical
accidents, cutting and chipping equipment are all identified as hazards.
They also come with rules, practices and guards that are easily
compromised.

The Incident Triangle was first introduced in 1936 with the purpose of
outlining the progression of accident severity. It has been replicated over
the years with improved record keeping that also included incidents with
little change in the ratio.

The Incident Triangle has been contested over the years by businesses
that maintained it did not work for their industries. In some cases, it is
true that the Incident Triangle needed to be better adapted to specific
industries. Yet, we also think we can make the idea of the triangle work
for every business. The base concept remains the same although the ratio
for your company may vary somewhat.

How can this same triangle be developed for your company? The easiest
incidents to find are those that are most serious. Look at the fatalities if
you have them. How much time passes between them? For example,
there was a business that suffered a fatal injury approximately every two
years. It is important to look at the lost workdays and restricted duty
days in that two-year period for patterns and trends.

The third level should include OSHA reportable incidents and first aid
cases. The difficult part is finding the near miss incidents. Examples
include inadequate or outdated PPE, improper work area protection or
discovery of a non-functioning guard. This type of input should be
included and will ultimately dictate how the triangle looks for your
company.

We are all familiar with the requirements of the OSHA 300 report. The
report was created to streamline the process of tracking and trending of
serious workplace incidents. This report was a great tool in 1970. Today,
with available technology, we can easily track more information than is
required on the OSHA 300. What’s more is we can predict the next
injury based on the career experience of the injured, the time of day, the
type of work performed, hours worked, and what injured the employee.
Developing a company-specific triangle can provide insight into the
effectiveness of various worker safety initiatives.

Open Reporting Culture and the Power of Technology

While most companies that support the utility industry have some form
of near miss reporting, many underreport these events. A narrow
Incident Triangle is an indication of under reporting. It may be due to a
lack of importance placed on incident reporting, a fear of drawing
attention to a situation or condition, a production-focused mindset or
simply because it is difficult or time consuming to do so.

One easy way to improve data collection is to simplify the process of

reporting near misses. Nearly everyone owns a smart phone with a
camera, has the ability to write or text, and a connection to the internet.
Whether your business develops its own tool or uses one of the many off
the shelf incident reporting apps available, providing a quick and easy
way of reporting near misses should be a no brainer. Gone are the days of
reaching into the glovebox for paper forms and a disposable camera. We
now can track incidents or near misses in real time and process that data
relative to location, weather, time of day, and any other set of factors that
may help reveal trends that can be reversed before they develop into
more serious injuries.

Human Performance and Removing Reporting Stigma

A desire to improve safety performance should be rooted in a genuine
concern for the wellbeing of those around us. It should not matter
whether the affected person is an employee of your company, someone
working for another company, or a member of the general public; all of
whom have the potential to be affected by work that is conducted on a
public utility.

Newer techniques such as Human Performance (HP) based error

prevention techniques help provide greater accident avoidance as the
reporting includes all errors. Human performance is a work process that
analyzes how actions result in mistakes and how education and relevant
procedures can reduce or eliminate mistakes. Human performance
principles help an individual maintain positive control of a work
situation, ensuring that what is intended to happen is all that happens.

The core principles of HP are:

1. People are fallible, and even the best people make mistakes

2. Error-likely situations are predictable, manageable, and preventable

3. Individual behavior is influenced by organizational processes and

values

4. People achieve high levels of performance largely because of the

encouragement and reinforcement received from leaders, peers and
subordinates

5. Events can be avoided by understanding the reasons mistakes occur

and applying the lessons learned from past events (or errors)

In the spirit of these principles, there has been an attempt to remove the
fear or stigma associated with reporting less than desirable occurrences
in the field with a new, underlying goal of learning from them and
ultimately preventing serious injury as opposed to simply assigning
blame.

Some companies use a combination of terms such as Near Miss Incident,

Good Catch or Shareable Moment to refer to the traditional concept of a
near miss. The definition has been broadened by these terms to
encourage sharing other learning opportunities with the entire
organization. Even process improvement ideas can be shared. For
example, this might include a missed step in an approved procedure,
improper work area protection, or a less than comprehensive pre-job
briefing. Incorporating events such as these can help tailor the triangle
for your company and provide a more realistic number to be used in its
base.

Technology Platform, AI, HP, and Data-Driven Decision

Making Brings Results
The OSHA 300 reports that companies are required to maintain are just
the start. With modern mobile technology and advanced data analytics,
we have the ability to track much more information than required by the
report. Armed with this additional data and using business intelligence
software systems, advanced data processing, and Artificial Intelligence
(AI), we can, with a high level of accuracy, hone-in on the potential next
injury based on a number of factors including career experience, time of
day, type of work, the number of hours worked, the weather at the time
of the incident, and the nature of the injury.

Technology platforms that digitize documents for health and safety

programs provide valuable automation technology for real-time project
updates. AI for business intelligence can provide utilities with the
required documentation to improve their health and safety programs.
Today, digitally capturing data is the first important step. A good tool can
increase the accuracy of information document, reduce or eliminate
inaccuracies and redundancies, automate data processing, and
ultimately improve to better decisions for the health and safety program.

In the early 1980’s, the primary responsibility of safety personnel was to

prevent fatalities. The accident reports in the 1980’s listed “Hazard of the
Job” as a cause. The “almost injury” or even “less than serious injury”
was not a reportable incident. One of the best outcomes over the years
has been the emphasis placed on improving the bottom of the triangle.
Planning for and correcting the incidents at the bottom resulted in the
top of the triangle stretching out to longer and longer periods. The two-
year example between fatalities cited earlier in this article improved to
three years and then to even longer spans of time between incidents. In
utilizing technology platforms to examine records and data for the facts
they contain, informed decision making became a valuable factor in the
process of making genuine workplace safety improvements. Accident
avoidance became a more-focused goal, benefiting the company and
every employee who avoided injury because of research and a genuine
concern for well-being.

Fire prevention
The safest way to deal with fire is to prevent it.
Under Section 19 of the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act 2005 (the 2005 Act) every employer
shall identify hazards, assess risks and have a written risk assessment, including any unusual or
other risks. To comply with Section 19, employers are required to carry out risk
assessments and to record these in the Safety Statement. A fire safety risk assessment should be
conducted. Fire prevention should form part of this.
A fire safety risk assessment should include

Fire Prevention
The Fire Prevention Triangle - Heat, Oxygen and Fuel
A fire needs three elements - heat, oxygen and fuel. Without heat, oxygen and fuel a fire will not start
or spread. A key strategy to prevent fire is to remove one or more of heat, oxygen or fuel. The risk
assessment should include detail on all three elements to minimise the risk of a fire starting/
spreading.

A fire prevention strategy and a fire risk assessment should include detail and a full consideration of
all of the issues - including issues arising from heat, oxygen and fuel. Advice on these three
elements follows. This advice is not exhaustive and is given in no particular order.

Heat
Heat can be generated by work processes and is an essential part of some processes such as
cooking. This heat must be controlled and kept away from fuel unless carefully controlled. Heat
generated as a by-product of a process must be dealt with properly.

Heat Safeguards

 Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report dangers

 Control sources of ignition
 Have chimneys inspected and cleaned regularly
 Treat independent building uses, such as an office over a shop as separate purpose groups and
 therefore compartmentalise from each other
 Ensure cooking food is always attended
 Use the Electricity Supply Board's Safety webpage
 Have regard to relevant Authority Safety Alerts, e.g. Mobile Phone "Expert XP-Ex-1", Filling LPG
Cylinders
 Use the Code of Practice For Avoiding Danger From Underground Services

Smoking

 Provide no-smoking signs at appropriate locations

 Ensure smoking area(s) are away from flammable materials
 Arrange for cigarettes and matches to be disposed of safely and away from other
combustible rubbish

Plant and Equipment

Plant and equipment which is not properly maintained can cause fires.

