Tee 1103 Notes

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FUCULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
TEE1103 Electrical Engineering Circuit Analysis Course Outline
1 Introduction and a Review of Electricity

1.1 Units, Scientific and Engineering Notation
1.2 Electricity - charge, atomic structure, static electricity, current electricity, dc and ac, conductors, insulators,
semiconductors
1.3 Current
1.4 Voltage
1.5 Resistance, Conductance
1.6 DC Supplies – ideal and practical voltage and current sources
1.7 Ohms Law
1.8 Energy
1.9 Power
1.10 Efficiency
Basics of circuit analyses (dc)

1.11 Circuits
1.12 Notation
1.13 Series circuits, KVL and VDR
1.14 Parallel circuits, KCL and CDR
1.15 Analysis of Series-Parallel Circuits
1.16 Ladder Networks
Methods of Circuit Analysis (dc)

1.17 Star-Delta and Delta-Star conversions
1.18 Branch current method
1.19 Mesh analysis
Network Theorems (dc)

1.20 Superposition theorem
1.21 Thevenin’s Theorem
1.22 Norton’s Theorem
1.23 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Capacitance
1.24 Capacitance
1.25 Capacitive transient response
Magnetic Circuits
1.26 Magnetic circuits
Inductance
1.27 Inductance
1.28 Magnetic transient response
Alternating Current
1.29 Sinusoidal ac
1.30 Use of phasors to represent ac
1.31 Power calculations for ac
AC Power
1.32 Apparent Power
1.33 Real Power
1.34 Reactive Power
1.35 Power Factor
1
Appendices
1.36 Use of determinants to solve equations
1.37 Complex numbers
2
: INTRODUCTION AND A REVIEW
1.1. Measurements and System of Units

All measurement quantities need units that enable one to tell or feel how much that quantity is. It is, therefore important to
state the units whenever the magnitude of a quantity is quoted, e.g. 10kg, 100V, 1kΩ.
Because quantities are related to each other by equations, units have been designed in such a way that they form a set of
interrelated units called systems of units. As long as quantities are expressed in units belonging to the same system, putting
values in to an equation will automatically give a value in the desired units of the same system. For example using the
formula F = ma and putting m in Kg and a in ms-2 gives F in Newtons.
There are many sets of units that have been used before e.g. the Metric system, the MKS (metre-kilogram-second) system
and the CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system. Quantities can be changed from one system to the other by means of
conversion factors. As an example the conversion factor for converting from yards to metres is 1 yard = 0.914m then 3 yards
= 3 × 0.914 = 2.742m.
To have same standards of units internationally, a system called the SI system has been adopted. For our analyses we will use
the SI system.
Quantities are represented by standard symbols so that standard formulae exist with the appropriate symbols.
1.1.1 Scientific Notation

The scientific notation uses powers of 10 to ease the difficulty in expressing very small and very large numbers. For example:
100 000 000 = 1 × 108
1 810 000 000 = 1.81 × 109
0.000 000 143 = 1.43 × 10-7
To get the power, the decimal point is shifted to leave one digit to its left. The number of places the decimal point shift gives
the value of the power to which 10 is raised. If the decimal point is shifted towards the right, the power is positive and if
shifted to the left, the power is negative. If the number has many significant figures, it is rounded off to a fewer number of
significant numbers that preserve the required accuracy. For example:
132 587 956 244 = 1.33 × 1011
0.0 000 004 561 089 722 01 = 4.561 × 10-9
1.1.2 Engineering Notation

This notation uses the same principles as the scientific notation. However, the decimal point is shifted to make the power a
multiple of 3 or zero and always leave a minimum of one and a maximum of three significant figures to the left of the
decimal point. For example:
21 780 000 000 = 21.78 × 109
0.000 000 000 591 4061 = 591.4 × 10-12
Scientific calculators make conversions to engineering or scientific form quite easy.
Some of the powers that are multiples of 3 are common and have been given symbols that can be used as prefixes to standard
units when the numbers represent physical quantities. They are as follows:
1012 Tera (T) 10-3 milli (m)
9
10 Giga (G) 10-6 micro (µ)
106 Mega (M) 10-9 nano (n)
103 kilo (k) 10-12 pico (p)
For example:
21.78 × 103N = 21.78kN
591.4 × 10-12m = 591.4pm
31 600 000W = 31.6 × 106W = 31.6MW
3
Combined with these symbols, new units have been developed within the same system but that are not the standard units, to
ease the difficulty of handling some extreme values that may be encountered in the natures of some quantities. For example
capacitances are normally in the range of µF so that the µF is the most frequently used unit to quote capacitances. For
calculations such units can be converted to the standard unit by means of conversion factors. For example:
1µF = 10-6F
Hence: 22µF = 22 × 10-6F
Another unit that is frequently used to measure electrical energy is the kWh where 1kWh = 3.6MJ.
1.1.3 Notes on using formulae

2 Note each quantity has the proper unit of measurement as defined in the equation.
3 Note the proper magnitude of each quantity as determined by the defining equation is substituted.
4 Note each quantity is in the same system of units (or as defined in the equation).
5 Note the magnitude of the result is of reasonable nature when compared to the level of the substituted quantities
and normal levels.
6 Not the proper unit of measurement is applied to the result.
1.2. Understanding Electricity
1.1.3 Charge
There are two types of electric charge, which are the positive and the negative charges. Like charges repel while unlike
charges attract. Electric charge can be quantitatively stated as a magnitude and a sign. The symbol for charge is Q and the SI
unit is the Coulomb (C).
1.1.4 Review of Atomic Structure

Atoms are the most basic particles that make up matter.
There are 105 known atoms in nature. The structure of an
atom helps in the understanding concepts of electricity.
Figure 1.1 shows the basic structure of an atom.
Electrons in
An atom is made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. orbits
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus at the
center of the atom. Electrons are located in shells and they
orbit around the nucleus in shells.
Neutrons are neutral; electrons carry a negative charge Protons and

while protons carry a positive charge. Thus, the nucleus is neutrons in
positively charged and this positive charge attracts nucleus
electrons to the centre keeping them in the orbits. The
mass of a proton or atom is 1836 times that of an electron. Figure 1.1 Structure of an atom
The number of electrons in an atom tells the element the
atom belongs to.
If the shells are numbered with the shell closest to the first shell closest to the nucleus being shell number 1, the number of
electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is then given by 2n2, where n is the shell number. Thus the first shell can
accommodate 2 electrons; the second, 10 electrons, the third, 18 electrons and so on. Generally, electrons fill up the shells
beginning with the inner most shells. Electrons can be removed from orbits especially the outer shells if they are not
completely filled up. Electrons can be easily lost when outer shells have very few electrons. When an electron is lost, it
becomes a free electron that can move throughout the structure of the material. The atom remains behind as a positively
charged ion. Likewise electrons can be added to atoms so that they become negatively charged ions. It is this ability of
electrons to be removed from atoms that forms the basis of electricity.
1.1.5 Static Electricity

When charged bodies are stationary, we say we have static electricity. Static electricity is produced by friction, induction,
e.t.c.
1.1.6 Current Electricity

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When the charged particles continuously move, we have current electricity. Electricity only flows if there is a difference in
the concentration of charge at two (or more) points linked by a path that allows a flow of charge. Charge flows from its area
of higher concentration to that of lower concentration, i.e., positive charge from a more positive point to a less positive area
and negative charge from a more negative area to a less negative area, as illustrated in figure 1.2.
+++ + +
+ ++ Positive + +
+++ charge
+++ Positive - -
charge
- - -+ +
+ ++ Negative - -
- - - - charge
- - - Negative charge - -
-- -
Figure 1.2 Current electricity
The difference in the concentration of charges is called a voltage or potential. It is developed primarily by electrical energy
sources that cause positive charge to accumulate at one terminal and negative charge to accumulate at the other terminal.
Such sources include chemical cells, generators and solar cells. Connecting a conducting material (charge flow path) between
the two terminals then causes electricity to flow. The flow of charged particles is called an electric current.
The conventional direction of electricity is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. However, in practice, most
charge flow is due to movement of electrons, which are negative charge carriers, meaning the charge flows from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. The conventional direction is used because it is the most widely used in educational
institutions and industry, is employed in design of electronic device symbols and is popular for all major software packages.
1.1.7 Direct Current and Alternating Current

Direct current (dc) refers to the case when the electric current flows in one direction only, i.e., it is unidirectional. Alternating
current (ac) refers to the case when the electric current continuously reveres its direction of flow. In this course, we will treat
dc circuits first, and then proceed to ac circuits.
1.1.8 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Different materials placed across the same potential (same difference of concentration of charge) will allow different amounts
of charge to flow between the two terminals. Many factors, such as the density, mobility, and stability characteristics of a
material, account for these variations in charge flow. In essence, materials can be grouped into conductors, insulators and
semiconductors of electricity.
Conductors are materials that permit a generous flow of charge (electrons) with very little external force (voltage). Good
conductors typically have one electron in the valence (most distant from the nucleus) shell, which can readily become a free
electron that can participate in electrical conduction. The best conductors are silver, copper, gold and aluminum in that order.
Conductors are used to allow current to flow from one point to the other without much hindrance. The most widely used
conductors are copper and aluminum. Copper is widely used in electronic appliances. Aluminum is replacing copper in
transmission of electrical power because it has an advantage of lower density though its conductivity is lower. Gold is used in
integrated circuits and electronic appliances.
Insulators are materials that virtually do not allow any appreciable current to flow. These materials have very few free
electrons and require large voltages to establish measurable current flows. Typical useful insulators are mica, glass, Teflon,
paraffined paper, rubber, bakelite, oils, porcelain and air. Insulators are commonly used to cover electrical conductors (e.g
rubber), suspend conductors on poles and pylons (e.g. porcelain), isolate circuits (e.g oils in circuit breakers, air in switches),
and to separate circuit components that are at different potentials. An insulator will break down (permit charge flow) if a
sufficiently large potential is applied across it. The level of breakdown varies with materials. The breakdown also depends on
the material thickness and the applied potential. The thinner the material (between conducting parts) and the higher the
potential across it, the more susceptible it is to breakdown.
5
Semiconductors are materials that exhibit characteristics between those of insulators and conductors. Such materials
typically have four electrons in the valence shell. They are widely used in the electronic devices. The most widely used
semiconductor is silicon though germanium and gallium arsenide are also used in a number of important devices.
1.2 Current
An electric current is a flow of charge. The term current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge past a point in an
electrical circuit. The symbol is I and the SI unit is the Ampere (A). Mathematically, current is given by:
1A is equivalent to a charge flow of 1C/s thus: 1A = 1C/s.
Each electron carries a charge of 1.602 × 10 -19C, hence a current of 1A is equivalent flow of 6.242 × 10 18 electrons per
second.
E XAMPLE 1.1
What is the current when a charge of 7C flows past a point in 4 minutes?
SOLUTION
Q = 7C; t = 4minutes = 4 × 60s = 240s
EXAMPLE1.2
How many coulombs of charge pass through a wire in 2 minutes if the current is constant at 750mA?
SOLUTION
I = 750mA = 0.75A; t = 2minutes = 2 × 60s = 120s
1.3 Voltage
The difference in concentration of charges at two points between which current flows determines the extent to which the
charge will flow, or the potential of the charge to overcome opposition to their flow (friction, repulsion, attraction, e.t.c.) as it
flows through the circuit, and as such tells how much work the current can do. Quantitatively, this potential is determined as
voltage. Voltage is thus, defined as the energy expended to move a Coulomb of charge from the point of higher potential to
that of lower potential. It is, thus, measured across two points in a circuit. The symbols are V and E. The SI unit is the volt
(V). E is used to represent the voltage across energy sources, while V is used to represent the voltage drops (normally for
energy dissipating components).
The expression that shows the relationship between voltage, charge and energy is:
, or where W is the energy expended to move the charge.
1V = 1J/C
We can say that when charge flows through an energy source, it is raised to a higher potential level by the energy source. The
source, thus, converts some source energy to electrical energy. This can be due to thermal action (chemical to electrical),
electromagnetic induction (kinetic to electrical) or photovoltaic) (solar to electrical) action, and so on. As the charge flows
through the rest of the circuit, it dissipates this electrical energy into other forms of energy.
A number of terms are applied to this subject matter. These are:

 Potential – it is the voltage at a point with respect to another point in the electrical system (reference point). A
typical reference point is ground which is defined to be at zero potential.
 Potential difference – the algebraic difference in potential (or voltage) between two points.
6
 Voltage – when isolated, like potential, is the voltage at a point with respect to some reference point such as
ground (0V).
 Voltage deference – the algebraic difference in voltage between two points in a system. A voltage rise or drop is as
the terminology would suggest.
 Electromotive force (emf) – the force that establishes the flow of charge (or current0 in a system due to the
application of a difference in potential. The term is primarily associated with sources of energy.
EXAMPLE 1.3
The emf of a battery is 22.5V. How much charge flows if energy transferred is 90J? What is the current if the transfer time is
1.5minutes?
SOLUTION
W = 90J; V = 22.5V; t = 1.5minutes = 90s
EXAMPLE 1.4
What is the pd across a lamp that dissipates 1000J in 10 seconds if the current is 0.4A?
SOLUTION
W = 1000J; t = 10s ; I = 0.4A
1.4 Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of an electric
current through a material. It is due to collisions between
electrons and between electrons and other atoms in the R R R
material. It causes conversion of electrical energy into
heat energy. As a result, an electric current’s potential to
do work decreases as it passes through a material. This
R R R
causes a pd to develop across the ends of the material.
Conductors have low resistances while insulators have
high resistances.
(a) (b) (c)
The symbol for resistance is R and the SI unit is the ohm
(Ω). 1Ω is that resistance that causes a drop of 1V when a Figure 1.3 Resistance symbols (a) fixed resistance (b)
current of 1A flows through a material. The circuit variable resistance (c) potentiometer.
symbols for resistance are shown in figure 1.3.
Resistance of a material depends on the material, its length (l), cross sectional area (A) and temperature (T). At a constant
temperature, resistance is given by as: . Figure 1.4 illustrates calculation of resistance for a material.
7
l
ρ is a characteristic of the material called the resistivity. It

is defined as the resistance of a 1m long material with a
Material ρ 1m2 cross sectional area. Its units are the ohmmeter (Ωm).
Temperature T I Table 1.1 shows the resistivities for various materials.
Figure 1.4 Resistance of a materaial.
Table 1.1
Material Resistivity (Ωm)
Silver 1.645 × 10-8
Copper 1.723 × 10-8
Gold 2.443 × 10-8
Aluminum 2.825 × 10-8
Tungsten 5.485 × 10-8
Nickel 7.811 × 10-8
Iron 12.299 × 10-8
Tantalum 15.54 × 10-8
Nichrome 99.72 × 10-8
Tin oxide 250 × 10-8
Carbon 3500 × 10-8
Germanium 50
Silicon 200 × 103
GaAs 70 × 106
Insulators In general 1015
EXAMPLE 1.5
Determine the resistance of 30m of copper wire with a diameter of 0.032cm.
SOLUTION
l = 30m; ρ = 1.723 × 10-8 Ωm; d = 0.032cm = 0.00032m
Area,
Resistance,
1.4.1 Temperature Effects

In conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an increase in the resistance level. Consequently, conductors have
positive temperature coefficients of resistance. This increase is due to the increase in the intensity of the random motion of
the particles within the material that make it increasingly difficult for establishment of a general drift of electrons in any one
direction.
In semiconductors, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance level. Consequently, semiconductors
have negative temperature coefficients of resistance. This decrease in resistance is due to the fact that an increased
8
temperature will impart more kinetic energy to the material that frees up more electrons from the bonds thus causing an
increase in the number of free electrons, and hence conduction.
Insulators, just like semiconductors, also have negative temperature coefficients of resistance.
Since temperature ha such a pronounced effect on the resistance of materials, there is need to be able to determine the
resistance at any temperature within the operating range. Resistance does not vary linearly with temperature, hence, there is
need for methods to do the calculations. Several methods can be employed. One of the methods uses the expression:
( ) , where R is the required resistance, Ro is the resistance at the reference temperature (to), t
is the temperature at which resistance is to be calculated and αo is the temperature
coefficient of resistance at to.
1.4.2 Resistors
These are electrical components that are designed to offer resistance in electrical circuits. Some are variable while others are
not. The circuit symbols are as shown in figure 1.3. Resistors are manufactured in standard resistor values and standard
maximum power dissipation ratings. The standard resistor values have the following first two digits:
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 81
The various standard values are then obtained by multiplying the two standard values by 10 raised to some integer power, e.g
120Ω (12×101) , 81kΩ (81×103), 47Ω (47×100), e.t.c.
1.4.3 Conductance and Conductivity

It is defined as a measure of how much a material allows an electric current to flow through it. It is the reciprocal of
resistance. Its symbol is G and the SI unit is the Siemen (S).
, where σ is conductivity. Conductivity is the reciprocal/inverse of resistivity. The

symbol is σ and the units are Ω-1m-1.
1.5 DC Electrical Supplies

Sources of electrical energy can supply primarily a voltage or a current to a circuit, and as such can be described as current or
voltage sources.
1.5.1 Voltage Source

A voltage source provides primarily a voltage to the circuit. Dc voltage sources can be divided into three broad categories:
battery of chemical cells, generators and power supplies (rectifiers). In chemical cells, electrical energy is developed at the
expense of chemical energy. Chemical cells can be of the primary type, which are not rechargeable and secondary type,
which are rechargeable. A cell has two terminals and an electrolyte which is the contact element and the source for ions for
conduction between the terminals. The capacity of a battery or cell is specified in ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours
(mAh). The life of the battery is then given by
As an example a battery with an ampere rating of 100Ah will theoretically provide a steady current of 1A for 100 hours or
2A for 50 hours.
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Power supplies rectify ac voltages into dc voltages.
i. Ideal Voltage Source

It is a source that provides a constant voltage regardless of the current that flows out of it. It does not naturally exist but is
used in the analyses of electrical circuits. The symbol for an ideal voltage source is shown in figure 1.5 (a).
9
+
E
E -
(a)
R
R
+
E E -
(b)
Figure 1.5 Voltage sources (a) ideal voltage source (b) practical voltage source.
ii. Practical Voltage Source

In practice, a voltage source has an internal resistance that will cause the terminal voltage to drop as current flow increases.
This voltage drop can be accounted for by an internal resistance within the source that causes a voltage drop across it when
current is drawn. In circuit analyses, voltage sources are illustrated as an ideal source in series with a resistance equivalent to
the internal resistance of the source. Figure 1.5 (b) shows a practical voltage source.
1.5.2 Current Source

A current source provides primarily a current to the circuit. Current sources rarely naturally occur but are very useful in some
analysis of electrical circuits. They are mostly encountered in the analysis of semiconductor-based circuits.
i. Ideal Current Source

It is a current source which supplies a constant current regardless of the level of the terminal voltage or load connected load.
It also does not physically exist but is used in the analyses of electrical circuits. The circuit symbol of a current source is
shown in figure 1.6 (a).
I I R
(a) (b)
Figure 1.6 Current sources (a) an ideal current source (b) a practical current source.
ii. Practical Current Source

In practice, the current from a current source changes as the load conditions or terminal voltage change. This can be
attributed to an internal resistance across the terminals of the source that draws some of the current. In circuit analyses, a
practical current source is represented by an ideal current source in parallel with a resistance that represents the internal
resistance of the source. Figure 1.6 (b) shows a practical current source.
1.5.3 Source Conversions

A voltage source can be converted into a current source and a current source into a voltage source so as to suit the method of
analysis to be employed. Figure 1.7 illustrates the conversions.
10
R
E I R
𝐸 𝐼𝑅 𝐸
𝐼
𝑅
The source resistance remains unchanged when changing between the two forms of the
sources.
Figure 1.7 Source conversions.
EXAMPLE1.6
a) Convert the voltage source shown in figure E1.1 (a) into a current source.
b) Convert the current source shown in figure E1.1 (b) into a voltage source.
Rs = 2Ω
E = 6V
I = 9A R = 3Ω
(a) (b)
Figure E1.1
SOLUTION
a) Source resistance of the corresponding current source,
The rating of the current source,
b) Source resistance of the corresponding voltage source,

The rating of the voltage source,
1.6 Ohm’s Law

In general terms, the Ohms Law is expressed as:
In electric circuits, the effect is the electric current, the cause is the voltage and the opposition is the resistance, thus:
OR , depending on whether reference is being made to a load or a source of electrical
energy.
EXAMPLE 1.6
a) Calculate the resistance through a 60W bulb if a current of 250mA results from an applied voltage of 240V.
b) Calculate the current through a 2kΩ resistor if the voltage across it is 16V.
11
c) Calculate the voltage that must be applied across a soldering iron to establish a current of 1.5A through it if its
resistance is 160Ω.
SOLUTION
a) b)
c)
1.6.1 Plotting Ohm’s Law

The relationship between current and voltage for a given device can be plotted on a graph. For most sets of electronic
devices, the current is represented by the vertical axis (ordinate) and the voltage by the horizontal axis (abscissa) as shown in
figure 1.8. The slope of the plot gives the conductance of the device and hence the reciprocal of the slope gives its resistance.
In figure 1.8 (a), the straight line indicates that the resistance is does not change with current or voltage. Some devices, e.g.
semiconductors have resistance (conductance) which varies with current or voltage as shown for a diode in figure 1.8 (b).
I /amperes I /mA
6 60
5 50
4 40
3 30
2 20
1 10
V / volts V/V
0 5 10 15 20 25 25 30 0
-2.0 -1.0 1.0 1.5
(a (b)
Figure 1.8 Plotting Ohm’s law (a) a typical conductor (b) silicon diode.
1.7 Power
Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one form to the other. It is thus, the rate at which work is being done. The
symbol is P and the SI unit is the watt (W):
, where W is the work done in time t.
1W = 1J/s
For electrical circuits, work, hence:
Power delivered by an electrical energy source is given by:
12
For resistive loads, substituting for V using IR gives:
Similarly, substituting for I using gives:
1.8 Energy
It is a measure of the work done or that can be done. It is calculated as the product of power and time taken. The symbol is W
and the SI unit is the joule (J).
1J is the work done or energy converted when a device with a power of 1W converts energy for 1s.
For power electrical circuits, energy is measured using watt-hours (Wh). 1Wh is the energy delivered in 1hour working at a
power rate of 1W:
1Wh = 1W × 3600s
= 3600J
1kWh = 1000Wh
= 3600000J
1.9 Efficiency
For any device that converts energy:
Energy Input = (Energy Output) + (Energy Losses and/or Energy Stored in device)
Ei E0
η1
Energy Energy
Input EL Energy Output
Losses
Figure 1.9 Efficiency
Efficiency of such a device is defined as:

Efficiency,
In percentage form,
13
Efficiency of a cascaded block of devices is the product of the individual efficiencies:
Pi P1 P2 Po
η1 η1 η1
Figure 1.10 Efficiency of cascaded blocks.
12
2. BASICS OF CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Circuits
A circuit consists of a number of electrical elements joined at terminal points, providing at least one closed loop pah
through which charge can flow. Normally, it contains at least one source of energy and one or more energy dissipating
devices connected by conductors. A circuit is constructed to perform some task. A simple example of a circuit is a lamp
connected to a battery as shown in figure 2.1. Figure 2.1 (a) shows how the elements are connected, i.e., connections
(joined by conductors) between a battery, a switch and the bulb. Figure 2.1 (b) shows a standard circuit diagram to
represent the system in (a). The normal practice is to represent circuits using circuit diagrams with the components
represented by standard symbols. As can be observed, a bulb can be modeled as a resistor. Conducting wires are assumed to
have zero resistance.
Switch Bulb
+
+
E R
-
+ -
-
Battery
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 A simple circuit.
The battery has an emf E that causes current to flow and light up the bulb. The charge passes from low to high potential
when flowing through the battery and it passes from high potential to low potential when passing through the bulb.
Notation
Notation plays an important role in the analysis of circuits. Thus, there is need to examine the notations widely used in
industry.
Voltage Sources and Ground

Except for very few special cases, electrical and electronic systems are grounded for reference and safety purposes. The
symbol for the ground is shown in figure 2.2 (a). The ground has a defined potential of 0V. Figure 2.2 (b) shows a circuit
with a ground connection. It can be seen in the circuit that the negative terminal of the battery and the bottom of the resistor
are at ground potential. In figure 2.2 9c), the circuit has two grounds. Although there is no connection between the two
grounds in the circuit diagram, it must be understood that the physical connection exists.
R2
12V
E R E R R1 R3
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.2 (a) the ground symbol (b) a circuit with ground (c) a circuit with two grounds (d) a circuit with voltage sources
shown as potentials.
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In large schematics where space is at a premium and clarity is important, voltage sources may be indicated as shown in
figure 2.2 (d). The potentials values are referred to the ground, so that the 12V potential represents a 12V battery between
junction of the two (R1 and R2) and the ground.
Subscript Notations
There are two types of subscript notation used with voltages: double subscript notation and single subscript notation. In
double subscript notation, the voltage has two subscripts in the form Vab. The subscripts represent the points across which
voltage is to be measured, i.e., the points are denoted as a and b, where point a is taken to be at the higher potential. If a
wrong assumption was made the magnitude of the voltage would be negative. Figure 2.3 (a) illustrates double subscript
notation.
Va 6Ω Vb
a b
+ Vab - 12Ω
12V 18Ω
a R b
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 (a) double subscript notation (b) single subscript notation.
In the single subscript notation, only one subscript is used in the form Va. This means the voltage of point a with respect to
the ground. The voltage can be negative or positive depending on whether the potential is higher or lower than the ground
potential. In figure 2.3 (a), point a has a potential of 12V (directly across battery) with respect to the ground and point b has
a potential of 9V with respect to the ground (as would be calculated later on).
It can be shown that the potential difference between two points a and b, in a circuit can be given by:
, if the potentials Va and Vb of the points a and b with respect to ground are known.
Series Circuits
It is a circuit in which no more than two current carrying components are connected to the same point. Figure 2.4 shows
examples of series circuits.
R1
R1
12Ω
R2
E R4
E R2 R3
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Examples of series circuits.
Branch
A branch is a portion of a circuit in which one or more components are in series. Figure 2.5 shows an example of a circuit
with branches. R1 and R2 form a branch; R3, R4 and R5 form another branch; and the voltage source forms a third branch.
The current is the same for each element in a series circuit or in a branch.
The total resistance of a series circuit or branch is the algebraic sum of the individual resistances. If the resistances in the
series circuit or branch are R1, R2, R3, ∙∙∙ up to RN, then total resistance,
14
R5
R1
12V R4
R2
R3
Figure 2.5 An example of a circuit with branches.
EXAMPLE 2.1
The diagrams in figure E2.1 illustrate calculations of total resistances in series circuits and branches.
R1 = 4Ω
RT
R2 = 8Ω
R2 = 7Ω
R4 = 9Ω
(a)
R1 = 1Ω R2 = 7Ω
RT1 RT2 For branch containing R5 and R6,

R3 = 7Ω
R6 = 2Ω
R5 = 7Ω R4 = 9Ω
For branch containing R2, R3 and R4,
(b)
Figure E2.1
In a circuit, components in series can be replaced by a resistance with a value equal to their total resistance. The resistors R1
and R2 in the circuit in figure E2.1 (a) can be replaced by a resistance RT. Similarly the branches in the circuit in figure E1.2
(b) can be replaced by single equivalent resistances RT1 and RT2.
EXAMPLE 2.2
Given RT and I, calculate R1 and E for the circuit shown in figure E2.2. Calculate voltage across R 3 and the power
dissipated by R2.
15
SOLUTION
We know that
R1 Hence,
Solving gives
RT =12kΩ
E R2 = 4kΩ
I=6mA
Using Ohm’s Law, voltage across R3,

R3 = 6kΩ
Figure E2.2
Power dissipated in R2,
Voltage Sources in Series

Voltage sources can be connected in series to increase or decrease the total applied voltage to the system. The net voltage is
obtained by summing the sources with same polarity and subtracting the total of sources with opposite polarity. Figure 2.6
illustrates batteries in series.
E1 E2 E3 ET E1 E2 E3 ET
- + - + - + - + - + + - + - + -
10V 6V 2V 18V 4V 9V 3V 8V
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6 Voltage sources in series.
In figure 2.6 (a), In figure 2.6 (b),
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and potential drops around a closed
loop is zero. A closed loop is any continuous connection of branches that enables tracing of a path which leaves a point in
one direction and return to the same point from another direction without leaving the circuit. In order for KVL to be
applied, summation of potential rises and drops should be in one direction around the closed loop. For uniformity, the
clockwise direction will be used in these lecture notes. However, the same results can still be obtained if summation is in
the counterclockwise direction.
+ V1 - + V1 -
R1 R1 + +
+ + + V2 V3
E E - R3 -
R2 V1 L1 R2
- - L2
-
R3 R4
- V3 + - V4 +
(a) (b)
Figure 2.7 Application of KVL.

15
In figure 2.7 (a), application of KVL in the loop gives:
In figure 2.7 (b), there are two loops that can be easily identified:
Application of KVL in loop 1, L1 gives:
Application of KVL in loop 2, L2 gives:
Potential rises are taken to be positive while potential drops are taken to be negative. A potential rise is when one moves
from negative (-) to positive (+) when traversing through a circuit element and a potential drop is when one moves from
positive (+) to negative (-) when traversing through the element. Polarities of resistors are derived from the assumed
direction of current (from positive terminal to the negative terminal). If an opposite polarity is assumed, the answer comes
out as negative in calculations.
Mathematically, KVL is expressed as: ∑
EXAMPLE 2.3
For the circuit in figure E2.3, find V1 and V2.
+ + + SOLUTION
10V L1
V2 6V Applying KVL in loop 1 gives:
R4 - - R3 - Hence,
R2
L2
R1 Applying KVL in loop 2 gives:
- V1 + Hence,
Figure E2.3
EXAMPLE 2.4
For the circuit in figure E2.4,
a) Determine V2 using KVL
b) Determine I
c) Find R1 and R3
V3 = 15V
- +
R3
-
E - 7Ω V2 SOLUTION
R2 a) Applying KVL to the loop:
54V + +
R1 I
+ -
V1 = 18V
b)
Figure E2.4
c)
16
EXAMPLE 2.5
Find V1 and V2 for the circuit in figure E2.5,
+ V1 -
SOLUTION
Applying KVL to loop 1:
25V L1 15V
Applying KVL to loop 2:

+
L2 V2
-
20V
Figure E2.5
Interchanging Series Elements

The elements in a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance, current or power to each element.
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

In a series circuit, the voltages across the resistive elements will divide into fractions of the total voltage across the whole
series network. Each fraction will be proportional to the magnitudes of the resistance level, and the fractions add up to the
total voltage across the network. A method called the VDR can be used to determine the voltage across each element if
resistances and the total voltage are known. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
, where Rx is the resistor across which voltage is required, Vx is the voltage across the resistor Rx,
RT is the total resistance of the series circuit and E is the voltage across the whole series circuit.
EXERCISE
Derive the VDR from Ohm’s Law
The rule can be extended to the calculation of voltages across two or more resistive elements in a series network by
modifying the numerator to include the total resistance of the series elements. The expression becomes:
, where R' is the total resistance of the series elements across which voltage is required.
The following examples illustrate the VDR.
EXAMPLE 2.6
Find V1 and V2 for the circuit in figure E2.6 using VDR.
SOLUTION
The total voltage across the series circuit is 40V. The
total resistance in the series circuit is
4kΩ 2kΩ + V1 is a voltage across the 4kΩ resistor while V2
is a voltage across the two resistors, 2kΩ and 4kΩ in
series. Using VDR, the voltages are calculated as
40V follows:
+ V2
4kΩ V1 -
Figure E2.6 ( )
12
EXAMPLE 2.7
For the network in figure E2,7, find Vab and Va.
+ Vab - SOLUTION
a R1 b R2 Total voltage across series circuit,
10V
2Ω 3Ω Total resistance,
+
R3 5Ω
Vb
By VDR,
-
c
-5V
Figure E2.7 , hence
Parallel Circuits
A parallel network is one in which two or more elements, branches or networks have two points in common. Examples of
parallel networks are shown in figure 2.8.
a
R1
a b R3
R1 R2 R3 R4
R2
(c
(a
b
a
R1
R1 R2 R3 R3
a
R2
b c
(b) (d)
Figure 2.8 Examples of parallel networks
12
Figures 2.8 (a) and (b) show straight forward series networks. In figure 2.8 (c), R1 and R2 are in parallel and their parallel
combination is in series with R3. In figure 2.8 (d), R1 and R2 are in series and their series combination is in parallel with R3.
The voltage across a parallel circuit is the same for each element, branch or network
The total conductance of a parallel network is the sum of the individual conductances. Mathematically,
, where GT is the total resistance and G1, G2, G3 up to GN are the individual
conductances of the elements, branches or networks in parallel.
Substituting for resistance gives:
The total resistance in a parallel circuit is always less than the lowest resistance of the parallel elements or branches. It is
also important to note that adding more parallel elements in a parallel network increases the total conductance and hence
current drawn from a source while increasing the number of series resistors in a series network increases the total
resistance, thus reducing total conductance and hence total current drawn from a source.
If there are two resistors only in a parallel network then the total resistance is given by:
EXAMPLE 2.8
Determine the total resistances for the networks in figure E2.8.
R1
SOLUTION
RT 5Ω For figure 2.8 (a)
R3
2Ω
R2 4Ω
Hence
(a)
RT For figure 2.8 (a)
R1 2Ω R2 3Ω R3 4Ω R4 6Ω
Hence
(b)
Figure E2.8
EXAMPLE 2.9
Determine the value of R2 in figure E2.9 to establish a
total resistance of 9kΩ.
RT = 9kΩ
R1 12kΩ R2
Figure E2.9
19
SOLUTION
We know that , hence
EXAMPLE 2.10
Given the information provided in figure E2.10,
a) Determine R3
b) Calculate E
c) Find Is
d) Find I2
e) Determine P2
Is
RT = 4Ω I1=4A I2
E R1 10Ω R2 20Ω R3
Figure E2.10
SOLUTION c)
a) We know that
Hence
Solving gives
d)
b)
e)
Node
A node is a junction of two or more elements, branches or networks. A node can be a point or a complete circuit. Figure 2.9
illustrates some nodes.
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a junction is zero. For
uniformity in these course notes, current entering the node is taken to be positive and current leaving it is taken to be
negative. It can be noted that the Law also implies that the sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of
currents leaving the junction. Mathematically, ∑ ∑
Figure 2.9 illustrates nodes as well as KCL.
12
I2
I2 I1
I4
I3
I1 I3 Node 2 Node 3
I4
I5 Node 1
I5
Node 1: 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 Node 2: 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
I2 Node 3: 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
I2 I3
I1 I4
I5
I1 I3
IC
20V
I8
I7
I6
I4
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
Figure 2.9 Nodes and KCL
EXAMPLE 2.11
For the circuit in figure E2.11, calculate the currents I 3, I5 and I6.
I4 = 4A
I1 = 2a
SOLUTION
a R b Applying KCL at node a:
I3 I5
I6
I2 = 3A
Figure E2.11
Hence, I3 is 5A leaving node a.
Because I3 and I6 are currents in the same branch,
leaving node a (entering node b)
Applying KCL at node b:
Hence, I5 is 4A leaving node b.