 Ensure all work equipment protects against catching fire or overheating

 Ensure proper housekeeping, such as preventing ventilation points on machinery becoming
clogged with dust or other materials - causing overheating
 Have electrical equipment serviced regularly by a competent person to prevent sparks and
fires
 Properly clean and maintain heat producing equipment such as burners, heat exchangers,
boilers (inspected and tested yearly), ovens, stoves, and fryers. Require storage of
flammables away from this equipment.
  Use a planned maintenance programme to properly maintain plant and equipment. Review
your programme if you already have one.
 A planned maintenance programme should deal with
o frictional heat (caused by loose drive belts, bearings which are not properly
lubricated or other moving parts)
o electrical malfunction
o flammable materials used in contact with hot surfaces
o leaking valves or flanges which allow seepage of flammable liquids or gases
o static sparks (perhaps due to inadequate electrical earthing)

Portable Heaters

 Do not use portable heaters unnecessarily.

 They should have emergency tip-over switches, and thermostatic limiting controls.
 Turn them off if people leave the room or are going to sleep
 Ensure they are 1M away from anything that can burn
 Do not use them to dry clothes

Hot Work

Hot work often arises from construction and/ or maintenance activities. Hot work is work that might
generate sufficient heat, sparks or flame to cause a fire. Hot work includes welding, flame cutting,
soldering, brazing, grinding and other equipment incorporating a flame, e.g. tar boilers, etc. Hot work
can be very dangerous and stringent controls must be in place.

 Identify all hot work

 Only allow hot work if no satisfactory alternative
 Ensure relevant contractors are aware of hot work procedures and controls
 Use a hot work permit system including
o fire-resistant protective clothing
o clear responsibility
o logging and audit processes
o routine checking and supervision
o item to be worked on removed to safe area
o remove or protect combustible or flammable materials
o prevent, suppress and control sparks
 o prevent, suppress and control heat
o provision of and training on suitable fire-fighting equipment
o provision of a separate person to fire-watch and use fire-fighting equipment – the fire
watcher
o particular precautions for special risks, e.g. confined space
o leave workplace clean and safe
o final check of area at least 60 minutes after completed job and certainly prior to
premises being vacated

Electrical safety

 All electrical equipment and installations designed, constructed, installed, maintained,

protected, and used to prevent danger
 Get a qualified electrical contractor to carry out installation and repairs to electrical
equipment and fittings
 Maintain proper pest control to avoid rodent damage to electric wiring and equipment

 Check electrical equipment and remove defective equipment

 Ensure electrical cords are in good condition
 Plug appliances and lights into separate electrical outlets
 Avoid using extension cords. If you require an outlet in an area where there is none, have one
installed by a qualified electrician.
 Use extension cords safety - not under carpets or across walking areas
 Use only one device per outlet

Arson

Deliberately started fires pose very significant risks to all types of workplace.
The possibility of arson should be considered as a component of your risk assessment and it is one
that you can do much to control. The majority of deliberately started fires occur in areas with a
known history of vandalism or fire-setting. Typically, local youths light the fires outside the premises
as an act of vandalism, using materials found nearby. Appropriate security measures, including the
protection of stored materials and the efficient and prompt removal of rubbish, can therefore do
much to alleviate this particular problem.
You should therefore seek advice from the local Gardaí or the fire authority who will involve the other
agencies as appropriate. Occasionally, arson attacks in the workplace are committed by employees
or ex-employees. Employers and other workers should be aware of this potential threat and be alert
for early signs, such as a series of unexplained small fires. Again, the Gardaí or the local fire
authority can provide further useful guidance.

 Provide adequate security: exterior/interior lighting, intrusion alarms, guard service, well-
secured access openings
 Prevent access by unauthorised personnel
 Keep flammables properly stored and secured

Oxygen
Oxygen gas is used

 in welding, flame cutting and other similar processes

 for helping people with breathing difficulties
 in hyperbaric chambers as a medical treatment
 in decompression chambers
 for food preservation and packaging
 in steelworks and chemical plants

The air we breathe contains about 21% oxygen. Pure oxygen at high pressure, such as from a
cylinder, can react violently with common materials such as oil and grease. Other materials may
catch fire spontaneously. Nearly all materials including textiles, rubber and even metals will burn
vigorously in oxygen.
With even a small increase in the oxygen level in the air to 24%, it becomes easier to start a fire,
which will then burn hotter and more fiercely than in normal air. It may be almost impossible to put
the fire out. A leaking valve or hose in a poorly ventilated room or confined space can quickly
increase the oxygen concentration to a dangerous level.
The main causes of fires and explosions when using oxygen are

 oxygen enrichment from leaking equipment

 use of materials not compatible with oxygen
 use of oxygen in equipment not designed for oxygen service
 incorrect or careless operation of oxygen equipment

Oxygen Safeguards

 Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report dangers

 See safeguards in the Code of Practice for Working in Confined Spaces
 Oxygen should never be used to “sweeten” the air in a confined space
 Where oxygen is used,
o follow safety advice from the supplier
o follow the safeguards on the safety data sheet
o keep the safety data sheet readily available
 Be aware of the dangers of oxygen if in doubt, ask
 Prevent oxygen enrichment by ensuring that equipment is leak-tight and in good working
order
  Check that ventilation is adequate
 Always use oxygen cylinders and equipment carefully and correctly
 Always open oxygen cylinder valves slowly
 Do not smoke where oxygen is being used
 Never use replacement parts which have not been specifically approved for oxygen service
 Never use oxygen equipment above the pressures certified by the manufacturer
 Never use oil or grease to lubricate oxygen equipment
 Never use oxygen in equipment which is not designed for oxygen service
 Operators of locations storing large amounts of oxidising substances have duties under
the Control of Major Accident Hazards Involving Dangerous Substances
Regulations (COMAH Regulations)

Fuel
Workplaces in which large amounts of flammable materials are displayed, stored or used can
present a greater hazard than those where the amount kept is small.
In relation to fire, fuel consists of flammable material. Flammable material is material that burns
readily in a normal atmosphere. Flammable materials include flammable liquids (e.g. petrol),
flammable gasses (e.g. propane and butane) and flammable solids (e.g. charcoal, paper). It is
important to identify all flammable materials that are in your workplace so that proper controls can be
put in place.