22
EXAMPLE 2.12
Find the magnitude and direction of the currents I 3, I4, I6 and I7 for the network in figure E2.12.
b
I5 =8A
I2 =12A SOLUTION
Assuming I3 is leaving node a and applying KCL:
I7
a I4
c
I1 =10A
I3 I6
d Hence, I3 is 2A entering node a.
Figure E2.12
Assuming I4 is leaving node b and applying KCL: Assuming I6 is entering node d and applying KCL:
Hence, I4 is 4A leaving node b. Hence, I6 is 2A leaving node d.
Assuming I7 is leaving node c and considering the whole network of resistors to be a node and applying KCL:
Hence, I7 is 104A leaving node c.
EXAMPLE 2.13
For the circuit in figure E2.13
a) Find the total conductance and total resistance Is a
b) Find the total current
c) Find current in each branch RT, GT
d) Verify KCL at node a
e) Find the total power dissipated in each resistor E R2 8Ω R3 10Ω
R1 4Ω
f) Determine the power delivered by the source
12V
and compare it to the power dissipated by the
resistive elements.
Figure E2.13
SOLUTION b)
a)
c) Current through R1,
12
Current through R2,
Current through R3,

f) Power delivered by source,
Adding up the power dissipated in the

d) Applying KCL at node a: individual resistors gives:
(PROVED)
e) Power dissipated in R1,

Hence total power dissipated by the resistors is
the same as power delivered by the source.
Current Divider Rule (CDR)

In a parallel network the current will divide between the branches in proportional to the relative conductances of the
branches. A rule called the current divider rule can be used to determine the currents in each branch. Mathematically, the
rule is expressed as:
, where Rx is the resistor through which current is required (Gx, the corresponding
conductance), Ix is the current through Rx, RT is the total resistance of the parallel
network (GT, the corresponding conductance) and I is the current to the whole parallel
network.
EXERCISE
Derive the CDR
EXAMPLE 2.14
Using CDR, calculate currents, I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in figure E2.14
42mA
I1 I2 I3 Using CDR,
6Ω 24Ω 24Ω
Using CDR,
Figure E2.14
SOLUTION
Using CDR,
Hence, RT = 4Ω
24
EXAMPLE 2.15
Determine the resistance R1 to effect the division of current in figure E2.215
I1 = 21mA R1
Using CDR,
I = 27mA
R2 ( )
7Ω
Figure E2.15
It follows that:
SOLUTION
, hence
Solving gives:
The example has helped derive the formula . It is important to memorise this formula as it can be used to
conveniently apply the CDR when there are two resistances only in a parallel network.
EXAMPLE 2.16
Using CDR, calculate currents, I1 and I2 in the circuit shown in figure E2.216
I2 4.5Ω
Total resistance of the whole network:
I1
I2 = 8A
9Ω Ω
Using CDR,
3Ω
Figure E2.16
SOLUTION Using CDR,

Resistance of 4.5||9Ω,
Ω
Short Circuits
A short circuit is a path of zero resistance connected across a network. According to the CDR, no current will flow through
the shorted out network implying all current from the source flows through the short circuit. Since the resistance of a short
circuit is zero, the voltage across a short circuit is also zero. Short circuits can result in catastrophic consequences and so in
practical supply circuits there are breakers or fuses that trip or burn out when excessive currents flow.
Open circuits
An open circuit is two isolated terminals not connected by an element of any kind. No current can, thus flow between the
two terminals. However, a pd (voltage) can develop across its terminals.
Voltage Sources in Parallel

Voltage sources can only be placed in parallel if they have the same voltage rating. The primary reason for placing two or
more batteries in parallel is to increase the current rating of the voltage source. If voltage sources of different ratings are
25
placed in parallel, catastrophic results may occur. This is because the terminal voltage of the source with the higher voltage
will try to drop rapidly to that of the source with the lower rating. The current will then be only limited by the source
resistance of the voltage source. Since internal resistances are typically small values, excessive currents may result and
these can potentially damage the sources placed in parallel.
Analysis of Series-Parallel Networks

Series parallel networks are networks consisting of both series and parallel configurations. A firm understanding of series
and parallel networks is sufficient background to tackle most series-parallel networks. In general when working with a
series-parallel network:
1. Study the problem and make a brief mental sketch of the overall approach you plan to use. This may result in time
and energy saving short cuts.
2. Examine each region of the network independently before tying them in series-parallel combinations. This will
usually simplify the network and possibly reveal a direct approach toward obtaining one or more desired
unknowns. It also eliminates many errors that might develop due to lack of a systematic approach.
3. Redraw the network as often as possible with the reduced branches and undisturbed unknown quantities to
maintain clarity and provide the reduced networks for the trip back to unknown quantities from the source.
4. When you have a solution, check that it is reasonable considering the magnitudes of the energy source and the
circuit elements.
A number of examples will now be used to illustrate the analysis of series-parallel networks.
EXAMPLE 2.17
Determine the current in each resistor in figure E2.17
Is R1
2kΩ I2 I3
42V
12kΩ R2 R3 6kΩ
Figure E2.17(a)
SOLUTION
It is noted that R2 and R3 are parallel to each other and their parallel combination is in series with R 1. The approach would
be to first calculate resistance of R2 parallel R3 to get the simple series circuit shown in figure E2.17 (b).
Is R1
2kΩ
42V
'
kΩ
RT
kΩ
Figure E2.17 (b)
Current through R1
26
Now we go back to figure E2.17 (a) and apply CDR to the parallel combination of R 1 and R2.
Current through R2 Current through R3
EXAMPLE 2.18
Determine I2, I4 and V8 in figure E2.18
R1
4Ω
I2 R2
8Ω I4
R3 1Ω R7
R4 4Ω
8Ω
E 16V
+
6Ω R5 R6 3Ω 2Ω R8 V8
Figure E2.18(a)
SOLUTION
It is noted that R1 R2 and R3 are parallel to each other; R5 and R6 are parallel to each other their parallel combination is in
series with R1; and R7 and R8 are in series. These three combinations are first going to be combined into single resistances
as shown in figure E2.18 (b).
Is RT1
I4 +
E
RT2 RT3
VT3
Figure E2.17 (b)
Total resistance,
Hence
27
From figure E2.18 (b) Total current from the battery is We go to figure E2.18 (b) and apply CDR to the parallel
given by: combination of RT2 and RT3.
Now we go back to figure E2.18 (a) and apply CDR to In figure E2.18 (b), we note that VT3 is the voltage across
the parallel combination of R1, R2 and R3. the parallel combination of RT2 and RT3, thus:
Going back to figure E2.18 (a) and applying VDR:
EXAMPLE 2.19
Find the voltage Vab and the current Is in figure E2.19 (a)
R4 R3
a
+
4Ω 8Ω
Vab
R1 R2
b
E1 4Ω 8Ω 18V
6V E2
Is
Figure E2.19 (a)
SOLUTION
It is noted that the voltage sources are in series and in opposing polarities. The network is redrawn with voltage sources
combined into one source E as shown in figure E2.19 (b) to improve clarity.
Is Applying VDR and taking the negative terminal of the

6Ω R3 battery as the reference point:
R1 5Ω
E 12V a + Vab - b
R3 3Ω 2Ω R4
Figure E2.19 (b)
28
Total resistance as seen by the source is:
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
EXAMPLE 2.20
E1 = +12V
+
R1
For the network shown in figure E2.20, determine R2 5Ω V1
voltages V1 and V2 and the current I. 6Ω -
R3 I
E2 = -6V
7Ω
R4 +
V2
6Ω
-
Figure E2.20 (a)
SOLUTION
The network is redrawn with symbolic notations of voltage sources represented using voltage source symbols and all
ground terminals joined together as shown in figure E2.20 (b) to improve clarity.
R3
7Ω
R4 -
R1
+ E2 V1
R2 5Ω 6Ω L1 6Ω
V2 - +
6V
I2 I E1 18V
I3
I1
Figure E2.20 (b)
V2 is the voltage across the battery hence

The minus sign indicates that the chosen polarity is
opposite to the actual polarity.
Applying KVL in loop L1: ( )
Hence,
The current, I is obtained by applying KCL at the node

( )
connected to the node connected to the ground point. The
currents I1, I2 and I3 are obtained first:
29
Using KCL,
Hence
EXAMPLE 2.21
Calculate I5, Is and V8 in figure E2.21.
R1
+
4kΩ Is
V8
E R6 R8 R9
8kΩ R2 24kΩ 72V -
R4 18kΩ 12kΩ
24kΩ
R3 R5 R7
12kΩ 12kΩ I5 10kΩ
Figure E2.21 (a)
SOLUTION
The circuit can be viewed as two parallel networks connected to the 72V source. In the network on the left it is observed
that R1, R2 and R3 are in series and their series combination is parallel R 4. This combination is, in turn, in series with R 5.
For the network on the right, it is observed that R8 and R9 are in parallel and their parallel combination is in series with R 7.
This combination is, in turn, parallel to R6. The circuit is redrawn with some of the described resistance combinations
represented by a single resistance as is shown in figure E2.21 (b).
Is
+
E 72V V8
RT1 R6 18kΩ RT2
-
R5 R7
12kΩ I5 10kΩ
Figure E2.20 (b)
( ) Total resistance of the network on the left,

( )
( )
( )
( ) Total resistance of the network on the right,
( )
( )
( )
Total resistance of the circuit as seen by the source,
Considering the network on the left side:
Hence,
30
Using VDR,
Ladder Networks
A ladder network appears as shown in the circuit diagram shown in figure 2.10. The reasons for the term ladder network
should be obvious from the appearance of the diagram.
Is R1 R3 R5 I6
RT 5Ω 4Ω 1Ω
E 240V 6Ω R2
R4 6Ω R6 2Ω
Figure 2.10
There are two methods that may be employed to solve problems involving ladder networks.
Method 1
Calculate the total resistance and the resulting source current and then work back through the ladder until the desired
current or voltage is obtained. We will use the above circuit as an example. The total resistance is calculated in stages as
shown in the following sequence of diagrams and derivations.
Is R1 R3
RT 5Ω 4Ω
E 240V 6Ω R2
R4 6Ω RT1
Figure 2.11
Is R1 R3
RT 5Ω 4Ω
E 240V 6Ω R2 RT2
Figure 2.12
31
Is R1
RT 5Ω
E 240V 6Ω R2 RT3
Figure 2.13
Is R1
RT 5Ω
E 240V RT4
Figure 2.14
Hence
Working back through the ladder the currents through and voltages across the elements can be found as illustrated next.
Applying CDR to figure 2.13, and letting current through Applying CDR to figure 2.11, and letting current through
R2 be I2: R4 be I4:
Applying KCL in figure 2.12, and letting current through Applying KCL in figure 2.10, and letting current through
R4 be I4: R5 be I5:
The voltages across the components can then be obtained by applying Ohm’s Law.
Method 2
Assign a letter to the last branch current and work back through the network to the source maintaining this current or other
current of interest. The desired current can be found directly. We will use the circuit in figure 2.10 as example to illustrate
this method. The circuit is redrawn in figure 2.15.
32
+ V1 - + V3 - + V5 -
Is R1 I3 R3 I5 R5
I1 5Ω 4Ω I6
I2 I4 1Ω
E 240V R2 + + +
R4 R6
V2 V4 V6
6Ω - 6Ω 2Ω
- -
Figure 2.15
Voltage across R4 is the same as the total voltage across

R5 and R6, hence By Ohm’s Law:
Applying KVL to the left side loop gives:
Hence Hence
Also
Hence
Eliminating V5 from the two equations gives
Applying KCL at the junction of R3, R4 and R5 gives:
Using Ohms Law :
Applying KVL to the center loop gives:
By Ohms Law:
Applying KCL at the junction of R1, R2 and R3 gives:
Using Ohms Law:
33
As exercise, you can calculate the various currents and voltages.
34
3. METHODS OF CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
If sources in a circuit are not in series or parallel, the reduction techniques that have been studied so far cannot be applied.
In other words, the total source voltage, source current or circuit resistance cannot be calculated using reduction methods.
Several methods of analysis have, thus, been developed to allow analysis of networks with any number of sources and in
any arrangement. These methods can still be, fortunately, also applied to circuits with one source that have been studied so
far.
The methods that will be looked at are the Branch Current, Mesh and Nodal analysis methods. Each method can be applied
to the same network. The selection of the best method for any given circuit is defined only by acquiring a firm
understanding of the relative advantages of each method.
All the methods can be applied to a linear bilateral network. The term linear refers to the fact that the characteristics of the
network elements (such as resistors) are independent of voltage across them or current through them. The term bilateral
refers to the fact that the characteristics of the elements do not change when voltage across or current through them is
reversed. The branch Current method is, however, not restricted to bilateral networks only.
We will also look at Delta-Star and Star-Delta conversions, as well as bridge networks.
3.2 Branch Current Method

Once this method is studied, no linear bilateral dc network cannot be solved. The steps that are followed when analyzing
circuits using branch current method are:
1. Assign a distinct current of arbitrary direction to each branch of the network.
2. Indicate the polarities for each resistor as determined by the assumed directions of the branch currents.
3. Apply KVL around each closed loop. The number of times KVL is applied is best given by the number of
“windows” as illustrated in figure 3.1.
4. Apply KCL at the minimum number of nodes that will include all the branch currents in the network (to give a
number of simultaneous equations equal to the number of unknown branch currents. This minimum number is one
less than the number of independent nodes of the network. Figure 3.1 illustrates this.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed branch currents.
The Branch Current Method, thus primarily solves for branch currents, from which other quantities like voltage across
elements or power, can be determined.
35
1 2
Apply KVL in 2 loops Apply KCL at 1 node
1 2 3
Apply KVL in 3 loops Apply KCL at 1 node
2 3
Apply KVL in 3 loops

Apply KCL at 4 nodes
1 2
Apply KVL in 2 loops Apply KCL at 3 nodes
Figure 3.1 Illustration of how to get the number of equations when applying the Branch Current Method.
Example 3.1
Apply the branch current method to the network of figure

E3.1(a) 2Ω R2
4Ω
E1 2V E2 6V
Figure E3.1(a)
36
SOLUTION
The branch currents are assigned as I1, I2 and I3 to the KVL is applied to the two independent loops L1 and L2
three branches as illustrated in figure E3.1 (b) (current also as illustrated in figure E3.1(b) to give the equations:
directions are arbitrary but here I1 and I2 are chosen to Loop 1:
match the directions of the potentials of the voltage ……………………(1)
sources) . Loop 2:
……………………(2)
I1 I2
KCL is applied to node a to give the third equation:
…………………………(3)
- - Solving the three equations simultaneously gives the
R1 2Ω + R2 solutions:
1Ω
+ L1 R3 4Ω +
-
E1 2V E2 6V
The negative sign for I1 implies that the actual current

direction is opposite to the assumed direction.
Figure E3.1 (b)
Example 3.2
R1 2Ω R2 1Ω
Apply branch current method to the network shown in R3 4Ω
figure E3.2
E1 15V E3 40V
E2 20V
Figure E3.2 (a)
SOLUTION
The branch currents are assigned as I1, I2 and I3 to the
three branches as illustrated in figure E3.2(b).
Applying KVL in loop 2 gives:
……………….(2)
L1
L2 Applying KCL at node a gives:
The three resulting simultaneous equations are then

solved and the answers are:
Figure E3.2 (b)
Applying KVL in loop 1 gives:
………………(1)
36
3.3 Mesh Analysis
The method is based on the assumption of a loop current in each loop instead of branch currents, as will be illustrated in the
examples that will follow. It, thus, primarily solves for loop currents from which other quantities like branch currents and
voltages across elements can be determined. The method essentially simply eliminates the need to substitute the results of
KCL into the equations derived from the application of KVL. We will begin by looking at the general approach then
proceed to the format approach. The general approach shows how the principles of KVL are exploited to produce mesh
equations, as they are called. The format approach is a shorthand method for writing the mesh equations, which saves on
time and which can possibly prevent some errors. However, the application of KVL is not so obvious when using it.
3.3.1 The General Approach

The steps for analyzing a circuit using mesh analysis general approach are as follows:
1. Change all current sources to voltage sources
2. Assign a distinct current “in the clockwise direction” to each independent closed loop of the network (it is not
necessary to use clockwise direction – used here as it will lead to derivation of the format approach). Effectively, a
loop current is placed in each “window” of the network.
3. Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined by the assumed direction of the loop current
for the loop.
4. Apply KVL around each closed loop in “the clockwise direction”.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for loop currents.
Example 3.3
Using mesh analysis, find the current through each R1 1Ω R2 6Ω

branch of the network in figure E3.3 (a). R3
2Ω
E1 5V E2 20V
Figure E3.3 (a)
SOLUTION
There are no current sources so we go directly to step
number 2. The mesh (loop) currents are defined as
shown in figure E3.3 (b). The loops are also KVL in loop 2:
correspondingly defined as also shown in the same ( )
figure. ( )
………. (2)
The two resulting simultaneous equations (1) and (2) are

_ I2 then solved to give the loop currents:
- I1 +
+
R1 1Ω 6Ω
R2 L2 R3
+ + 2Ω
-
E1 L1 - Currents in the branches are found as follows:
5V 10V Current in branch containing 1Ω
E2
Current in branch containing 6Ω

Figure E3.3 (b)
KVL in loop 1:
The current thus flows upwards (opposite to I1).
( )
( )
Current in branch containing 2Ω
……….. (1)
37
Example 3.4
R3= 6Ω
Using mesh analysis, find the current in the 4Ω resistor R1 = 2Ω
in the network of figure 3.4 (a).
R2 4Ω
E1 = 6V E3 = 3V
E2 4V
Figure E3.4 (a)
SOLUTION
Again, there are no current sources so we go to step number 2. The loops and loop currents are illustrated in figure E3.4
(b).
KVL in loop 2:
( )
+ ( )
- R3= 6Ω
R1 = 2Ω + - ……….(2)
+ R2 4Ω
- E3 = 3V The two resulting simultaneous equations are then solved
E1 = 6V I1
- + and the loop currents are:
L2
L1 E 2 4V I2
The current through the 4Ω resistor is then given by
Figure E3.4 (b) ( )
KVL in loop 1: The current thus flows upwards.

( )
( )
………. (1)
Example 3.5
R2
5.6kΩ
Using mesh analysis, determine the current through the
R4 0.22kΩ
9V battery in the network of figure E3.5 (a). I1 R3
R1 2.2kΩ 1.2kΩ
2mA
E1 9V
Figure E3.5 (a)
SOLUTION
The network contains a current source, I1, that needs to be converted into a voltage source. Resistor R 1, which is parallel to
I1, is taken as the source resistance and after the conversion, the result is a 4.4V in series with a 2.2kΩ resistor. The
resulting network is shown in figure E3.5 (b). The loop currents are also shown.
36
KVL in loop 1:
( )
R2 ( )
……….. (1)
- + - +
5.6kΩ - KVL in loop 2:
+ I2
R1 2.2kΩ R4 0.22kΩ
I1 R3 ( )
1.2kΩ ( )
+ L2 -
-
L1 +
E1 4.4V E1 9V
The two resulting simultaneous equations are then solved
to give the current through the 9V battery as:
Figure E3.5 (b)
3.3.2 The Format Approach

As already stated, the format approach enables us to write the equations directly. The steps are as follows:
1. Convert all current sources to voltage sources.
2. Assign a distinct loop current to each independent closed loop in a clockwise direction.
3. Form the mesh equations for each loop in the following manner:
a. Column 1 of each equation is formed by summing the resistance values of those resistors through which
the loop current passes and multiplying the sum by the loop current.
b. Each subsequent term of the equation is from the mutual resistances (resistances shared with other loops).
Mutual terms are negative. Each term is found by multiplying the mutual resistance by the respective
mutual lop current.
c. The RHS is the sum of the voltage sources in the loop taking into consideration their polarities with
respect to the loop current direction.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations.
Example 3.6
Using mesh analysis format approach, write the mesh equations for the network shown in figure E3.6 (a).
2Ω
1Ω 4Ω
2A 1Ω 3Ω
4V 2V
Figure E3.6 (a)
SOLUTION
The 1A current source is converted to a voltage source. The 1Ω parallel resistance is taken as the source resistance. The
resulting circuit after the conversion is shown in figure E3.6 (b). Also shown are the loop currents. Resistors and sources
have been given names for ease of reference.
36
R3
- + - + - +
I1 2Ω + -
R1 1Ω R2 1Ω I2 I3 R5 4Ω
R4 3Ω
+ L1 - + -
L2 L3
- +
E1 2V E2 2V E3 2V
Figure E3.6 (b)
Applying KVL using format approach in loop 1:

( ) Applying KVL using format approach in loop 3:
( ) ( )
………….. (1) ( )
………….. (3)
( ) Solve the three equations simultaneously and obtain
( ) currents in each resistor as exercise.
…………… (2)
Example 3.7
10Ω
Using mesh analysis format approach, find current

flowing in the 10Ω resistor in the network shown in
figure E3.7 (a). 8Ω 5Ω
3Ω 2Ω
15V
Figure E3.7 (a)
SOLUTION
There are no current sources, so we go directly to step number 2. The loop currents are as shown in figure E3.7 (b). The
resistances and sources have been named for ease of reference.
37
( )
R5 10Ω ( )
……….. (1)
- +
I3
L3 Applying KVL using format approach in loop 2:
R1 R4 ( )
+
- + - ( )
+ 8Ω - +
5Ω
- …………. (2)
+ - +
E1 I1 3Ω I2 Applying the format approach in loop 3:
R2 R3 2Ω
( )
15V ( )
L1 - + L2 -
………………. (3)
Solving simultaneously,
Figure E3.7 (b)
3.4 Nodal Analysis

This method makes use of the KCL to produce the simultaneous equations. If one node in a network is defined as the
reference node, then the remaining nodes will each have a fixed potential relative to the reference node. KCL can then be
applied at each node to give a set of equations in which the nodal voltages are the unknowns. Solving the equations
simultaneously will give the nodal voltages from which all other quantities can be determined. Just like the Mesh analysis,
there are two approaches the general approach and the format approach. The general approach shows how the principles of
KCL are exploited to produce the nodal equations, as they are called. The format approach is a shorthand method for
writing the nodal equations.
3.4.1 The General Approach

The steps that are followed when analyzing circuits using the nodal analysis method are:
1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
2. Pick a reference node and assign a distinct nodal voltage (referred to the reference node) to each remaining node.
3. Assume a direction for current in each branch.
4. Apply KCL at each node except the reference node.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations.
Example 3.8
R2
Determine the nodal voltages in the network of figure 12Ω

E3.8 (a).
4A R1 2Ω R3 6Ω 2A
Figure E3.8 (a)
SOLUTION
The reference node is already as given (grounded node). The other nodes are then assigned the nodal voltages as shown in
figure E3.8 (b). The nodes will be named 1 for the node at nodal voltage V 1 and 2 for the node at nodal voltage V 2. The
currents flowing in the branches between the nodes are also as given in the same figure.
37
V1 I2 R2 V2
………….. (1)
I1 12Ω I3 Applying KCL at node 2 gives:
4A R1 2Ω R3 6Ω 2A
Is1 Is2
………….. (2)
Reference Solving the two equations simultaneously gives the nodal

voltages:
Figure E3.8 (b)
Applying KCL at node 1 gives:
Calculate the voltages across each resistor and their polarities as well as the currents I1, I2, and I3 as exercise.
Example 3.9
R2
4Ω
Is2
Apply nodal analysis to the network of figure E3.9 (a).
R1
8Ω
2A R3 10Ω
E 64V
Figure E3.9 (a)
SOLUTION
First the 64V source is converted into a current source. The 8Ω resistance is used as the source resistance. The current
source magnitude is thus 8A. The resulting circuit is shown in figure E3.9 (b). Also illustrated are the reference node, nodal
voltages and relevant currents to work with. All the ground points have been joined together.

I2 R2
V1 V2
4Ω
I1 Is2 I3
Is1 ………….. (1)
R1
8Ω R3 10Ω
2A Applying KCL at node 2 gives:
8A
Reference
………….. (2)
Figure E3.9 (b)
36
Solving the two equations simultaneously gives the nodal The currents in the resistors are calculated as:
voltages:
36
3.4.2 The Format Approach
Using the format approach, the equations are written directly. The steps that are followed are as follows:
1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
2. Choose a reference node and assign a distinct voltage to each of the remaining nodes of the network.
3. Form the nodal equations using the following method:
a. Column 1 of each equation is formed by summing the conductances tied to the node of interest and
multiplying the sum by the assigned voltage value for the node.
b. Subsequent columns represent the mutual terms. Each mutual term corresponds to a node that shares a
resistance with the node of interest. The term value is obtained by multiplying the mutual conductance by
the mutual node voltage. Subsequent terms are negative.
c. The right hand side is the algebraic sum of the current ratings of the current sources connected to the
node.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the nodal voltages.
Example 3.10
Find the voltage across the 3Ω resistor using nodal analysis (format approach).
2Ω 6Ω 10Ω
8V 4Ω 3Ω
1V
Figure E3.10 (a)
SOLUTION
The voltage sources are converted into current sources. The 8V voltage source becomes a 4A current source in parallel
with a 2Ω resistor and the 1V voltage source becomes a 0.1A current source in parallel with a 10Ω resistor. Figure E3.10
(b) shows the resulting circuit following the source conversion, selection of a reference node, selection of nodal voltages
and relevant source and resistance labels to work with.
V1 R3 V2
6Ω
Is1 Is2
R1 2Ω 4Ω R4 3Ω R5 10Ω
R2
4A 0.1A
Reference
Figure E3.10 (b)
Applying KCL using the format approach at node 1 gives:

( )
( )
………… (1)
12
Applying KCL using the format approach at node 2 gives:
( )
( )
………… (2)
Solving the equations simultaneously gives the voltage across the 3Ω resistor as:
Example 3.11
Find the voltage across the 4Ω resistor and current through the 5Ω resistor by nodal analysis (format approach) in the
network of figure E3.11 (a).
Figure E3.11 (a)
Solution
The diagram below shows the resulting rearranged circuit following the selection of a reference node, nodal voltages and
relevant resistance labels to work with. Note the two 5Ω resistors have been combined into a single equivalent 10Ω
resistor.

( )
( )
Thus,

( )
( )
Thus,

( )
( )
Thus,
Solving the equations simultaneously gives:

and
The voltage across the 4Ω resistor is given by
The current through the 10Ω resistor is given by
13
By VDR,
3.5 Delta/Star Conversions

In some circuit configurations, it may be difficult to identify series or parallel connections and this makes solving a problem
very difficult. To ease the problem some form of conversion may be required. Difficult circuit configurations result from
delta (∆) and start (┬) connections. Such connections and a circuit containing such connections are shown below.
A delta connection can be converted to a star connection and vice-versa without changing the behavior of the circuit.
Delta to Star Conversion

Consider the two circuits shown below and suppose their behavior is the same.
Considering the points a and b, the resistance as seen between the two points must be the same for both the delta and the
star configuration.
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Equating the two resistances gives
( )
Similarly
( )
( )
Eliminating R2 and R3 from the three equations gives
Thus in summary, the value of each resistor in the equivalent star connection is equal to the product of the resistances of the
branches of the delta connection divided by the sum of the resistances in the delta branches.
Star to Delta conversion

Alternatively, RB and RC, RA and RC, and RA and RB can be eliminated in turns to get expressions of R A, RB and RC
respectively in terms of R1, R2 and R3 (in terms of star resistances). The expressions are:
Thus the value each resistance of the equivalent delta connection is equal to the sum of the possible product combinations
of the resistances in the star connection divided by the value of the resistance furthest from the resistance to be determined.
Example 1
14
Find the total resistance in the network shown below.
Solution
The network is difficult to solve, hence the first step is to identify a delta or star connection and convert it to star or delta.
3Ω, 6Ω and 3Ω are connected in delta and can be converted to star connection to give the circuit shown below which is
simpler to solve.
Thus the total resistance is given by

( ) ( )
Example 2
Find the current drawn from the source by the network shown below.
Solution
The network is difficult to solve, hence the first step is to identify a delta or star connection and convert it to star or delta.
The internal 9Ω, 9Ω and 9Ω are connected in star and can be converted to delta connection to give the circuit shown below
which is simpler to solve.
similarly
and
Thus the total resistance is given by
( ) (( ) ( ))
Current drawn is given by
3.5.1 Bridge Networks

A bridge network is a network that appears as shown in any of the configurations shown below.
Bridges are often encountered in rectifying circuits for electronics and measurement circuits. A bridge can be found
connected to an energy supply as shown below.
15
A bridge can be analyzed using either mesh or nodal analysis to find voltages across and currents through various
components.
i. Balanced Bridge
A bridge is said to be balanced if the voltage across the bridging component (resistor R5 in our diagrams) is zero and
current through the component is zero. The potentials on either ends of the bridging component should be the same so that
there is a zero voltage across it, thus: .
Also since current in the bridging component is zero, current flowing in components on any side of the of the bridge are the
same, thus: and .
From the equality of voltages: and
If we let and then and .
Dividing the two expressions by each other gives . Hence in a balanced state of a bridge
ii. Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is an example of bridge that has a galvanometer as the bridging component. It is used as an instrument
for measuring with high accuracy. In the diagram below, it is employed to measure resistance. The resistors R 1, R2 and R3
are adjusted until no current flows in the galvanometer. Then, the bridge would be balanced. Thus, the unknown resistor
can be determined using the equation of a balanced bridge as follows:
If the bridge is not balanced, a current that depends on the internal resistance of the galvanometer flows through the bridge.
It is given by the expression: , where Rg is the galvanometer internal resistance and Vdb is the voltage across the
bridge with b taken to be at a higher potential.
16
4. NETWORK THEOREMS
4.1 Introduction
Network theorems are useful when considering the voltage across or current through one element. There are several
theorems that can be used. This section looks at some important theorems.
4.2 The Superposition Theorem.