Great care is required in the storage, handling and use of flammable materials. Safety Data
sheets may provide detailed advice.
Fuel Safeguards

 Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report dangers

 Follow the Authority’s advice on LPG
 Follow the Authority’s advice on explosive atmospheres and use the Guide to the Safety,
Health and Welfare at Work (General Application)Regulations2007 - Part 8:Explosive
Atmospheres
 Use the Code of Practice For Avoiding Danger From Underground Services
 Use Bord Gáis Networks safety webpage including Dial Before You Dig
 Ensure furnishings and fittings in places of assembly comply with the Code of Practice for
Fire Safety of Furnishings and Fittings in Places of Assembly
 Permit no timber lining on ceiling, corridor walls/ ceilings or stairways (only exception is
Class 0 MDF)
 Take care if placing notice boards in escape corridors/ routes as any paper on the board
could be fuel in the event of a fire
 Where there is a possibility of the presence of flammable gas/ vapour, conduct a full risk
assessment and consider the need for gas detection equipment
 Where gas detection equipment is needed, ensure it is properly installed, maintained and
serviced
 Operators of locations storing larger amounts of substances with flammable or explosive
properties have duties under the COMAH Regulations. (Note that the highly flammable
liquid threshold is 10 tonnes, while Hydrogen and Acetylene are both at 5 tonnes.)
Flammable materials

 Identify all flammable materials so that proper controls can be put in place
 Identify use of substances with flammable vapours (e.g. some adhesives)
 Reduce quantities of flammable materials to the smallest amount necessary for running the
business and keep away from escape routes
 Replace highly flammable materials with less flammable ones
 Store remaining stocks of highly flammable materials properly outside, in a separate building,
or separated from the main workplace by fire-resisting construction
 Provide clearly marked separate storage for flammable chemicals, gas cylinders, and waste
materials
 Train employees on safe storage, handling and use of flammable materials
 Keep stocks of office stationery and supplies and flammable cleaners' materials in separate
cupboards or stores. They should be fire-resisting with a fire door if they open onto a corridor
or stairway escape route
 Catering and hospitality premises – see relevant sections of Safe Hospitality, e.g. sections
1.13 LPG/ Gas Safety, 1.15 Fire Safety, 6.11 Flambé Lamps
 The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has a webpage on combustible
dust with tabs, beginning with information for users unfamiliar with combustible dust hazards
 See our information sheet on home heating oil (2 pages), and our information sheets on
storage of hazardous chemicals in Warehouses and Drum Stores (4 pages)
and Laboratories (4 pages)

Work on Gas Mains

See the press release "Construction firm fined €40,000 after workers sustain serious burn
injuries" and the UK article “PPE saved worker from moreserious burn injuries”

 This is highly specialised work and a detailed risk assessment must be conducted
 Detailed work instructions must be put in place
 Construction and Maintenance workers – see advice on planning construction and
maintenance activities at www.hsa.ie, e.g. precautions to avoid underground services and/or
overhead lines
 Advice should be sought from the gas supplier as needed
 Workers must be properly trained and supervised

Flammable liquids

Flammable liquids can present a significant risk of fire. Vapours evolved are usually heavier than air and
can travel long distances, so are more likely to reach a source of ignition. Liquid leaks and dangerous
vapours can arise from faulty storage (bulk and containers), plant and process - design, installation,
maintenance or use. Ignition of the vapours from flammable liquids remains a possibility until the
concentration of the vapour in the air has reduced to a level which will not support combustion.
  The quantity of flammable liquids in workrooms should be kept to a minimum, normally no
more than a half-day's or half a shifts supply
 Flammable liquids, including empty or part-used containers, should be stored safely. Small
quantities (Tens of Litres) of flammable liquids can be stored in the workroom if in closed
containers in a fire-resisting (e.g. metal), bin or cabinet fitted with means to contain any leaks

Metal Storage for Flammable Chemicals to EN-14470-1

 Larger quantities should be stored in a properly designated store, either in the open air
(on well ventilated, impervious ground, away from ignition sources) or in a suitably
constructed storeroom
 Where large quantities of flammable liquids are used they should, where possible, be
conveyed by piping them through a closed system. Where a connection in such a system
is frequently uncoupled and remade, a sealed-end coupling device should be used

 Flammable liquids should not be decanted within the store. Decanting should take place in a
well-ventilated area set aside for this purpose, with appropriate facilities to contain and clear
up any spillage
 Container lids should always be replaced after use, and no container should ever be opened
in such a way that it cannot be safely resealed
 Flammable liquids should be stored and handled in well ventilated conditions. Where
necessary, additional properly designed exhaust ventilation should be provided to reduce the
level of vapour concentration in the air

Containers for Flammable Liquid

  Storage containers should be kept covered and proprietary safety containers with self-closing
lids should be used for dispensing and applying small quantities of flammable liquids

 There should be no potential ignition sources in areas where flammable liquids are used or
stored and flammable concentrations of vapour may be present at any time. Any electrical
equipment used in these areas, including fire alarm and emergency lighting systems, needs
to be suitable for use in flammable atmospheres
 Petrol Stations – see Wetstock Inventory Control for Petrol Stations at www.hsa.ie
 See our information sheet on home heating oil (2 pages), and our information sheets on
storage of hazardous chemicals in Warehouses and Drum Stores (4 pages)
and Laboratories (4 pages)
 See our webpage on Chemicals Risk Assessment for advice on completing a chemical
agents risk assessment

Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs)

The use of plastic and composite intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) for liquid storage has
increased. They have a number of advantages over traditional steel drums, in particular; resistance
to corrosion, efficient storage space use and ease of emptying when a valve is fitted. Plastic IBCs
are used for hydrocarbons for: wastes; fuels such as diesel; solvents such as white spirit; lubricants;
edible oils etc.
Plastic components of IBCs are easily ignited. Liquid loss from IBCs can be rapid and complete.
In a fire, all of the liquid in unclad IBCs on level ground is likely to be released rapidly (in 5-10
minutes) and can produce large spreading pool fires. Ullage explosions can be extremely
dangerous for anyone trying to fight the fire. Unless composite IBC design can reduce the rate of
liquid drainage in fires, the potential of fires continues to be very serious.

 IBC users should be aware of the risks

 Risk assessments for IBC storage should be based on the premise that liquid loss will be
rapid and complete
 Segregate IBCs and drums to avoid rapid catastrophic failure of drums and associated
fireballs and projectiles
 Kerbs and partitions in storage areas may be useful in checking the flow of liquid and spread
of fire
o For partitions to be effective, drainage must be carefully controlled
 All processes introducing a risk of ignition should be eliminated or tightly controlled
 Strict control of readily ignitable material is required
 IBC storage areas should be secure to deter casual vandalism
 Sites with large stocks of IBCs should consider drainage in the event of fire
o If there are sensitive targets nearby, substantial bunding may be required
  Manufacturers and re-conditioners should provide clear information on the potential
behaviour of IBCs in fire
 Manufacturers should explore improvements in design

Cleanliness and housekeeping

 Avoid accumulations of combustible rubbish and waste and remove at least daily and store
away from the building
 Never store flammable or combustible rubbish, even temporarily, in escape routes, or where it
can contact potential sources of heat
 Position skips so that a fire will not put any structure at risk
 Clean cooking surfaces on a regular basis to prevent grease build-up

 In catering, clean ventilation ducts on a regular basis to prevent grease build-up

 Flammable or combustible rubbish should not be stored, even as a temporary measure, in
escape routes such as corridors, stairways or lobbies, or where it can come into contact with
potential sources of heat
 Parts of the workplace which are not normally occupied, such as basements, store rooms
and any area where a fire could grow unnoticed, should be regularly inspected and cleared
of non-essential flammable materials and substances. You should also protect such areas
against entry by unauthorised people
 If the workplace has waste or derelict land nearby, you should keep any undergrowth under
control so that a fire cannot spread through dry grass, for example
 There should be no potential ignition sources in areas where flammable liquids are used or
stored and flammable concentrations of vapour may be present at any time. Any electrical
equipment used in these areas, including fire alarm and emergency lighting systems, needs
to be suitable for use in flammable atmospheres

Metal Container for Cloths Contaminated with Flammable Solvents

 Rags and cloths which have been used to mop up or apply flammable liquids should be
disposed of in metal containers with well-fitting lids and removed from the workplace at the
end of each shift or working day
Safety Data Sheets

Safety data sheets provide useful information on chemicals and handling, storage and emergency
measures. A safety data sheet should be provided with any hazardous chemical and includes useful
information. Section 2 gives details on the hazards of the chemical and the potential effects and
symptoms resulting from use. The information in this section must be consistent with the information
on the label. Section 5 gives specific information on fighting a fire caused by the chemical, including the
most suitable extinguishing media and protective equipment. Section 7 contains details on how to
handle and store the chemical safely. Section 10 contains details of any hazardous reactions that may
occur if the chemical is used under certain conditions. Section 14 contains information relating to the
transportation of the chemical. Section 16 gives any other information relevant to the chemical e.g.
training advice.