The Superposition Theorem states that the voltage across or current through any element in a linear bilateral network is
equal to the algebraic sum of the voltages or currents produced independently by each source. The steps for its application
in a network are:
1. Remove all other sources living only one. To remove a voltage source, short-circuit it and to remove a current
source open-circuit it. Any internal resistance should remain.
2. Calculate the voltage or current due to the remaining source and note its polarity.
3. Repeat calculations for voltage or current for each of the remaining sources.
4. Add the voltages or currents taking note polarities to get the overall value for the element of interest.
Example 1
Determine the current through the 3Ω resistor using the superposition theorem in the circuit below.
6Ω
6Ω 18V
72V
3Ω
Solution
Current due to the 72V source:
6Ω
6Ω I/3
72V
3Ω
By CDR,
17
6Ω
6Ω 18V
I//3
3Ω
Hence,
Example 2
Using superposition theorem, find voltage across the 6Ω resistor. Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor.
12Ω
6Ω DC 9A
36V
Solution
Voltage due to the 36V source:
12Ω
6Ω
36V
By VDR,
Voltage due to the 9A source:

12Ω
6Ω DC 9A
By CDR,
Hence
Hence,
Power dissipated in 6Ω resistor
18
Example 3
In the circuit below, find the current through the 2Ω resistor using the superposition theorem. Calculate the power
dissipated in the resistor.
2Ω
2Ω DC 3A
6V
12V
Solution
2Ω
2Ω I/2Ω
12V
Current due to the 3A source:
2Ω
2Ω DC 3A
6V
By CDR,
2Ω
2Ω 3A
6V
Hence,
Power dissipated in 2Ω resistor
19
4.3 Thevenin’s Theorem
The Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor as shown below.
Rth
a
Eth RL
b
The voltage is called the Thevenin’s voltage (Eth) and the series resistance is called the Thevenin’s resistance (R th). The
values of Eth and Rth are chosen so that the equivalent circuit and original circuit have the same voltage-current effects on
the external load. Steps that are used to calculate Eth and Rth to ensure this are:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Thevenin’s circuit is to be found and label the resulting
terminals a and b.
2. Set all sources to zero and calculate the total resistance as seen from the terminals a and b. This resistance is the
Thevenin’s resistance.
3. Replace all sources and calculate the open circuit voltage across the terminals a and b. This voltage is the
Thevenin’s voltage.
4. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent with the portion of the network removed in step 1 replaced and use it to determine
required quantities as per the problem.
The Thevenin’s Theorem helps to concentrate on one element or portion of a circuit by representing the rest of the circuit
by an equivalent circuit, e.g., effect of variation of a load resistance on current through the load.
Example 4
Use Thevenin’s Theorem to find current through R for R values of 2,10 and 100Ω in the circuit below.
3Ω
6Ω R
9V
Solution
3Ω
a
Rth
6Ω
3Ω
a
6Ω
Eth
b
By VDR,
The overall circuit is shown below
20
2Ω
R
6V
Current through R is given by:
Hence,
Example 5
Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit for the network external to the 7Ω resistor in the circuit below.
12A 4Ω 7Ω
DC
Solution
2Ω
a
Rth
4Ω
2Ω
a
12A DC Eth
4Ω
All current from source flows through 4Ω resistor

Hence ,
21
6Ω
a
48V
b
Example 6
Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit for the network external to the 3Ω resistor in the circuit below.
4Ω 2Ω
3Ω 8V 2Ω
Solution
4Ω 2Ω
a a
6Ω Rth 2Ω 6Ω Rth 4Ω
b b
4Ω 2Ω
Eth
6Ω 8V 2Ω
By VDR,

2.4Ω
a
4.8V
Example 7
Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit for the network external to the resistor R in the circuit below.
6Ω 4Ω
R
72V
3Ω 4Ω
Solution
22
6Ω 4Ω
Rth
3Ω 4Ω
6Ω 4Ω
72V
Va Vb
3Ω 4Ω
By VDR,
By VDR,
Hence ,

4Ω
a
24V
23
Example 8
Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit for the network external to the 3Ω resistor in series with the 9V source in the circuit
below.
3Ω
12Ω 3Ω
6A 6Ω
DC
36V 9V
Solution
3Ω
12Ω a
Rth
6Ω b
Thevenin’s voltage is found by superposition

Voltage due to 6A source:
3Ω
12Ω a
6A
DC 6Ω E/th
b
All current from source flows through the 12Ω and 6Ω resistors
Hence ,
( )
Voltage due to 36V source:

3Ω
12Ω a
6Ω E//th
36V
b
24
By VDR,
Hence,
7Ω
a
36V
4.4 Norton’s Theorem

The Norton’s Theorem states that any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor as shown below. It is the dual of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
IN RN RL
IN is called the Norton’s equivalent current and RN is called the Norton’s resistance. The principles behind the Norton’s
Theorem are the same as those behind the Thevenin’s Theorem. The steps to find the Norton’s equivalent circuit are:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton’s circuit is to be found and label the resulting
terminals a and b.
2. Set all sources to zero and calculate the total resistance as seen from the terminals a and b. This resistance is the
Norton’s resistance.
3. Replace all sources and calculate the short circuit current across through the terminals a and b. This current
voltage is the Norton’s voltage.
4. Draw the Norton’s equivalent with the portion of the network removed in step 1 replaced and use it to determine
required quantities as per the problem.
The Norton’s equivalent circuit can be converted into a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and vice versa. The diagram below
illustrates the conversion process.
25
Rth
a
Eth RL
IN RN RL
Example 9
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network external to resistor R in the circuit below. Convert it to the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.
3Ω
6Ω R
9V
Solution
3Ω
a
6Ω RN
3Ω
6Ω IN
9V
No current flows through the 6Ω resistor under short circuit
condition
Hence,
The overall circuit and the corresponding Thevenin’s equivalent circuits are shown below.
26
a
3A 2Ω
Example 10
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network external to the 9Ω resistor R in the circuit below.
5Ω
DC
4Ω 10A 9Ω
Solution
5Ω
a
4Ω
RN
b
5Ω
DC
10A IN
4Ω
By CDR,
The overall circuit is shown below.

a
5.56A 9Ω
Example 11
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network on the left of points a and b in the circuit below.
27
a
4Ω 9Ω
4Ω
6Ω 10Ω
2Ω 8A
7V 12V
b
Solution
4Ω 4Ω
6Ω
2Ω
RN
b
Norton’s current is found using superposition

Short circuit current due to 7V source:
a
4Ω 4Ω
6Ω I’N
2Ω
7V
b
All short circuit current flows through the 4Ω resistors

Hence ,
Short circuit current due to 8A source:
28
a
4Ω
4Ω 6Ω
2Ω 8A
I’’N
b
4Ω and 6Ω resistors are short-circuited so that effectively, the circuit is made up of 4Ω and 2Ω. Short circuit current flows
through 4Ω resistor.
By CDR,
Hence
The overall circuit is shown below.
0.917A DC 1.714Ω
4.5 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that a load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral dc network
when its resistive value is exactly equal to the Thevenin’s (or Norton’s) resistance of the network as seen by the load.
Rth
a
Eth RL IN RN RL
For maximum power transfer,
Power at maximum power transfer is given by:
Efficiency at maximum power is given by:
29
A plot of load voltage, load current power and efficiency against load resistance are shown below.
VL
IL
PL
RTH = RL RN = RL
Maximum power transfer is seldom applied in power transmission because of 50% losses. It is employed in electronic
circuits where 50% loss is tolerable.
Example 12
Determine value of RL for maximum power transfer and calculate the power in the circuit shown below.
0.5Ω
RL
12V
Solution
Circuit is already in form of a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, hence for maximum power transfer,
Value of the power
Example 13
30
10mA 40kΩ RL
Solution
Circuit is already in form of a Norton’s equivalent circuit, hence for maximum power transfer,
Value of the power
Example 14a
6Ω 8Ω
12V 3Ω RL
Solution
Calculating the Thevenin’s resistance to get value of R L at maximum power:
6Ω 8Ω
a
12V 3Ω RTH
6Ω 8Ω
a
ETH
12V 3Ω
31
By VDR,
Value of the power
Example 14b
3Ω 68V
RL
6A 10Ω
2Ω
Solution
Calculating the Norton’s resistance to get value of RL at maximum power:
3Ω
RN
10Ω 2Ω
Finding Norton’s current using superposition:

3Ω 68V
10Ω I’SC
2Ω
Current due to the 6A source:
32
3Ω
I’’SC
6A 10Ω
2Ω
( )
By CDR,
Hence,
4.6 Other Theorems

Other theorems that may be used in circuit analysis are the Substitution Theorem, the Millman’s Theorem and the
Reciprocity Theorem. You may research on them if you wish!!!!!!
33
5. CAPACITANCE
CAPACITANCE
Electric Field
An electric field is the region around a charged particle or body in which an electric force can be experienced.
The force is experienced by other charged bodies placed in the field. The electric field is represented by means
of lines called flux lines, as shown in figure 5.1. The flux lines point in the direction of the field. The direction is
defined as to be from a positively charged body to the negatively charged body. Flux lines always extend or
terminate perpendicular to the charged surfaces, and never intersect.
Figure 5.1
Repulsion and attraction between charges can be explained using the characteristics of electric flux lines as
illustrated in figure 5.2.
34
Figure 5.2 (a) Attraction between unlike charges Figure 5.2 (b) Repulsion between like charges
Electric Flux
Flux can be defined as the measure of the electric field in terms of both strength and extent. It can be loosely
linked to the total number of flux lines in the field. It is defined to be equivalent to the charge on the body. The
symbol is Ψ, and the SI unit is the Coulomb (C). Thus .
Flux Density
Flux density is the flux per unit cross sectional area (number of flux lines per unit cross sectional area). The
symbol is D and the units are C/m2. Mathematically, .
Electric Field Strength

By definition, electric field strength is the force acting per unit charge placed in the electric field. The symbol is
ξ and the units are N/C or V/m. Mathematically, .
From Coulomb’s Law, the force on a charge Q2 placed in the electric field produced by a charge Q1 and a
distance r from Q1 is given by: .
Hence, for unit charge, .
Thus, electric field strength in the field of a charge is given by: . Thus, electric field strength varies
proportional to charge on the body and inversely proportional to the distance from the charge.
Capacitance
The descriptions of the previous section concentrated on isolated charges; however, they can be applied to
charged surfaces of any size and shape. For example, consider two parallel plates separated by an insulator and
connected to a battery through a switch and a resistor as shown in figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3
When the switch is open, the plates have no net charge. When the switch is closed, electrons are drawn from the
upper plate through the resistor and battery to the lower plate resulting in a surge of current limited by the
35
resistor. This creates a positive charge on the upper plate and an equal negative charge on the lower plate and
hence a potential difference across the two plates. The transfer of electrons continues until the p.d. across the
plates is exactly equal to that of the battery. The final outcome is that the device has stored positive charge on
the upper plate and negative charge on the lower plate.
The device that has been produced from the two parallel plates is called a capacitor. A capacitor can be
formally defined as a device that stores electric charge. Its primary quantity is the capacitance, which is defined
as the measure of the ability of the device to store charge. It is the amount of electric charge that the device
stores per unit voltage across it. The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad (F) and the symbol is C. A capacitor has
a capacitance of 1F if 1C of charge is deposited on the plates by a p.d. of 1V across the plates. A Farad is too big
as compared to typical capacitance values, hence the most commonly used units are µF (10-6) and pF (10-12).
The circuit symbols for capacitors are shown in figure 5.4.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 5.4 Capacitor symbols (a) fixed (b) fixed with polarity (c) variable (d) variable with polarity
The capacitance is mathematically expressed as: .
In between the two plates is an electric field, as illustrated in figure 5.5.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.5 (a) Field without fringing (b) Field with fringing
The flux density between the two plates is quite uniform. At the edges of the plates, the flux lines do bulge out,
producing an effect called fringing. Fringing reduces capacitance somewhat, but for most practical applications
it can be neglected. Mathematically, the electric field strength is given by:
, where V is the voltage across the plates and d is the distance between the two palates.
36
Dielectrics
It is an insulating material placed between the two plates of the capacitor. The particular dielectric used
determines the value of the capacitance, thus, capacitance of the same plates varies with the type of material
used as the dielectric. To explain how a dielectric operates to determine capacitance, consider the diagram
shown in figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6
Due to charge on the plates, the electrons and protons of constituent atoms shift to form dipoles, but without
leaving the parent atoms. The net result is creation of a layer of positive charge on the surface of the dielectric
close to the negative plate and a layer of negative charge on the other surface. The material is then said to be
polarized. The layers of charge establish a field that opposes the field due to the plates. This gives the name
dielectric (di – opposing). The dielectric field causes a decrease in the overall field (from the level when the
material between the plates is free space (air)). If the voltage across the plates and the distance between the
plates is kept constant, then the electric field strength should remain constant as determined by the voltage
across and the separation of the plates as per formula. To ensure this, more charge flows to the plates to increase
the field strength back to the value determined by the formula. This results in an increase of charge stored hence
the ability to store charge (capacitance) of the plates.
An increased charge on the plates means an increase of the electric flux and hence flux density (since the
overlapping area of plates remains constant).
Permittivity
It is a measure of the ability of dielectric to permit establishment of electric flux in it. Mathematically it is
defined as:
, where ε is the permittivity, D is the flux density and ξ is the electric field strength. The units are
Farads/meter (F/m).
37
The permittivity for vacuum (free space) is 8.85 × 10-12F/m. Relative permittivity is the ratio of the permittivity
of a material to that of free space. Relative permittivity is used to enable easy expression of the extreme values
in which permittivity naturally occurs. Relative permittivity is also known as the dielectric constant.
Mathematically, the dielectric constant is given by: , where εr is the relative permittivity, ε is the
permittivity of the dielectric and εo is the permittivity of free space.
Table 1 below gives dielectric constants and dielectric strengths for various materials.
Table 1 Relative permeabilities and dielectric strengths for some dielectrics.

Dielectric εr (Average value) Dielectric Strength
(Volts/mil)
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.0006 75
Bakelite 7.0 400
Barium-strontium titanite (ceramic) 7500 75
Distilled water 80.0
Glass 7.5 3000
Mica 5.0 5000
Paper, paraffined 2.5 1300
Porcelain 6.0 200
Rubber 3.0 700
Teflon 2.0 1500
Transformer oil 4.0 400
Capacitance from Physical Construction of a Capacitor

Capacitance can be determined from the physical construction of a capacitor. The formula is derived as follows,
for a capacitor with capacitance C, flux density D, electric flux Ψ, electric field strength ξ, overlapping area, A,
distance between plates, d , charge on plates, Q and voltage across plates V:
( )
( )
( )
( )
Now,
38
Hence ,
and thus
EXAMPLE 5.1
A capacitor has an overlapping area of 0.01m2, a plate separation of 1.5mm with a Bakelite dielectric.
a) What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
b) Determine the electric field strength between the plates if 450V are applied across the plates.
c) Find the resulting charge on the plates.
SOLUTION
a) Capacitance,
b) Electric field strength,
c) Charge stored,
Dielectric Strength
For every dielectric, there is a potential that if applied across the dielectric, bonds within the dielectric atoms
will break resulting in free electros that cause current to flow. When breakdown occurs, a capacitor will have
characteristics very similar to those of a conductor. A typical example of dielectric breakdown is lightning
which occurs when the potential between the clouds and the atmosphere is so high that charge can pass from the
clouds to the earth.
Another interesting consequence of dielectric strength is seen in the variation insulation required in power
networks with the voltages of the system. The type and thickness of insulators and separation of conductors in
air depends on the system voltage to avoid dielectric breakdown of the insulator/air.
The breakdown of a dielectric is specified using the dielectric strength. Dielectric strength is defined as the
voltage per unit length (electric field strength) required to establish conduction in a dielectric. Dielectric
strengths for some dielectrics are shown in table 1 in the previous section. The values are given in V/mil. 1mil =
0.001inch, 1inch = 2.54cm and 1m = 39.371inches. Conversion to V/m can, thus be done.
39
EXAMPLE 5.2
Find the maximum voltage that can be applied across a 0.2µF capacitor having a plate area of 0.3m 2. the
dielectric is porcelain. Assume a linear relationship between the dielectric strength and the thickness of the
dielectric.
SOLUTION
From the formula for a capacitor separation of plates,
Converting d to mils,
Hence maximum voltage across capacitor
Leakage Current
So far, descriptions centered on an ideal capacitor. In reality, there are free electrons in every dielectric due in
part to impurities in the dielectric and forces within the material itself. When a voltage is applied across the
plates of a capacitor, a leakage current due to the free electrons flows from one plate of the capacitor to the
other. The current is small, however, so that it can be ignored for most practical applications.
Leakage current is modeled as a resistor connected parallel to the capacitor as shown in figure 5.7. Typical
values of the resistance are 100MΩ.
Leakage resistances are responsible for the discharge of a capacitor when a charged capacitor is disconnected
from a voltage supply. A current will flow through the leakage resistor thus discharging the capacitor.
40
Figure 5.7
Stray Capacitances
These are capacitances that occur not through design but simply because two conducting surfaces are relatively
close to each other. For example two conducting wires in the same network will have capacitive effects between
the lines. Another example is the capacitive effects that occur between the conducting surfaces of a transistor.
Yet another example of stray capacitive effects is between the coils of an inductor. The diagram in figure 5.8
illustrates stray capacitances.
Figure 5.8 Stray capacitances
Transients in Capacitive Networks