Fire Prevention Diagram

This diagram gives an overview of fire prevention for workplaces
Mechanical Hazards

Mechanical hazards arise from relative movements between parts of the human
body and objects such as work equipment or work objects, which lead to their
contact. The result of this contact can be accidents that lead to injuries.

According to the accident statistics of the German Social Accident Insurance (DGUV),
about three quarters of all occupational accidents are caused by mechanical hazards
(Fig. 1-1).

Accidents caused by contact with parts moving in controlled or uncontrolled manner and
with dangerous surfaces, as well as accidents caused by falling, slipping, tripping and
twisting, each account for the highest proportion of all occupational accidents, at around
25 %. Accidents related to transport tasks and mobile work equipment account for 20%
of all occupational accidents. Accidents caused by fall from heights, which are often
serious or fatal, account for about 6 % of occupational accidents.

Fig. 1-1 Share of accidents due to mechanical hazards in the total number of
occupational accidents in 2018 [1].

The severity of possible injuries depends on the geometric and physical properties of
the moving objects. An important criterion is the kinetic energy with which a moving
 part, e.g. work equipment, parts of work equipment or a work object, hits the body part
or, conversely, the moving body part hits the stationary object. The kinetic energy
depends, for example, on the speed and mass of the moving objects. Other influencing
factors are the geometry and the material properties, in particular the hardness and
elasticity of the colliding surfaces. The injury severity will be lower if the moving part has
an obtuse rather than a pointed geometry or a soft rather than a hard surface. The
same applies to the body parts involved when soft elastic (arm) instead of hard, bony
(finger) regions meet.

Due to the diversity of mechanical hazards (see Fig. 1-2), a differentiated consideration
of risk reduction measures is required. Some basic design rules are as follows:
The first design rule for risk reduction of mechanical hazards is to reduce the acting
energy to a non-hazardous level. However, so far, there have only been known limit
values for individual cases [2]. An example of this are limit values for the design of
powered doors on vehicles and for machine safety doors. A new quantity of values has
recently been obtained, e.g. through research into safeguarding human-robot
collaboration. As a result, biomechanical limit values for an assessment of mechanical
risk are now available for further areas of the human body [3].

The second design rule for risk reduction of mechanical hazards is to ensure local or
temporal separation between humans and moving parts. For this purpose, guards are
used for local separation or protective devices, e.g. light curtains or laser scanners for
temporal separation.

If such a separation is not possible, the third design rule is to provide personal
protective equipment, e.g. in the case of mechanical hazards due to tripping, slipping
and falling accidents, the provision of safety shoes with appropriate slip resistance. If
such measures are not possible, the means of choice is the specification of key
behaviours.
Mechanical hazards occur in particular in connection with the use of work equipment,
when handling work objects, e.g. during transport work or due to design deficiencies in
the workplace.

Mechanical hazards can be subdivided into

 Hazards due to unprotected parts moving in a controlled manner,

 Hazards due to parts with dangerous surfaces such as corners, edges, tips, blades, surfaces
with high surface roughness,
 Hazards associated with the transport and use of mobile work equipment,
 Hazards due to parts moving in an uncontrolled manner,
 Risks of falling due to slipping, tripping, twisting an ankle, and
 Hazards due to persons falling from height onto a lower surface or an object.
The following overview shows typical danger zones or sources of danger that can be
used to identify the subgroups of mechanical hazards mentioned (Fig. 1-2).
 Fig. 1-2 Subgroups of mechanical hazards with typical danger zones or sources of
danger

Boiler hazards

Precautions to be carried out at Start in Steam Boilers:



 Hydraulic should be carried out at a defined pressure before the start of a boiler.

 Check if the pump inlets are open at the start of a boiler.

 Install an automatic ash removal system such as rotary valves in a boiler so as to
prevent the accumulation of ash in a furnace or other equipment. The
accumulation may result in the blockage or excessive heating of boiler parts
resulting in its failure.

 Pump priming must be done at the start of the boiler.

 All loose and wrong connections must be checked and make sure to rectify the
connections before starting your boiler.

 A trained and a technical boiler operator must be hired for operating
your boiler.
 Precautions to be carried out Regularly:


 Never operate boiler above the design pressure and check for the safe operation
of Safety valves as well as fusible plugs.

 Regular cleaning of the perforated line is necessary

 Stainer must be installed before the pump & check for its proper functioning to
remove dirt particles from boiler feed water as this prevents the blockage of a
feed line.

 Water must be treated before feeding it to the boiler to prevent the accumulation
of dirt in a Boiler shell.

 Regular inspection and maintenance of boiler including its accessories and
valves to check for possible failures and cracks are necessary.

 Make sure that the boiler vents are not restricted by any kind of obstruction such
as cloth etc.

 Always check for the leakages of steam, water, air and flue gases from any
suspicious place.

 Follow boiler manual for safe and efficient working of your boiler.

 The panel should be cleaned regularly and should be kept in a cool and an
isolated place away from your boiler.

 Check if all the hot parts of the boiler are insulated, do not touch the parts with
bare hands where the insulation is not provided.

 Maintenance of both FD Fan and ID Fan is important and regularly check for
greasing in all the movable parts for the ease of operation.

 Regular cleaning of movable mechanical parts is necessary.

 Do not increase the frequency of a drive above 50 Hz for the safe operation of
motors.

 Pressure switch, Mobrey and Pressure Gauge should be checked for their
proper

 Precautions to be carried out Occasionally:


 Occasionally clean the boiler tubes to prevent any ash deposition or scaling
inside or outside the tubes. Failure to do so will affect the boiler efficiency and
will eventually overheat the tubes leading to the tube leakage problems.

 The ratio of primary and secondary air must be maintained in accordance with
fuel feeding.

 Periodically check burner operation back pressure and line pressure to prevent
any thermal hazards.
Boiler Safety Precautions Manual [ Infographics ]
 Info graphics have our top tips for avoiding steam boiler explosions in your
steam plant. Steam Boiler safety precautions infographics are print-friendly so
you can print it and use it as boiler safety manual for your boiler maintenance
staff.

Pressure vessels
Pressure vessels are of two types:

1. Fired Pressure Vessels which include Boilers,

Economisers, Steam Pipes, Fittings etc, as per section
2, 2A, 2D of the Indian Boiler Act 1923.
2. Unfired Pressure Vessels which include reaction vessels,
autoclaves, compressors, vulcanises, agers, kiers,
dyeing vessels, jacketed kettles etc. operating above
the atmospheric pressure.
The portable gas cylinders, metal bottles used for storage or
transport of compressed gases or liquefied or dissolved gases
under pressure, gas-tankers, vessels for nuclear energy,
refrigeration plant of less than 3 TPD capacity, vessels
operating below 1 kg/cm2 etc, are not covered under the
purview of the pressure vessels.
Pressure System Components and Safety Devices

Pressure system components are:

Pressure vessels Pressure relief devices

Pumps, Compressors Pressure gauges

Fans, Control valves

Pressure reducing valve (PRV)
Piping system, Tracing

Dump vessels
Non-return valve (NRV)
Steam traps

Insulation Pressure controllers or regulators

Vent for pressure relief

Utilities like steam, water, air,
thermic fluid, inert gas etc.
Pressure recorders

Pressure reducing valve (PRV) is a statutory requirement u/r

61 of the Gujarat Factories Rules. It is to be provided between
a source of supply of pressure (e.g. boiler or higher pressure
side of any header) and the user point or a vessel receiving the
pressure. It is to be set at a desired safe pressure. It will
reduce the pressure on delivery side accordingly. This is the
main safety function. A safety valve and a pressure gauge
should be provided on low pressure side and a pressure gauge
on high pressure side to see the pressure reduction. It shall not
be bypassed at any time. It should be tested periodically.

Spring loaded safety valves with oil seals are desirable. For
high pressures, rupture or bursting disc or rupture diaphragm
should also be provided. Pressure reducing or pressure control
valves are necessary. Safety valve should be connected nearest
(close) to the vessel. It should not be connected where
pulsating pressure fluctuates.

Rupture or bursting disc should be provided in upstream of the

safety valve and if toxic or inflammable mixture/gas is pressed
ducting should be provided covering fully the outlet of the
rupture disc so that in case of rupturing of the disc, the
mixture/gas coming out from it will be collected in duct or blow
down tank and not in environment.

Rupture disc and safety valve can be provided in series (in

vertical line of the same outflow) with a pressure gauge in
between. Two such sets can be provided side by side, parallel,
on two different outflows, to handle much volume at a time. RD
and SV can be provided in parallel also. In any case, their
setting should be slight different to allow time lag.

Fusible plugs, pressure gauges, temperature indicator, stop

valve, drain valve, air vent, auto controls and recorders are
also necessary.

Routine inspection schedules should be devised working order.

A sample schedule regarding rupture disc inspection is given
below as guidance.

Routine inspection of rupture discs

Procedure:

1. Obtain Permit to Work Certificate from Plant in-charge.

2. Obtain Rupture Disc Inspection Record sheet.
3. Ensure system to be worked on is isolated, free from
pressure and vented/drained down.
4. Check that vent line drain hole is clear. Note: If no drain
hole exists raise modification work order to make one.
5. Carefully remove rupture disc and holder ensuring no
debris enters vessel, and clean thoroughly.
6. Check that all bursting disc specifications are correct.
7. Inspection rupture disc holder for pits, hairline cracks or
other damage and renew if necessary. Ensure inspection
is carried out using adequate light.
8. Ensure rupture disc inlet and outlet vents are clear and
free from obstruction.
9. Check mounting flange are clean and parallel. Note: The
Team Manager must assess the significance of the
conditions found and arrange, if necessary to review the
future maintenance periodically.
10. Renew gaskets and refit rupture disc and holder,
ensuring disc is correctly orientated.
11. Carefully tighten diagonally opposite. Bolts to achieve
a gas tight seal, using torque wrench if necessary.
12. Ensure plant is safe for use, complete permit to work
and hand over to Plant in-charge.
Standards & Codes

Section 31(1) of the Factories Act 1948, Rule 61 of the Gujarat

Factories Rules 1963 and Section 1.2.1 of the Indian Standard-
Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels IS:2825 give definition of the
pressure plant/vessels. The operating pressure should be above
the atmospheric pressure.

The IS:2825 provides more details on the subject of

construction and other requirements for the design, fabrication,
welding, inspection, testing, marking and certification of fusion
welded unfired pressure vessels in ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. Terminology of maximum working pressure, design
pressure, minimum thickness and allowances to add into it,
weld joint efficiency factor, ligament efficiency, post-weld heat
treatment and allowable stress value are also explained in this
Code. Pressure relief devices and corrosion, erosion and
protection details are also given. It has considered BS 1500,
1515, ASME and the Swedish Code.

Rule 61 of the Gujarat Factories Rule:

The terms design pressure, maximum pressure that a pressure

vessel or plant is designed to withstand safely when operating
normally.

Maximum Permissible Working Pressure (MPWT) means the

maximum pressure at which a pressure vessel or plant is
permitted to be operated or used under this rule and is
determined by the technical requirement of the process.

Scope: This rule applies to a pressure vessel or plant operating

above the atmospheric pressure and includes piping system.

The rule does not apply to-

1. Properly designed on sound engineering practice.

2. Of good construction, sound material, adequate
strength and free from patent defects.
 3. Properly maintained in a safe condition.
When Indian Standard or any other Code is applicable, a
certificate from the manufacture or competent person shall be
obtained and produced before an Inspector.
Safety Devices:

1. Suitable safety valve or pressure relieving device of

adequate capacity to ensure that MPWP shall not be
exceeded. If more safety valves are provided, one will
be set at MPWP and other at not more than 5% in
excess of the MPWP.
2. Suitable pressure gauge with dial range 1.5 times the
MPWP and red mark indicating MPWP.
3. Stop or isolation valve to shout-off the pressure source.
4. Drain cock (valve) to drain the vessel.
5. Suitable pressure reducing valve (PRV) or automatic
pressure regulator to disallow the pressure greater than
the MPWP. A safety valve shall be fitted on low pressure
side of such device.
Fundamentals of Pressure Vessel Design:

IS:2825, Section I includes in its Design section, General

Provision, Corrosion, erosion and protection, Cylindrical and
spherical shells, Domed ends, Conical ends, Un-stayed flat
heads and covers, Stayed and braced plates, Openings
branches and compensation, Access and inspection openings,
Bolted flange connections, Ligament efficiency, jacketed
vessels, Support and Internal structure.

The Code also explains materials of construction, allowable

stress, materials for low temperature service and materials for
welding.
It also explains flange calculations for non-standard flanges.

Design, marking, capacity, setting, installation and discharge

lines of pressure relieving devices are also specified.

In its Section II manufacture and workmanship are explained in

the headings of Approval of design, General considerations and
Design of welded joints, Preparation of parent metal, Assembly
of plates and fit-up, Alignment and tolerance, Welding
procedure, Welding of non-ferrous metals, Rectification of
welds, Repair of drilled holes, Repair of cracks and Post weld
heat treatment. The section also prescribes Welding procedure,
qualifications and Welder’s performance qualifications.

Section III of the Code gives Inspection and Test methods,

Marking and Records.

Then Appendices A to N give various value of stress,

temperature, recommended practice, typical design of welded
connections.

These are the fundamental subjects of pressure vessel design,

construction, inspection and testing. For the details the code
(IS:2825) itself should be referred.

Electrical exposure

Electricity is essential to modern life, both at home and on the job. It has become such a
familiar part of our daily life. However, we tend to overlook the hazards electricity poses and
fail to treat it with the respect it deserves. Electricity is often referred to as a “silent killer”,
because it cannot be tasted, seen, heard, or smelled. It is essentially invisible. According to
the National Crime Records Bureau of India, death due to electrocution averages around
25.06 deaths per day (9149 in 2010).

The hazards associated with the use of electricity can affect any one. Many electrical devices,
such as hot plates, stirrers, vacuum pumps, lasers, microwave ovens, water heaters, etc., can
pose a significant hazard particularly when mishandled or not maintained. Electricity has
long been recognized as a serious workplace hazard, exposing employees to electric shock,
electrocution burns, fires and explosions. Sparks from electrical equipment can serve as an
ignition source for flammable or explosive vapours. Even loss of electrical power can result
in extremely hazardous situation, For example, flammable or toxic vapours may be released
as a chemical warms when a refrigerator or freezer fails.

The major hazards of electricity are electric shock, electrical arc – flash, electrical arc – blast.
This article will highlight various hazards of electricity and how to prevent them.