Transients refers to the initial response of an element to an excitation. An excitation is an input to the system. In
electrical systems, excitation is normally a current or voltage signal input into the system. Any system will
exhibit an initial response to the excitation and then settle into a final response called the steady state response.
Consider the circuit diagram shown in figure 5.9. It shows an initially uncharged capacitor connected to a dc
network controlled by a switch.
41
Figure 5.9
If the switch is thrown into position 1, current will flow through the resistor and the capacitor so voltage across
the capacitor terminals builds up to the battery voltage. The period when the current is still flowing and the pd
across the capacitor is still rising defines the transient period. After some time, the current ceases and the pd
across the capacitor settles to a value equal to the voltage of the battery. This latter period defines the steady
state response period.
If the switch is then thrown into position 2 (capacitor having charged up), current flows through the capacitor
and the resistor in a direction opposite to the charging current so as to make the voltage across the capacitor
decay to zero. The period when the current is still flowing and the voltage is dropping is the transient period and
the period when the current has ceased and pd across the capacitor has dropped to zero is the steady state period.
There are, thus, two kinds of transients in capacitive networks connected to a dc network: charging transient and
discharging transient. Before looking at each of these transients, we will look at the instantaneous current
flowing through a capacitor.
The instantaneous current through a capacitor

Current is defined as the rate of change (flow) of charge. In the limit, current through a capacitor is thus defined
as , where q is charge on the capacitor (at that instant).
Now, charge on a capacitor is given by, , where C is the capacitance of the capacitor and vc is the
voltage across the capacitor
Hence, instantaneous current through the capacitor is given by, .
Charging Transient
Consider the circuit shown in figure 5.10.
42
Figure 5.10
Applying KVL:
The current in the circuit, which is a series circuit is the current, ic, that flows through the capacitor, hence
Substituting using gives
Using the initial conditions vc=0 at t=0, and solving the differential problem gives
( )
The current through the capacitor is given by
( ( ))
, where , and is the maximum value of current in the circuit.
The voltage across the resistor is given by
It is noted that the voltage across the capacitor rises exponentially, while the current through the capacitor and
the voltage across the resistor drop exponentially.
The Time Constant
43
The factor, RC, in the above expressions is of particular note. It is called the time constant of the system. From
the analysis of exponentials, it is the time taken by a quantity to fall by 63.2% of its value (or fall to 36.8% of its
initial value). Alternatively, it the time taken by a quantity to rise to 63.2% of its final value). Time constant is
given the symbol τ, and its units are seconds. Mathematically, .
The equations for the voltage across the capacitor, voltage across the resistor and current through the capacitor
can be expressed in terms of the time constant as shown below:
( )
Analysis of the exponential function

If the values of current as a percentage of the maximum current are evaluated at integral multiples of time
constants, values shown in the table below are obtained.
Time Percentage Magnitude
0 100
τ 36.8
2τ 13.5
3τ 5.0
4τ 1.8
5τ 0.67 (less than 1%)
6τ 0.24
A table showing percentages within each time constant can also be constructed as shown below.
Period Change as a Percentage of
Maximum Magnitude
(0→1) τ 63.2
(1→2) τ 23.3
(2→3) τ 8.6
(3→4) τ 3.0
(4→5) τ 1.2
(5→6) τ 0.4 (less than 1%)
It is noted that after five time constants, the value of current is less than 1% of its initial value, and further
changes in subsequent time constants are less than 1%. The value of current can thus be considered to have
stopped changing and settled to the final value of zero.
Similar analysis of voltage across the capacitor shows that the value will rise to practically its maximum final
value, E, after five time constants. Similarly, the voltage across the resistor drops to zero volts after five time
constants. In general, the transient period is said to practically end after five time constants.
44
Plot of the transient period
The voltage across the capacitor, voltage across the resistor and current through the capacitor can be plotted as
shown in figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11
EXAMPLE 5.3
Find the mathematical expressions for the transient behavior of vc, ic and vR for the circuit shown in figure
E5.3(a) when the switch is moved to position 1. Plot the curves for vc, ic and vR.
Figure E5.3(a)
SOLUTION
By substitution into the general equations, the expressions are:
( )
45
( ( )
( ) (
The plot of the signals are shown in figure E5.3 (b).
Figure E5.3(b)
The Discharging Transient

Suppose that in the circuit shown in figure 5.12, the capacitor is initially charged up so that the voltage across it
is initially E. The moment the switch is closed, the capacitor will discharge through the resistor as illustrated in
the circuit diagram. The discharge current flows in a direction opposite the charging current so that the pd across
the resistor becomes reversed and is opposite to that of the capacitor.
46
Figure 5.12
Applying KVL:
Substituting for using gives
Using the initial conditions vc=E at t=0, and solving the differential problem gives
The current through the capacitor is given by
( )
, where , and is the maximum value of current in the circuit.
The voltage across the capacitor drops exponentially, while the current through the capacitor and the voltage
across the resistor drop exponentially.
47
The time constant is defined similar to the charging case, that is, . In terms of the time constants, the
equations for the voltage across the capacitor, voltage across the resistor and current through the capacitor are:
Just like in the charging case, transients practically die down after five time constants. Thus, the capacitor can be
said to be fully discharged after five time constants.
The diagram shown in figure 5.13 shows the plots of the voltage across the capacitor, voltage across the resistor
and current through the capacitor. Note that the voltage across the resistor is equal to the voltage across the
capacitor but with an opposite polarity. The current through the capacitor has an opposite polarity to that of the
voltage across the capacitor. The current is of same polarity with the voltage.
Figure 5.13
If the capacitor is continuously charged and discharged, for example using the circuit shown in figure 5.14(a)
where the switch is alternated between positions 1 and 2, then the waveforms shown in figure 5.14 (b) will be
obtained.
48
Figure 5.14(a) Figure 5.14(b)
In the diagram of figure 5.14 (a), the switch is toggled after a complete charge or discharge of the capacitor (i.e.
after every five time constants). The pd across the capacitor, the pd across the resistor and the current through
the capacitor will not drop to zero in the waveforms. If the switch is toggled before a complete charge up (or
discharge), then the discharge expressions will be as follows where Vi is the voltage across the switch at the
moment the discharge begins.
Similarly, expressions for charging up will be as follows where Vi is the voltage across the switch at the moment
the charging up begins.
( )
49
EXAMPLE 5.4
In the circuit diagram of figure E5.4, the voltage across the capacitor is initially 40V. Find the mathematical
expressions for the transient behavior of vc, ic and vR when the switch is moved to position 2. Plot the curves for
vc, ic and vR.
Figure E5.4(a)
SOLUTION
( ) (
The plot of the signals are shown in figure E5.4(b).

50
Figure E5.4(b)
EXAMPLE 5.5
For the network shown in figure E5.5(a)
a) Find the mathematical expression for the transient behavior of vc if the switch is thrown into position 1 at t=0s.
b) Repeat part (a) for ic
c) Find the mathematical expression for the transient behavior of v c and ic if the switch is thrown into position 2
after five time constants
d) Find the mathematical expression for the transient behavior of v c if the switch is thrown into position 2 at t=1τ of
the charging phase.
e) Plot the waveforms obtained in parts (a) and (c) on the same time axis for the voltage v c and current ic.
f) Plot the waveforms obtained in parts (a) and (c) on the same time axis for the voltage v c and current ic.
Figure E5.5(a)
51
SOLUTION
Initially the current source is converted to a voltage source as shown in figure E5.5(b).
Figure E5.5(b)
a) ( )
( ) )
( )
( )
b)
( )
c) After five time constants, vc=20V.

( )
( ) )
52
( )
d) After one time constant

( )
( )
( )
( ) )
( )
e) The plot is shown in figure E5.3(c)
f) The plot is shown in figure E5.3(d)
53
Figure E5.5(c)
Figure E5.5(d)
Capacitors in Parallel and in Series

The total of capacitances in parallel is given by:
The total of capacitances in series is given by
Figure 5.15
Series parallel connections of capacitors can be combined into a total capacitance by using analysis similar to
that for resistors. Parallel combinations or series combinations are combined so that the network is simplified in
stages as shown in figure 5.16.
54
Figure 5.16
Energy Stored by Capacitor

A capacitor stores the energy delivered to it. The amount of energy stored is given by the formula:
, where C is the capacitance of the capacitor, V is the voltage across the capacitor
and Q is the charge stored on the capacitor.
55
6. MAGNETISM
MAGNETISM
Introduction
Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used in industry, research, or the home.
Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape recorders, and telephones all
employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important tasks. Thus, it is important to be able to analyze
magnetic circuits. Interestingly, there is a great similarity between the analyses of electric circuits and magnetic
circuits. So it should be easy to adapt from electrical to magnetic circuits.
A magnet has two poles, a north pole and a south pole. Like poles repel while unlike poles attract. A magnet can
either be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is the region surrounding a magnet in which a magnetic force can be experienced. The
magnetic force is experienced by current carrying conductors or magnetic materials placed in the field. A
magnetic field is represented by magnetic flux lines. Magnetic flux lines exist as continuous loops. They radiate
from the north pole to the south pole returning to the north pole through the magnet itself. Figure 6.1 illustrates
magnetic flux lines.
Figure 6.1 Flux lines around a magnet
The number of flux lines per unit cross sectional area indicates the strength of the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux lines will distribute themselves uniformly in homogenous materials; each line will strive to
occupy as small an area as is possible. These properties of the flux lines can be used to explain the forces
between like and unlike poles as illustrated in figure 6.2.
56
Figure 6.2 Forces between unlike and like poles of magnets
Magnetic flux lines pass with greater ease through magnetic materials than through non-magnetic materials. As
a result, if a magnetic material is placed in the path of magnetic flux lines, flux lines will pass through the
material rather than the surrounding air and if a non-magnetic material is instead placed in the path, there will be
unnoticeable changes in the flux line distribution. Figure 6.3 illustrates this. This principle is used in magnetic
screening of sensitive electrical elements and instruments that can be affected by stray magnetic fields.
Figure 6.3 Effects of magnetic and non-magnetic materials on magnetic flux lines
Magnetic Effects of a Current

Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
A current carrying conductor has an associated magnetic field. The direction of the field is given by the right
hand rule which states that
57
If the conductor is gripped with the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of the
current in the conductor then the direction of the other fingers give the direction of the field.
Figure 6.4 illustrates the magnetic field around a current carrying conductor.
Figure 6.4 The field around a current carrying conductor
Magnetic Field around a current carrying coil

If a current carrying conductor is made into a turn of one coil, the resultant magnetic field will be in one
direction through the center of the coil. A coil of more than one turn will produce a magnetic field that would
exists in a continuous path through and around the coil as illustrated in figure 6.5(a).
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5 Magnetic field around a current carrying coil
The magnetic flux distribution around current carrying coil is similar to that of a bar magnet. The field due to a
coil only is weak. It can be improved by placing ferromagnetic materials inside the coil as illustrated in figure
6.5(b). Such a material that is inserted in a coil is called a core, and the resulting magnet is called an
electromagnet.
The direction of the field is given by the right hand rule which states that
58
If the conductor is gripped with the right hand, with the fingers pointing in the direction of the
current in the coils then the thumb points in the direction of the North Pole (filed inside the coil).
Figure 6.5 also illustrates how the direction of the field in a coil is determined.
Magnetic Quantities
Magnetic Flux
Every magnetic field is said to have what is called magnetic flux. Magnetic flux can be defined as the measure
of the magnetic field in terms of both strength and extent. It can be loosely linked to the total number of flux
lines in the field. The symbol is Ф, and the SI unit is the Weber (Wb).
Flux Density
Flux density is the flux per unit cross sectional area (number of flux lines per unit cross sectional area). The
symbol is B and the units are Teslas (T). 1T = 1Wb/m2.
Mathematically, .
EXAMPLE 6.1
Find the flux density in the core of figure E6.1.
Figure E6.1
SOLUTION
Magneto motive force (mmf)

Magneto motive force (mmf) is the external “force” required to establish magnetic flux in a material. A symbol
that is also normally used is Ƒ. Based on electromagnets, it is mathematically defined as:
, where I is the current pert turn of the coil, and N is the number of turns in the coil of the
electromagnet.
59
The definition gives the SI unit as the Ampere-turn (At). However, the unit is essentially amperes since number
of turns is dimensionless. Ampere-turn is used to differentiate from a purely electrical quantity.
Across a length of a material in a magnetic field, is thus, an mmf (as much as there is a voltage across a current
carrying element).
Magnetizing Force
Magnetizing force is defined as the mmf per unit length of the magnetic path (in a material). The symbol is H
and the SI unit is At/m. Based on a homogenous material, magnetizing force is mathematically defined as:
Magnetizing force is also known as the magnetic field strength. Magnetizing force is independent of the type of
the core material. It is solely determined by the current, number of turns and the length of the material.
EXAMPLE 6.2
Determine the magnetizing force for the magnetic circuit in figure E6.2.
Figure E6.2
SOLUTION
Permeability
Permeability is a magnetic property of materials. It is defined as the measure of the ease with which magnetic
flux lines can be established in a material. It is analogous to conductivity in electric circuits. The symbol is µ
and the SI unit is Wb/Am.
60
The permeability for free space is denoted by µo and its value is 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am.
Based on permeability
1. Diamagnetic materials are materials whose permeability is slightly less than that of free space.
2. Paramagnetic materials are materials whose permeability is slightly greater than that of free space.
3. Ferromagnetic materials are materials whose permeability is hundreds of times more than that of free space.
Practically speaking the permeabilities of non-magnetic materials is the same as that of free space.
Relative permeability, denoted by the symbol µr is the ratio of the permeability of a material to that of free
space. Mathematically, it is given by:
Relative permeability is a variable that depends on other quantities of the magnetic circuit and so its values are
not tabulated.
Reluctance
Reluctance is the opposition to the setting up of magnetic flux in a material. Mathematically it is determined as:
, where l is the length of the material, A is the cross sectional area of the material and µ is the
permeability of the material.
Reluctance is analogous to resistance in electrical circuits. The SI unit for reluctance is At/Wb.
The inverse of reluctance, which is analogous to conductance, is called permeance.
Relationship between Magnetic flux density and Magnetizing force.

The flux density and the magnetizing force are related by the equation:
Ohm’s Law for Magnetic Circuits

In magnetic circuits, the cause is mmf, the effect is flux and the opposition is reluctance. Hence, Ohm’s Law for
magnetic circuits can be expressed as:
61
EXAMPLE 6.3
In the ring of figure E6.2, the cross sectional area is 4mm2 and the relative permeability is 2000. Determine flux
and flux density in the ring.
SOLUTION
Hysteresis
Hysteresis describes the behavior of flux density (B) for a medium as magnetic field strength (H) is varied. It
can be experimentally demonstrated by varying magnetic field strength and measuring corresponding magnetic
flux density values, and then plotting the two on a graph. Magnetic field strength can be varied by varying the
current through a coil wound round a core, as shown in figure 6.6(a), and can be calculated from the current
value and the number of turns in the coil. The results of the experiment are illustrated in figure 6.6(b).
Suppose the current is varied within the amplitude limits shown in figure 6.6(a), and assume the core is initially
unmagnetised. If H is slowly increased to the amplitude, H1, B is found to increase along the curve oa in figure
6.6(b). If H is reduced to zero, B is found to decrease along the path abc. At H = 0, B has a none zero value, Br.
This flux density value is called residual flux density, defined as the magnetic flux density that remains in the
core after the magnetizing force has been removed. If H is now reversed and increased in the reverse direction
(reverse current), B is found to decrease along curve cd, and becomes zero when H has reached a value of –Hc.
This value of H is called the coercivity or coercive force, defined as the value of reverse magnetizing force
required to completely demagnetize a core. If H is further increased in the reverse direction to -H1, B will
increase in the reverse direction along the path de. If H is reduced back to zero and then increased to H1, B
decreases and increases also and along the path efga'. The loop is observed not to close on itself.
62
Varying H for another magnetizing cycle results in the final operating point a''. It is observed that a'' is closer to
a' than a' to a. More magnetizing cycles will result in closer and closer successive final operating points and
after a few cycles, the loop virtually closes on itself. The closed loop is called a hysterisis loop.
It is noted that throughout the whole cycle of magnetization, B lags behind H. This lagging phenomenon in the
magnetic core is what is called hysteresis. It is also noted that the relationship between B and H is non-linear.
Since permeability relates B to H, it follows that it is multi-valued with the value depending on the operating
point.
Another observation is that if the magnetizing force is continually increased, the flux density will eventually
reach a saturation level.
i
I1,H1
I
I1,H1
(a)
Magnetisin
a g curve
B B
a'
b
c
Br
a''
d g
O H O
H
-Hc -Hc Hc
(b) (c)
Figure 6.6 Magnetisation of a material (a) a core-coil assembly and variation of magnetizing force in the core,
(b) hysteresis, (c) family of hysteresis loops.
63
Magnetization Curve
If the amplitude of the magnetizing force is varied, different sizes of hysteresis loops for the same material are
obtained. The various loops for the different magnetizing force amplitudes are referred to as a family of
hysteresis loops. Figure 6.6(c) shows a family of hysteresis loops. The locus of the tips is called the
magnetization curve. When a magnetic material is magnetized from zero, its B-H curve follows the
magnetization curve.
By definition, permeability is the ratio B/H on the magnetization curve. Since the variation of B with H is non-
linear, the value of permeability varies with operating point. However, the value can reasonably assumed to be
linear for low values of H. It also follows that reluctance varies with the magnetic flux density in the material.
The magnetization curves for cast iron, cast steel and silicon sheet steel are shown in figure 6.7.
B (Teslas)
1.4
Sheet steel
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
Cast steel
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 Cast iron
0.1
H (At/m)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Figure 6.7 Magnetization curves.
The Domain Theory