2. What is electricity?
Electricity is a form of energy, which cannot be destroyed. It is weightless and behaves like
an imaginary fluid, which can move freely through some substances called conductors. In
electricity the source is the power generating station. Current travels through electrical
conductors in the form of wires; and pressure, measured in volts, is provided by a generator.
Resistance to the flow of electricity is measured in ohms and varies widely. It is determined
by three factors, viz.

 the nature of the substance itself

 the length and the cross – sectional area (size) of the substance
 the temperature of the substance.

Electricity flows more easily through some materials than others. Some substances such as
metals generally offer very little resistance to the flow of electric current and are called
“conductors”. A common conductor is the surface of the earth. Glass, plastic, porcelain, clay,
pottery, dry wood, and similar substances generally slow or stop the flow of electricity and
they are called “insulators”. Even air, normally an insulator, can become a conductor, as
occurs during and arc or lightning strike. Water is a great conductor of electricity, allowing
current to flow more easily in wet conditions. Pure water is a poor conductor. But small
amount of impurities in water like salt, acid, solvents, or other materials, can turn water itself
and the substances that generally act as insulators into conductors or better conductors.

For example, dry wood, generally slows or stops the flow of electricity. But when saturated
with water, wood turns into a conductor. The same is true of human skin. Dry skin has a
fairly high resistance to electric current. But when skin is moist or wet, it acts as a conductor.
This means that anyone working with electricity in a damp or wet environment needs to
exercise extra caution to prevent electrical hazards.

3. Dangers from electricity

The dangers associated with the use of electricity may be classified as:
  Injury from direct contact:
– Injury by shock.
– Injury from internal burns.
 Injury without current flow through body:
– Direct burns from electric arcs, spattered molten metal, etc.
– Radiation burns from very heavy arcs.
– Physical injury from false starting of machine, failure of crane controls, explosion
of switchgear, etc.
– Injury from fire and explosion from electric ignition of flammable vapours, gases,
liquids and solids.
– Eye injury from electric arcs,
 Eye injury from current flow induced in or near the human body by intense electric
magnetic fields:
– Injury from elevation of whole body temperature.
– Local injury such as cataract formation in the eye.
– Burns due to metallic objects such as rings, dental metal in close contact with local
part of body.

4. How shock occurs?

Everyone has received minor electric shocks sometime or the other, which are no cause for
concern. But once in a while, a loose wire or a faulty household appliance can shock the life
out of you. Electricity travels in closed circuits, normally through a conductor. But
sometimes a person’s body- an efficient conductor of electricity – mistakenly becomes part
of the electric circuit. This can cause an electrical shock. When you receive a shock,
electricity flows between parts of your body or through your body to a ground or the earth. In
short, when your body becomes a part of the electric circuit, shock occurs. Electricity can
travel only in a closed or looped circuit. Normally, the travel is through the conductor. The
shock occurs, when the current enter your body at one point and leave at another. Electrical
shock occurs either when an individual comes in contact with:

 both wires of an electric circuit,

 one wire of an energized circuit and the ground,
 a metallic part that accidentally becomes energized by contact with an electrical
conductor

Remember, you don’t have to touch a power line to be electrocuted. If you come within three
meters of a power line, the energy can arc towards you and take a path to the ground. Never
prune trees that grow next to power lines because electricity can move through the tree or
jump towards you, if you are within three meters. Not all overhead wires entering houses and
buildings are insulated and therefore cannot protect you from an electric shock. Though there
is weather proofing material around them, they can become brittle and crack. Also be aware
of overhead power lines when moving ladders around your house.
5. Severity of the shock
The severity and effects of an electrical shock depends on a numbers of factors, such as;

 The path of the current through the body

 The amount of current flowing through the body
 The length of the time of the exposure and
 Whether the skin is wet or dry.

5.1 Effects of current on human body

The effects of current on human body vary from person to person, which mainly depend
upon the quantity of current, pathway through the body, duration of exposure, and type of
current. The Table 1. Show the effect of current on human body. The Table demonstrates a
general relationship for a 60 cycle, hand–to–foot shock of one second’s duration. It may be
noted from Table 1 that a difference of less than 100 milliamperes exits between a current
that is barely perceptible and one that can kill. It may also be noted that most electrical
circuits can provide, under normal conditions, up to 20,000 milli-amperes of current flow.

5.2. AC and DC Shock Comparison

The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type i. e. AC. or DC. and
frequency. A person can feel at least 1 mA of AC at 60 Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. The
Table 2 illustrates comparisons between AC and DC shock.

6. Burn and other injuries

The most common shock related to injury is burn. Burns suffered in electrical accidents may
be of three types, viz.

 Electrical burns,
 Are burns or Flash burns
 Thermal contact burns.

Table 1. – Effects of Current on Human Bod

urrent Level
mA
Symptoms
( In
milliamperes)
 Perception level. Slight tingling sensation. Still dangerous under
1 mA certain conditions (water /
wet conditions)

Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average person can let
go. However, strong involuntary reactions to shocks in this ranges
5 mA
may lead to injuries (Muscular contraction can prevent the
victim from getting free)

Painful shock, muscular control is lost. This is called the freezing

6 – 30 mA
current or “let – go” range

Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, Severe muscular contractions.*

50 – 150 mA Individual cannot let – go.
Death is possible

100 mA – Ventricular fibrillation (the rhythmic pumping action of the heart

3 Seconds ceases )

200 mA – 1
Ventricular fibrillation
Second

1000 mA – Ventricular fibrillation. Muscular contraction and nerve damage

4300 mA occur, Death is most likely

Cardiac arrest. Severe burns

10,000 mA
and probable death

* If the extensor muscles are excited by the shock, the person may be thrown away from the
circuit.

Table 2. – AC and DC Shock Comparison

AC (60 Hz )(mA) DC (mA) Effects

 0.5 – 1.5 0–4 Perception

1–3 4 – 15 Surprise (Reaction)

3 – 22 15 – 88 Reflex Action (let–go)

21 – 40 80 – 160 Muscular Inhibition

40 – 100 160 – 300 Respiratory Block

>100 >300 Usually Fatal

6.1. Electrical burns:

Electrical burns are the result of the electrical current flowing through tissues or bone,
generating heat that causes tissue damage. These burns require immediate medical attention.

6.2. Arc burns:

Arc burns or flash burns are the result of high temperatures in close proximity to the body
and are produced by an electric are or explosion. These burns should be treated promptly.

6.3. Thermal contact burns:

Thermal contact burns are those normally experienced when the skin comes in contact with
hot surfaces of overheated electrical conductors, conduits, or other energised equipment.
Additionally, clothing may be ignited in an electrical accident and the thermal burn will
result. It may be remembered here that sometimes, all three types of burns may be produced
simultaneously. Electric shock can also cause bruises, bone fractures, and even death
resulting from collisions or falls. In some cases, injuries caused by electric shock can be a
contributory cause of delayed fatalities.

6.4. Type of burns from shock

 Surface Burns : It can be caused by:
– Entrance and exit of electrical current through the body.
 – A very small amount of current.
– 1st degree to 3rd degree burns.
 Internal Tissue Burns: It can be caused by:
– Current flowing through organs of the body.
– Current in excess of 1.5 amps.
– 4th degree (internal) burns.
– Internal organs.
– Typically fatal.

7. What to do in case of electrical shock?

You are aware that the electricity will follow any available path. Electricity travels at the
speed of light. At 299800 Km per second, you are not given the slightest warring: there is no
time to react. The rescue of electrical shock victims depend on prompt action.

 In case of electrical shock, the following steps are to be taken immediately:

– Shut off the voltage at once.
– Do not make direct contact with any part of the victim’s body with any part of your
body.
– Try to free the victim from live conductor by using a dry piece of wood or dry
plastic or wooden broom or dry clothing or other non conducting material.
– Determine the victim is breathing.
– If the victim is not breathing, apply cardiopulmonary resus citation (CPR) and First-
Aid without any delay
 In case of electrical shock, the following First – Aid should be given to the victim:
– Cool the burn with running water.
– Cover the victim with a blanket.
– Do not attempt to remove burned clothing.
– Do not apply ice or any other ointment or cotton dressing to the burn.
– Handle the victim with care.
– Keep the victim from moving.
– Treat for shock.
– Maintain body temperature.
– Do not give anything by month.
– Call for emergency medical attention.

8. Fires due to short circuit

In addition to shock and burn hazards, electricity poses other dangers too. For example, arcs
that results from short circuits can cause injury or start a fire. Extremely high energy arcs can
damage equipment, causing fragmented metal to fly in all directions. Even low energy arcs
can cause violent explosions in atmospheres that contain flammable gases, vapours, or
combustible dusts. Electricity can cause fire in a number of ways, and some of the situations
can be:
  Over heating of conductors and cables due to over loading
 Over heating of flammable materials placed too close to electrical equipment
 Ignition of flammable materials as a result of arcing or the scattering of hot particles
as a result of an electrical fault.
 Current leaking to earth or between conductors due to low levels of insulation
resistance.

Injuries due to fire are usually burns, but may also be as a result of inhalation of smoke.
Injury from arcs may also be as a result of burning from the arc. Arc burns are usually very
severe and are often fatal. Electrical equipments such as motors, cables, may explode
violently when they are subjected to much higher levels of current than they are designed to
carry.

9. Circuit protection devices

Fuses, circuit breakers and ground – fault circuit interrupters are three well – known circuit
protection devices used to prevent electrical hazards. Many are designed to automatically
limit or shut off flow of electricity in the event of a ground fault, overload, or short circuit in
the wiring system. Fuses and circuit breakers prevent over – heating of wires and
components. They disconnect the circuit when it becomes overloaded. The best way to
reduce the risk of death from electric shock at home is to have a safety switch, called a
Residual Current Device (RCD) or Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI), fitted within
your household fuse box. If there is faulty or wet wiring, or any electric current passing
through person, the safety switch will cut off the power within a fraction of a second.

The RCD or GFCI is designed to shutoff electric power, if a ground fault is detected. The
RCD or GFCI is useful near sinks and wet locations. However, they may not be useful for
certain apparatus as they can cause equipment to shutdown unexpectedly. Though the safety
switch is not guaranteed to stop an electrical shock, it is guaranteed to make the injury much
less serious. Series – wound motor are casually found in appliances such as mixers, blenders,
and vacuum cleaners, power drills, vacuum pumps, rotary evaporators and stirrers. These
appliances should not be used unless flammable vapours are adequately controlled.

10. Unsafe conditions and unsafe practices

Majority of the Electrical accidents are caused by a combination of three factors:

 Unsafe equipment and / or installation.

 Unsafe workplace made by the environment.
 Unsafe work practices.
UNSAFE CONDITIONS AND PRACTICES LEADING TO POTENTIAL
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

While conducting safety audits in various production facilities and residential building, the
author had come across numerous locations where unsafe conditions and unsafe practices
were followed by the employees and occupants, which could have lead to potential electrical
hazards. Selected photographs highlighting unsafe conditions and unsafe practices which
were observed by the author during the safety audits are exhibited (1 to 10) here for the
benefit of readers.

It may be seen from these exhibits that unsafe conditions were prevailed in many houses and
work places. Similarly, many of us, one way or other neglect safe practices which could end
up in many electrical accidents. Safe conditions and safe practices are a prerequisite for
reducing electrical accidents. With this in view some of the Do’s and Don’ts for working
with electricity are given below:

Do’s for working with electricity:

 Always wear rubber soled shoes and safety gloves when working with electricity
 Use double insulated tools.
 Use rubber floor mating if possible
 Utilize nonconductive tools and ladders
 Use only THREE pin plugs, which provide a path to ground that helps prevent the
built up or voltages that may result in an electrical shock or spark.
 Use shut off switches and / or circuit breakers to shut off equipment in the event of
fire or electrocution
 Always use ground fault circuit interrupters around areas where there is water
 Keep combustible materials away from lamps or heating devices.
 Live parts of electrical equipments must be guarded against accidental contact
 Limit the use of extension cords or multiple adapters
 Inspect the wiring of equipment before each use
 Switch off lamps when changing light bulbs.
 Disconnect appliances before cleaning.
 Call the fire station in case of an electrical fire.
 Call the electricity office, if you see person has been electrocuted.
 Before you work on a rooftop television antenna, make sure the area is clear of power
lines.
 Install antennas where they won’t touch or fall on electric lines.
 If a cord or plug is warm or hot to touch, unplug it immediately, check wires,
extension cords and appliances for signs of wearing.
  In case of an electrical fire, if you are safe, unplug the appliance and use DCP type
fire extinguisher to douse the flames.
 Stay in the car during a storm because the rubber tires stop electricity from passing
through it, if the car is struck by lightning or fallen cable.

Don’ts for working with electricity:

 Do not plug electrical appliances in bathroom unless specific safety devices have been
installed.
 If you are in contact with water never touch electrical light switch.
 Do not put your fingers in a light bulb holder.
 Do not put any into an outlet except a plug.’
 Do not leave electric devices where small children may have access.
 Do not use a lamp in a metal holder fixed to the end of a loose flexible wire as a
portable hand lamp.
 Never climb transmission towers.
 Don’t attempt to fix cord that have been cut or damaged.
 Never use damaged cords.
 Never pull out a plug by the cord.
 Never place electrical cords under carpets which can result in wearing of the cord.
 Never bend or remove the ground on a three pin plug, which is designed to help
prevent shock and may save your life.
 Do not use extension cords as permanent wiring as they are not designed for it.
 Never use cords or plugs that show wear or damage, they can cause shock or fires.
 Do not overload an extension cord.
 Never puncture insulation of electrical cords by nailing them to any substances.
 While climbing trees stay away from those near power lines.

11. Statutory provisions

As per Section 29 of the Indian Electricity Rules 1956, all electric supply lines and apparatus
shall be of sufficient ratings for powers, insulation and estimated fault current and of
sufficient mechanical strength, for the work they may be required to do and shall be
constructed, installed, protected, worked, and maintained in such a manner as to ensure
safety of personnel and property.

This provision covers all the aspects for ensuring safety right from choosing of materials for
electrical installation, actual installation, protective devices to be provided, tests to be taken,
periodical maintenance and upkeep, etc. In fact there are specific rules elsewhere in the
Electricity Rules, specifying requirements in connection with the various aspects mentioned
above. But where no such specific rules exit this provision can be made applicable to ensure
general safety. While choosing materials for the electrical installation it is always desirable
to go in for materials manufactured to the specifications of Bureau of Indian Standards.
Human error is the most probable cause of electrocution. Many fire hazards in the home and
work places are caused by electrical overloads and faulty electrical appliances. Electricity is
the most dangerous hazards within the home. Forgetting to turn off an electrical appliance,
such as an oven, water heater can create a potential hazard in your home. Mind you, even the
current in a light bulb, found inside your fridge, is enough to kill you. Sizes of cables,
capacities and ratings of motors, transformers and other electrical apparatus, switches and
circuit breakers shall be determined with reference to the load which they are going to carry
and voltage drop considerations.