The domain theory can be used to explain magnetism. The orbiting electrons in atoms are also spinning as they
revolve around the nucleus. Due to this spinning of electrons, an atom will have an associated magnetic field. In
non-magnetic materials, the net magnetic field is zero since the magnetic fields due to the atoms oppose each
other. In magnetic materials, magnetic fields of groups of atoms numbering in the order of 1012 are aligned,
forming very small bar magnets called domains. For a non-magnetized material, the domains appear in random
64
manner so that the net field in any one direction is zero. When an external magnetizing force is applied, domains
that are nearly aligned to the magnetizing force will grow at the expense of the less favorably oriented domains
so that further increase of the magnetizing force causes no increase in flux density, explaining saturation.
Eventually if a sufficiently strong magnetizing force is applied, all the domains will have the orientation of the
applied magnetizing force, and any further increase in the external field will not increase the strength of the
magnetic flux, a condition referred to as saturation. Figure 6.8 illustrates the theory.
Figure 6.8 The domain theory to explain magnetism.
When the magnetizing force is removed, some domains will return to the misaligned state while some remain
aligned explaining residual magnetism.
Analysis of Magnetic Circuits

Equivalent Magnetic Circuit
Pathways through which magnetic fluxes have been established can be represented by an equivalent circuit that
looks like an electrical circuit. The mmf sources are represented using sources analogous to voltage sources
while their respective reluctances represented by symbols analogous to resistances. Flux takes the place of
current. Figure 6.10 illustrates how magnetic pathways can be transformed into an equivalent circuit.
Figure 6.9 Transformation of magnetic pathways into equivalent circuits
Ampere’s Circuital Laws

In magnetic circuits, there are two laws that are analogous to Kirchhoff’s Laws. These are:
1. The algebraic sum of mmf rises and mmf drops around a closed magnetic loop is equal to zero. For mmf sources,
the mmf “rise” is given by . The mmf drops in a magnetic circuit are given by as according to Ohms Law.
65
Alternatively it can be given by where H is the magnetizing force in a homogenous section of length l.
Normally, B will be known and then H can be determined from the magnetization curve.
2. The sum of fluxes entering a junction is equal to the sum of flux leaving a junction.
Figure 6.9 illustrates the two laws.
Figure 6.10 Ampere’s Circuital Laws
Once magnetic pathways have been transformed into an equivalent circuit then the methods of electrical circuit
analysis can be used to solve them.
EXTENSION WORK
Make an effort to work out quantities in magnetic circuits using the two Laws stated above.
Illustrations of Magnetic Circuits
66
Figure 10(a)
Figure 10(b)
67
7. INDUCTANCE
INDUCTANCE
Introduction
So far two components have been looked at: the resistor and the capacitor. We will look at a third component
called the inductor. An inductor is basically a coil of a conductor. Often a ferromagnetic core is placed in the
coil to improve the inductance. Its primary quantity is inductance. An inductor is basically a coil of a conductor.
Its primary quantity is called inductance.
Faraday’s Law of Inductance

If a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, a voltage will be induced across its ends. Cutting involves either the
conductor moving in a magnetic field, a magnetic field moving across a conductor or the magnetic field
changing in strength. The induced voltage is proportional to the number of flux lines cut per unit time, i.e., the
greater the speed or the faster the field changes, the greater the voltage.
If a coil cuts the magnetic field, a voltage is likewise induced across its terminals. The induced voltage is given
by the expression , where e is the induced voltage, N is the number of turns in the coil and ϕ is the flux
linking the coil.
Flux linking a coil means flux within the coil. As long as there is a change in flux linking the coil, a voltage will
be induced across its ends.
Lenz’s Law
It states that an induced effect is always such as to oppose the cause that produced it. Induced voltage in a coil
moved relative to a magnetic field will be such as to oppose the relative motion. Induced voltage in a coil placed
in a changing magnetic field will be such as to oppose the change in the magnetic field.
The Inductor Case

Current flowing in an inductor (coil) produces a flux line distribution around the coil. The flux depends on the
current flowing through the coil and is a constant distribution for a given current value. If current the changes,
then flux will also change. Changing flux causes induction of a voltage to counter the change in flux. Thus the
induced voltage will be of such a polarity to produce a current opposite to the initial change of current. This all
happens instantaneously.
Thus an inductor opposes an “instant” change in current flowing through it. It is said to “choke” a change in
current and may also be referred to as a choke.
68
Note that a capacitor opposes a change of voltage across it.
Self-Inductance
It is a measure of the ability of a inductor to oppose any change in current through it. It is often simply called
inductance. The symbol is L and the units are Henries (H). Inductance can be calculated from the physical
dimensions and properties of materials making up the inductor. A formula that gives a close approximation is:
, where N is the number of turns in the coil, A is the cross sectional area of the coil,
l is the length of the coil and μ is the permeability of the core placed in the coil as illustrated in figure 7.1.
(a) (b)
Figure 7.1 (a) Physical dimensions of a coil (b) Inductor symbol.
In the second expression, μr is relative permeability of the core and μo is the permeability of free space
(approximately of air). Hence the inductance can also be expresses as , where Lo is the inductance of a
coil with an air core.
Inductors
An inductor is a component designed to offer inductance in a circuit. Inductors as fixed or variable with air core
or ferromagnetic core. An ideal inductor will only feature purely inductance. A practical inductor has a
resistance because it is made from a conductor as well as stray capacitance in addition to the inductance.
Practically, an inductor is modelled as shown in figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 A practical inductor.
The primary quantity of an inductor is inductance. Resistance and capacitance are usually omitted so that the
symbols given in figure 7.3 are used for the various types of inductors.
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(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7.3 Symbols of inductors (a) air core (b) iron core (c) variable by moving core in coil
EXAMPLE 7.1
Figure E7.1 shows an air-core inductor
a) Determine the inductance
b) Determine the inductance if an iron core with relative permeability of 2000 is inserted in the coil.
Figure E7.1
SOLUTION
( )
a)
Inductance,
b) The new inductance,
Induced Voltage
Inductance is also defined as the rate of change of flux linking a coil per unit current. Mathematically, .
Now the induced voltage across the inductor is given by
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The expression gives the voltage induced across an inductor. The polarity of the induced voltage will be
opposite the source that produced it.
EXAMPLE 7.2
Find the waveform for the average voltage across the coil if the current through a 4mH coil is as shown in
figure E7.2.
Figure E7.2(a)
SOLUTION
From 0 to 2ms, the rate of change of current is 0, hence induced voltage is 0mV.
From 2 to 4ms, the rate of change of current is 5A/s, hence induced voltage is 20mV
From 4 to 9ms, the rate of change of current is -2A/s, hence induced voltage is -8mV
From 9ms to inifinty, the rate of change of current is 0, hence induced voltage is 0mV
The voltage waveform is shown in figure E7.22(b)
Figure E7.2(b)
Inductive Transients
Just like in capacitive networks, there are two kinds of transients in inductive networks connected to a dc
network: charging transient and discharging transient.
Storage Phase
Consider the circuit shown in figure 7.4.
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Figure 7.4
When the switch is closed, current will begin to flow. The inductance of the circuit will prevent an instantaneous
increase of current so that iL will gradually rise from zero to the maximum given by . Likewise the voltage
across the inductor will drop from E to zero. The voltage across the resistor will rise from zero to the maximum
E. The storage phase will end when the values of current through and voltage across the inductor stop changing
at which point the inductor will be storing some energy in its magnetic field.
The expressions for the currents and voltages during the charging transient are derived using the Kirchhoff’s
Laws. Applying KVL:
Hence
Substituting using gives
Using the initial conditions iL=0 at t=0, and solving the differential problem gives
( ( ⁄ )
) ( ), where and .
τ is the time constant of the circuit. It has the same definition as the one used for capacitive networks, only
differing on how it is determined for inductive circuits. Just like in capacitive networks, transients virtually die
down after five time constants.
The voltage across the inductor is given by
( ( ))
( )
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The voltage across the inductor drops exponentially while the current through the inductor and the voltage
across the resistor rise exponentially. The behavior shares same aspects as that for capacitive networks. It seems
the inductive circuit response is the inverse of that of a capacitive network.
Plot of the transient period

The current through the inductor, voltage across the inductor and voltage across the resistor when plotted against
time appear as shown in figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5
EXAMPLE 7.3
Find the mathematical expressions for the transient behavior of i L and vL for the circuit shown in figure E7.3.
Sketch the resulting curves.
Figure E7.3(a)
SOLUTION
( )
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( ( ), measured in mA.
( )
( ( )
The plot of the signals are shown in figure E7.3(b).
Figure E7.3(b)
Decay Phase
To study the decay phase of an inductive circuit we will use figure 7.6. The switch is initially closed until the
inductor is fully charged after which it is opened so that the inductor can discharge. Resistor R2 provides a
closed path for the inductor to discharge through and at a controlled rate.
(a) (b)
Figure 7.6 (a) Complete circuit (b) isolated circuit
When the switch is opened, in the resulting discharge circuit, .

Since the discharge circuit is a series circuit ( ).
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After the storage phase is complete, the inductor current will be given by . The current through an inductor
cannot change instantaneously but the voltage can. When the switch is opened, the current has to continue
flowing but the inductor voltage changes polarity. Thus at the start of the decay phase, the inductor voltage is
given by:
( ) ( ).
This value is bigger than the supply voltage.
The voltage across and the current through the inductor will then decay to zero in an exponential manner. The
expressions are also derived using the Kirchhoff’s Laws but noting that the initial voltage across the inductor is
given by ( ) and the time constant is given by .
Current through the inductor is given by:
, where .
The voltage across the inductor is given by
The voltage across the resistor R1 is given by
The voltage across the resistor R2 is given by
Figure 7.7 shows the plots of the current through the inductor, the voltage across the inductor and the voltage
across the resistor during a decay phase.
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Figure 7.7
EXAMPLE 7.4
Resistor R2 is added to the network of example 7.3 to give the circuit shown figure E7.4(a)
a) Find the mathematical expressions for iL, vL and vR2 after the storage phase has been completed and the switch is
opened.
b) Sketch the waveforms for each of voltage and current for both phases covered by this example and example 7.3 if
five time constants pass between phases. Use the polarities given.
Figure E7.4 (a)
SOLUTION
Time constant for the decay phase
The initial voltage across the inductor following opening of the switch, ( )
Hence
The maximum current after charging up,
Hence , measured in mA.
It follows also that and
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The plots are shown in figure E7.4 (b)
Figure E7.4(b)
Isolated Inductor
In an inductor, energy is stored in the magnetic field. Therefore, an isolated inductor cannot store energy unlike
a capacitor. This is so because there will not be any current to maintain the field. If a circuit containing a coil is
abruptly broken, current is forced to zero in a very short time. Energy in the inductor has to be also discharged
within that very short instant. This results in large voltages across the coil terminals and a spark as the as the
circuit is broken. This concept is used in spark plugs to ignite fuel in petrol engines. (You may be proved using
the formula by substituting R2 with a value of infinity for an open circuit across the two inductor terminals.
Inductors in Parallel and in Series

The total of inductances in series is given by:
The total of inductances in parallel is given by
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Series parallel connections of inductors can also be combined into a total inductance by using analysis similar to
that for resistors. Parallel combinations or series combinations are combined so that the network is simplified in
stages.
Energy Stored by an Inductor

An inductor capacitor stores the energy delivered to it. The amount of energy stored is given by the formula:
, where L is the inductance of the inductor, Im is the maximum current that resulted from
the storage phase.
R-L-C Circuits with dc Inputs

After all transients have died out, current through an inductor is constant and current through a capacitor is zero.
Hence for all practical purposes an inductor can be replaced by a short circuit and a capacitor can be replaced by
an open circuit as long as the transients have died out. These replacements can then be used to analyze circuits
containing resistors, inductors and capacitors in the steady state.
EXAMPLE 7.5
Find the current iL and voltage vC for the network shown in figure E7.5(a).
Figure E7.5(a) Figure E7.5(b)
SOLUTION
Figure E7.5(b) shows the circuit with the inductor replaced by a short circuit and the capacitor by an open
circuit.
Using the normal analysis methods for dc circuits, iL =2A and vC = 6V.
EXAMPLE 7.6
Find the currents I1 and I2, and voltages V1 and V2 for the network shown in figure E7.6(a).
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SOLUTION
Figure E7.6(b) shows the circuit with the inductor replaced by a short circuit and the capacitor by an open
circuit.
Using the normal analysis methods for the resulting dc circuits, I1 = I2 = 5A; V1 = 40V and V2 = 35V.
79
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Introduction
In dc circuits, currents and voltages are fixed in magnitude except during the transient period. The shift is now
to analyze circuits whose sources have currents and voltages that vary in set manners. These sources are said to
be alternating.
The term alternating refers to a voltage or current whose magnitude alternates between two prescribed levels in
a set time sequence. Examples are shown as waveforms in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Alternating current waveforms
Of particular interest is the sinusoidal waveform. It is encountered in a vast majority of instances. It is also the
only waveform whose shape is not affected by the resistor, inductor and capacitor. As such it is the only
waveform we will study in this course. The other reason for studying sinusoidal ac is that all other signals can
be expressed as sums of sinusoids and hence their analysis can be derived from an analysis of the sinusoid,
which we can refer to as the basic waveform.
The term alternating current is used to refer to the sinusoidal waveform. Other waveforms frequently have the
term ac dropped to become for example rectangular waveform, triangular waveform e.t.c. The sinusoidal
waveform is then just called ac voltage or ac current.
Alternating current is available from ac generators and in in controlled form from signal generators (based on
oscillators).
Definitions
The sinusoidal waveform shown in figure 8.2 will be used as a model in defining a few basic terms. These terms
can be applied to any other alternating waveform. The vertical axis can be in current or voltage.
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Figure 8.2 The sinusoidal waveform
1. Waveform is the path traced by a quantity, such as voltage or current, plotted as a function of some variable such
as time, position, temperature e.t.c.
2. Instantaneous value is the magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time. It is denoted by lowercase letters like
e1 and e2 in figure 8.2.
3. Peak amplitude is the maximum value of a waveform measured from its average or mean value. It is denoted by
an uppercase letter such as Em for source voltage, Vm for a voltage drop and Im for a current. The average of a
sinusoidal waveform is zero and peak amplitude is defined by Em as shown in figure 8.2.
4. Peak value is the maximum instantaneous value of a function as measured from the zero-volt level. In figure 8.2
the peak value and the peak amplitude are the same because the mean is at zero-volt line.
5. Peak-to-peak value is the full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the waveform. It is denoted by Ep-p,
Vp-p and so on.
6. Periodic waveform is a waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time interval.
7. Period is the time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform. It is denoted by T.
8. Cycle is the portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
9. Frequency is the number of cycles that occur in 1s. Frequency is denoted by f. The unit of frequency is the hertz
(Hz). It is defined as: .
Frequency and period are related by the equation: .
EXERCISE
1. Find the period of a periodic waveform with a frequency of (a) 60Hz, (b) 1000Hz.
2. Determine the frequency of the waveform shown in figure E8.1.
Figure E8.1
Defined Polarity
It is necessary to have a defined polarity for ac especially if multisource networks are considered. Polarities are
defined as illustrated in figure 8.3. Lowercase letters are employed to label ac sources to show that the quantity
changes with time.
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Figure 8.3
The positive terminal is positive when the signal is positive and the negative terminal is negative when the
signal is negative. These are not actual polarities but defined polarities so that there can be a reference between
different sources.
General Format of ac
When ac is plotted, the horizontal axis can be in terms of angles instead of time, usually the angle is measured in
radians. This is illustrated in figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4
The angle, α is a function of time and is defined by the equation , where ω is called the angular velocity,
that is the rate at which angles are being completed (measured in rad/s). Completion of one ac cycle implies
completion of 2π radians, hence angular velocity for ac is defined by the equation .
It can be shown that the waveform of ac can be obtained by plotting the vertical projection of a radius vector of
length Am rotating at an angular speed ω as illustrated in figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5
82
The vertical projection at any given time is given by the expression: , where α is the angle the radius
makes with the positive horizontal direction. Thus if the radius starts from a horizontal orientation at t = 0, the
value of the ac at any given time is given by the expression: .
The expression above is the general expression for an ac waveform. Am is the peak amplitude. For electrical
quantities the following expressions are used to represent ac:
EXERCISE 8.2
1. Sketch with the abscissa in (a) degrees, (b) radians (c) seconds.
2. Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the ac function is 4V. Determine the time at which
this magnitude is attained.
3. Given , determine i at t =2 ms.
Phase Relations
Not all ac waveforms are zero with a positive going slope at t = 0. The waveform can be shifted to the left or
right from this particular shape at t = 0. When a waveform is shifted this way, the expression for it becomes
( ), where θ is the angle by which the waveform is shifted. θ is positive when the waveform is
shifted to the left and negative when the waveform is shifted to right. Figure 8.6 shows shifted waveforms with
corresponding radius vectors at t = 0.
Figure 8.6.
The angle θ is known as the phase angle. Normally the phase angle must be expressed in the range .
Any phase angle outside this range may be manipulated to be within the range by adding or subtracting
multiples of . Note this action preserves the value of the sine wave as according to Mathematics. Some
important geometric relations are:
83
( )
( )
( )
( )
The cosine waveform is also a sine waveform and can be expressed as: ( ⁄ )
( ).
Leading and Lagging