Grades of insulating material should also be decided with reference to the locations where
these things are going to be installed i.e. the temperature conditions, moisture, presence of
inflammable gases, chemical fumes, etc. Cheaper and sub-standard materials should be
avoided as they fail within a short time. The layout of electrical installation should be
planned and designed in such a way that the appearance will not only be decent and tidy but
also will be easy to maintain and inspect, during the course of time. Provisions of various
rules laid down should also be complied with to ensure safety. Work should be got executed
through licensed electrical contractors under the supervision of competency certificate
holder.

Periodical cleaning of contacts, replacements, insulation tests of wiring installation, windings

of motors and other insulated electrical appliances, earth continuity and earth resistance tests
should be carried out as per rules or national codes / standards and steps should be taken to
maintain the quality of the respective items. A record of such tests should be maintained.
Fuses, operating devices and relays should be checked periodically for proper operations.

Persons responsible for the general maintenance and upkeep of electrical installation should
be trained for the job for which they are specifically appointed and authorised. They should
be conversant with the procedures to be adopted while working on the installations, safety
precautions to be taken while working, first aid to be given to persons suffering from electric
shock, use of fire-fighting equipment, etc.
Review questions

1. How did the concept of safety in industry evolve?

The first age of safety started with the Industrial Revolution in 1750-1760 and
the invention of the steam engine. Most accidents were from the technology
failing, injuring workers and the public. The focus of safety management was
to ensure the technology was safe to use.

2. What is modern concept of safety?

Modern system safety is comprehensive and is risk based, requirements

based, functional based and criteria based with goal structured objectives to
yield engineering evidence to verify safety functionality is deterministic and
acceptable risk in the intended operating environment.

3. What is the concept of safety in industry?

Industrial Safety is a multi-disciplinary approach to developing and ensuring

compliance with regulatory agencies, safe working practices, and maintaining
the health and well-being of those employed in a particular occupation or
workplace

4. What is the concept of industrial safety management?

Industrial safety management is how you create and maintain a work

environment that is both safe and efficient. You use it to minimize risks,
keeping both the assets and people in the facility safe. Without good safety
management, you run risks of unscheduled downtime and accidents.

5. What are the concepts of safety?

Safety is a state in which hazards and conditions leading to physical,

psychological or material harm are controlled in order to preserve the health
and well-being of individuals and the community.

6. What are the three ages of industrial safety?

Hale and Hovden have traced the development of safety by describing three
'ages' of safety, namely 'the age of technology', 'the age of human factors' and
'the age of safety management' 2. In the first age, it was technology that
posed the main threat to safety.
7. What is 5s in safety?

The term refers to five steps – sort, set in order, shine, standardize and
sustain – that are also sometimes known as the five pillars of a visual
workplace. See Also: EHS Today eBook: Risk Management: A Survival Guide
for Today's Safety Leaders. This ebook will offer timely guidance in how to
best prepare for risk.

8. What is the importance of safety in industry?

Industrial safety is important as it safeguards human life, especially in high

risk areas such as nuclear, aircraft, chemical, oil and gases, and mining
industries, where a fatal mistake can be catastrophic. Industrial Safety
reduces risks to people, and processes

9. How many types of safety are there in industry?

There are 2 main types of industrial safety systems in process industry:

Process safety system (PSS) or process shutdown system (PSS). Safety
shutdown system (SSS): This includes emergency shutdown (ESD) and
emergency depressurization (EDP) systems.

10. What is factor of safety in industry?

“Factor of Safety” usually refers to one of two things: 1) the actual load-
bearing capacity of a structure or component, or 2) the required margin of
safety for a structure or component according to code, law, or design
requirements

11. What is the concept of safety management?

Safety management seeks to proactively mitigate safety risks before they

result in aviation accidents and incidents. Through the implementation of
safety management, States can manage their safety activities in a more
disciplined, integrative and focused manner.

12. What are the concepts of safety management system?

The key processes of a safety management system are hazard identification,

occurrence reporting, risk management, performance measurement, and
quality assurance. Crafting policies and procedures in your organization that
 will be implemented also plays an essential role in the direction of your
program.
13. What are the principles of industrial safety?
The Industrial Hygiene Principles: Anticipation, Recognition, Evaluation,
Control and Confirm. Industrial hygiene, also known as occupational
hygiene, is the science and art of protecting and enhancing the health and
well-being of workers and citizens of the community.

14. What is the safety concept of ISO 26262?

ISO 26262 is an international functional safety standard for the development

of electrical and electronic systems in road vehicles. It defines guidelines to
minimize the risk of accidents and ensure that automotive components
perform their intended functions correctly and at the right time

15. What are the 5 types of safety?

 Elimination: Physically remove the hazard.

 Substitution: Replace the hazard.
 Engineering controls: Isolate people from the hazard.
 Administrative controls: Change the way people work.
 Personal protective equipment (PPE): Protect the worker.
16. What are the 5 principles of safety?

The 5 ICL Safety Principles are:

 EHS Management System.
 Commitment and Engagement.
 Risk Management.
 Organizational Competence.
 Learning Organization.
17. What does KPI stand for in safety?

key performance indicators

Health and safety key performance indicators (KPIs) are measurable values
that health and safety teams use to monitor and evaluate their progress
toward strategic business objectives. These KPIs essentially act as a starting
point for an effective health and safety performance review.
 18. What is safety metrics?

In a nutshell, safety metrics are a useful framework to measure how well your
health and safety policies and procedures are working. They provide you with
valuable insight into any areas that can be adjusted to avoid potential hazards
or incidents before they happen.

19. How can we improve safety?

12 Easy Ways to Improve Safety in the Workplace

1. CREATE A WORKPLACE CULTURE OF SAFETY. ...
2. ALLOW EASY ACCESS TO SAFETY INFORMATION. ...
3. REWARD SAFE BEHAVIOR. ...
4. BE MINDFUL OF WHAT YOU REWARD. ...
5. WORK WITH OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS AND CLINICIANS. ...
6. USE SIGNS AND LABELS. ...
7. KEEP IT CLEAN. ...
8. USE THE RIGHT TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
20. How do we measure safety?

You can measure health and safety success through pro-active health and
safety activities. Such as health and safety inspections, near-miss reporting,
health and safety culture, training achievements, good housekeeping and
following the correct procedures.

21. What is safety policy?

An organization's safety policy is a recognized, written statement of its

commitment to protect the health and safety of the employees, as well as the
surrounding community.

22. How is risk measured in safety?

Risk = Likelihood x Severity.

A health and safety risk is the chance (likelihood) that somebody could get
harmed (severity) by a hazard. It's important to consider both likelihood and
severity when measuring health and safety risks
23. What is risk index?

Risk Index : The risk index is the overall result of a risk assessment. All
indicators and indexes can be used in the calculation for the risk index. It is a
composite of the likelihood and impact index. Likelihood : The likelihood index
shows the probability of a risk event occuring. This is measured in
percentage.

24. What is the risk assessment?

A risk assessment is a process to identify potential hazards and analyze what

could happen if a hazard occurs. A business impact analysis (BIA) is the
process for determining the potential impacts resulting from the interruption of
time sensitive or critical business processes.

25. What is difference between risk and hazard?

The two terms go hand in hand. Without a hazard, there is no

risk. But they are different, a hazard is something that could
harm you, and a risk is the chance of that harm actually
happening. Understanding the difference between a hazard
and a risk is an important part of risk assessment.
26. What is the difference between hazard and risk in safety?
Hazard: something that could potentially cause harm. Risk: the degree of
likelihood that harm will be caused.

27. What is risk and safety explain?

Risk = Severity of harm × the probability of the occurrence of harm. What is safety?
Safety is defined as “freedom from which is not tolerable" In other words, tolerable risk
is still present even when considered “safe”.