These are terms used to describe the phase relationship between two ac waveforms of the same frequency. The
leading waveform is the one that reaches the maxima first and the lagging waveform is the one that reaches the
maxima next. In terms of phase angles, the leading waveform has a greater phase angle than the lagging
waveform.
The difference between the phase angles of two waveforms is known as the phase difference. If the phase
difference is zero, then the waveforms are in phase. Else, they are out of phase. If the phase difference is π, the
waveforms are said to be anti-phase.
EXERCISE 8.3
1. What is the frequency of the following waveforms
a) ( )
b) ( )
c) ( )
2. What are the phase relations of each of the following sets of waveforms(which waveform leads the other one and
by what angle)? Determine the phase difference and plot the waveforms on the same axis.
a) ( ); ( )
b) ( ); ( )
c) ( ); ( )
d) ( ); ( )
e) ( ); ( )
Average and Effective Values and Power of ac

Average Value
The average of an ac waveform is found by integrating over a complete cycle and dividing by the period. The
average of an ac waveform evaluates to zero.
84
Effective Value
The effective value of an ac is the dc equivalent value that gives the same average power as the ac waveform.
For an ac waveform instantaneous power is given by
Now current is expressed as ( )
Hence instantaneous power is given by ( )

Average ac power is found by integrating the instantaneous power over a period and diving by the period, which
evaluates to
For a dc source driving the same resistance, power is given by .
Equating the two expressions of power, the equivalent dc source is found to be rated as: .
√
The equivalent dc rating is called the effective current of the ac, written as .
Effective values are called rms values from the way they are derived. They are related to the peak values and the
relating equations are:
For voltage: ,
√ √
For current:
√
Effective values of ac are used to quote ac signals and we will use them in our analysis in this course. Normally
the subscripts are left out when referring to rms values so that they are simply stated as V, E or I.
To get peak amplitude values, the following relationships can be used:
For voltage: √ , √
For current: √
General Expression for average power of ac

Consider a circuit shown as a block in figure 8.7. Assume the current and voltage are sinusoidal and given by
the general expressions ( ) and ( ).
85
Figure 8.7
The average power associated with the circuit is derived as follows:
∫ ( ) ( )
( )
( )
√ √
( ) (in rms terms).
The difference in phase angles of current and voltage is called the phase difference and is expressed as .
The cosine of the phase difference, ( ) is known as the power factor of the circuit. The power factor is
said to be lagging if current lags voltage and leading if current leads voltage.
EXERCISE 8.4
Find the effective values of the sinusoidal waveforms shown in figure E8.4.
Figure E8.4
EXERCISE 8.5
A 120V dc source delivers 3.6W to a load. Determine the peak values of ac voltage and current of an ac source
that will deliver the same power to the same circuit.
EXERCISE 8.6
Calculate the power factor and average power dissipated by each of the following circuits:
a) ( )
( )
b) ( )
( )
86
c) ( )
( )
d) ( )
( )
Phasors
It has already been illustrated how an ac waveform can be derived from a rotating radius vector. This radius
vector, having a constant magnitude with one end fixed at the origin is called a phasor when applied to ac
circuits. Phasors are represented in diagrams as “snapshots” of the radius vector at time t = 0. Figure 8.8
illustrates a phasor diagram for a sinusoid ( ).
Figure 8.8
If the diagram is taken to be a complex plane where real numbers are on the horizontal axis and imaginary
numbers are on the vertical axis, the phasor can be represented mathematically as a complex number (in
rectangular or polar format). This representation of an ac quantity as a complex number helps ease the analysis
of ac circuits. A slight change to the methods used to analyze dc circuits is only required before the methods
become applicable to ac circuits.
Since ac values are quoted as rms values, the phasor magnitudes are redefined to be rms values of voltages and
currents to be represented. The waveform in figure 8.8 is represented as .
√
EXAMPLE 8.7
1. Express the following waveforms in phasor form
a) √ ( )
b) ( )
c) ( )
2. Write the expressions for the following phasors if the frequency is 60Hz.
a)
b)
SOLUTION
1.
√ ( )
a)
√
b)
√
c) ( ) ( ) ( )
Hence, phasor form
√
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2.
a) √ ( ) ( ) ( )
b) √ ( ) ( ) ( )
Phasor Diagram
A phasor diagram is a diagram showing relative magnitudes and relative positions of various phasors of the
same frequency.
EXAMPLE 8.7
1. Find the input voltage of the circuit shown in figure E8.7(a). Draw a phasor diagram showing how the voltages
relate. Sketch the waveforms on the same axis.
Given: ( ) and ( )
2. Determine the current i2 in figure E8.7(b). Draw a phasor diagram showing how the three currents relate. Sketch
the waveforms on the same axis.
Given: ( ) and ( )
SOLUTION
1. In phasor form, and
By KVL,
In time domain the waveform is: ( )

The phasor diagram is shown in figure E8.7(c). You may draw the waveforms as exercise.
2. In phasor form, and

By KCL,
In time domain the waveform is: ( )

The phasor diagram is shown in figure E8.7(d). You may draw the waveforms as exercise.
88
Figure E8.7(c) Figure E8.7(d)
Response of the Basic Elements

Response of a resistor
For frequencies from zero to a few hundred kHz, resistance is unaffected by frequency for all practical purposes,
and hence is a constant. Application of Ohm’s Law (figure 8.9) gives:
, where .
Hence, voltage across a resistor and current through it are in phase as illustrated in figure 8.9
Figure 8.9
The opposition to the flow of ac through a resistor is resistance as given by:
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If phasors of current and voltage are used to determine the resistance, then resistance is given by:
Hence, resistance can also be expressed as a complex number. Although it uses the same format as phasors, it is
not a rotating vector. It is fixed in the positive real axis of the complex plane. The term phasor is limited to
currents and voltages only.
Power dissipated by a resistor is given by , where V and I are rms values of the voltage and current (you mat
derive this from the general expression).
Response of an Inductor
Suppose the current through an inductor is given by as illustrated in figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10
The voltage across the inductor will be given by:
( )
( )
Thus, voltage across an inductor leads the current by 90º as shown in figure 8.10.
The opposition to the flow of ac through an inductor is called inductive reactance and is given by . The
SI unit is the Ohm (Ω).
90
Using phasor analysis, the reactance is derived as:
The inductive reactance is a fixed radius in the positive imaginary axis of the complex plane. The magnitude of
the reactance depends on the inductance as well as the frequency. As frequency increases, the reactance
proportionally increases.
By using the general expression for average power dissipated in an ac circuit it is found that the average power
dissipated by an inductor is zero. Hence, inductive reactance does not dissipate energy. It only causes energy to
be exchanged between the inductor and a source. In one part of the cycle, energy flows into the inductor and in
the next part, it flows back to the source from the inductor.
Response of a Capacitor
Suppose the voltage across a capacitor is given by as illustrated in figure 8.11.
Figure 8.11
The current through the capacitor will be given by:
( )
( )
Thus, current through a capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90º as shown in figure 8.11.
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The opposition to the flow of ac through a capacitor is called capacitive reactance and is given by .
The SI unit is the Ohm (Ω).
Using phasor analysis, the reactance is derived as:
The capacitive reactance is a fixed radius in the negative imaginary axis of the complex plane. The magnitude of
the reactance depends on the capacitance as well as the frequency. As frequency increases, the reactance
decreases.
Just like in an inductor, the average power dissipated in a capacitor in an ac circuit is zero. Hence, capacitive
reactance also does not dissipate energy. It only causes energy to be exchanged between the capacitor and a
source.
EXERCISE 8.8
1.
a) The current through a 5Ω resistor is ( ). Find the sinusoidal expression for the voltage
across the resistor.
b) The current through a 0.1H inductor is ( ). Find the sinusoidal expression of the voltage
across the inductor. What is the magnitude of the inductive reactance?
c) The current through a 100μF capacitor is ( ). Find the sinusoidal expression for the voltage
across the capacitor. Obtain the capacitive reactance.
2. For the following pairs of voltages and currents, determine whether the element involved is a capacitor, inductor
or resistor and determine the values of C, L or R.
a) ( ); ( )
b) ( ); ( )
c) ( ); ( )
d) ( ); ( )
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BASIC ANALYSIS OF ac CIRCUITS
Impedance
Impedance is a measure of how a circuit will impede or hinder the flow of current through it. Impedance is
measured in ohms (Ω). The symbol for impedance is Z. The impedance is defined by any one or a combination
of one or more of the basic components of circuits and as such is a complex number. Impedances of the
individual elements are:
Resistance:
Inductive reactance:
Capacitive reactance:
It should be noted that impedance is not an alternating quantity but a fixed radius at an angle to the real axis in
the complex plane.
Impedance can be expressed as a complex number in polar or rectangular format, that is:
The angle associated with the total impedance of a circuit is called the impedance angle and is the angle by
which the applied voltage will lead the current for the circuit. For inductive circuits, θT is positive while for
capacitive networks, θT is negative.
Impedance Diagram
It is a complex plane in which impedance is shown. As already alluded to earlier, resistances are in the positive
real axis, inductive reactances in the positive imaginary axis and capacitive reactances will be in the negative
imaginary axis. As such the impedance angle is between -90º and +90º.
Series Configuration
The total impedance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual impedances in series:
.
EXAMPLE 9.1
Determine the input impedance to the series network of figure E9.1(a). Draw the impedance diagram.
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Figure E9.1(a)
SOLUTION
The impedance diagram is shown in figure E9.1(b).
Figure E9.1(b)
Voltage Divider Rule

Just like in dc circuits, the VDR is expressed as follows:
, where Vx is the voltage across one or more elements in series that have total impedance Zx, E
is the total voltage across the series circuit and ZT is the total impedance of the series circuit.
EXAMPLE 9.2
Using voltage divider rule, find the unknown voltages, VR, VL, VC and V1 for the circuit in figure E9.2.
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Figure E9.2
SOLUTION
Total impedance of the circuit,
Using VDR,
EXAMPLE 9.3
For the circuit in figure E9.3,
a) Calculate I and determine VR, VL and VC using Ohm’s Law.
b) Calculate the total power factor.
c) Calculate the average power delivered to the circuit.
d) Obtain the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC and show that it equals the input voltage E.
e) Find VR and VC using VDR.
f) Draw the phasor diagram for the voltages in the circuit.
95
Figure E9.3
SOLUTION
Combining common elements in the series circuit gives: ; ;
Determining total inductive and capacitive reactances:
Total impedance of the circuit,
Source voltage in phasor form,
a)
By Ohm’s Law:
b) Total power factor ( ( ))

lagging
c) Total power delivered

( ( ))
Try parts (d), (e) and (f) as exercise.

96
Admittance and Susceptance
Admittance is a measure of how well an ac circuit will admit or allow current to flow in the circuit. It is
measured in Siemens (S). The symbol is Y. Admittance is equal to the reciprocal of impedance, i.e. . It is
also a complex number.
In our studies of dc, conductance was also defined to be equal to the reciprocal of resistance. We introduce
another term, susceptance. Susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance. It is defined as a measure of susceptible an
element is to the passage of current through it. It is measured in Siemens(S) and the symbol is B. The
susceptances of the basic elements are:
For inductor:
For capacitor:
The admittances of the basic elements can then be defined as:
Resistance:
Inductive reactance:
Capacitive reactance:
The angle associated with the total admittance for any circuit is the angle by which current leads the voltage in
the circuit. For inductive circuits, the angle is negative while for capacitive networks it is positive.
Admittance Diagram
It is a diagram on which admittance is drawn and in the complex plane. Conductances are in the positive real
axis, capacitive susceptances are in the positive imaginary axis while inductive susceptances are in the negative
imaginary axis.
Parallel Configuration
The total admittance for components connected in parallel is the sum of the individual admittances:
In terms of impedances:
For two impedances in parallel:
EXAMPLE 9.4
97
For the network in figure E9.4(a)
a) Determine the input admittance
b) Calculate the input impedance
c) Draw the admittance diagram,
Figure E9.4(a)
SOLUTION
a) Total admittanc
b) Total impedance
c) The admittance diagram is shown in figure E9.4(b)
Figure E9.5(b)
EXERCISE 9.5
For the network in figure E9.5, determine the input admittance.
Figure E9.5
98
Current Divider Rule
Just like for dc circuits, the CDR is expressed as follows:
, where Ix is the current through a branch of impedance Zx, Ix is the total current into the
parallel circuit and ZT is the total impedance of the parallel circuit.
For two branches in parallel:
and
EXAMPLE 9.6
Using the current divider rule, find the current through each branch of the network in figure E9.6
Figure E9.6
SOLUTION
Equivalent Circuits
In an ac circuit total impedance of two or more elements is equivalent to an impedance that can be achieved
with fewer components of different values, the element and their values being determined by the frequency.
Equivalent circuits will have the same terminal characteristics. Frequency has to be constant; if it changes
reactances of each element change and this may affect the whole circuit. The equivalent series network can be
determined by computing the total impedance of the network
99
EXAMPLE 9.7
For the network in figure E9.7(a)
a) Determine total admittance and sketch the admittance diagram.
b) Find E and IL.
c) Compute the power factor of the network and the power delivered to the network.
d) Determine the equivalent series network as far as the terminal characteristics are concerned.
e) Repeat (b) and (c) using the equivalent series circuit and compare results.
f) Determine the equivalent parallel circuit.
g) Repeat (b) and (c) using the equivalent series circuit and compare results.
Figure E9.7(a)
SOLUTION
In phasor form,
Angular frequency
Similar elements are first combined so that total respective impedances of the components are computed as:
Resistances branches:
Inductances branches:
Capacitances branches:
a) Total admittanc
b)
c) Do as exercise.
100
d) Total impedance
Resistance of the equivalent circuit is 3.283Ω.

The reactive part is inductive with reactance of 3.939Ω. The corresponding inductance is 3.939mH.
The equivalent circuit is shown in figure E9.7(b)
Figure E9.7(b)
e) Do as exercise.
f) Do as personal research
g) Do as exercise
Series-Parallel ac Networks
Just like when working with dc series-parallel networks, following the following steps is helpful:
5. Redraw the network employing block impedances to combine obvious series and parallel elements to reduce the
network to one that clearly reveals the fundamental structure of the system.
6. Study the problem and make a brief mental sketch of the overall approach you plan to use. This may result in time
and energy saving short cuts.
7. After the overall approach has been determined, consider each branch involved in your method independently
before tying them together in series-parallel combinations.
8. When you have a solution, check that it is reasonable considering the magnitudes of the energy source and the
circuit elements.
A couple of examples will now be used to illustrate the analysis of series-parallel networks.
EXAMPLE 9.8
For the network shown in figure E9.8(a),
a) Calculate the current I.
b) Find the voltage Vab.
Figure E9.8(a)
101
SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn as shown in figure E9.8(b).
Figure E8.9(b)
Hence
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
By Ohm’s Law,
Using VDR in figure 9.8(a) and taking reference point as given:
Hence
102
EXAMPLE 9.9
For the network of figure E9.9,
a) Compute I
b) Find I1, I2 and I3.
c) Verify KCL by showing that
d) Find the impedance of the circuit.
Figure E9.9(a)
SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn as shown in figure E9.9 (b).
Figure E9.9 (b)
a) Total admittance
103
Current,
b) Using Ohms Law for the parallel circuit
c) Verify KCL as an exercise.

d) Total impedance of the circuit,
EXAMPLE 9.10
a) Calculate the total impedance ZT.
b) Compute I
c) Find the total power factor.
d) Calculate I1, I2.
e) Find the average power delivered to the circuit.
Figure E9.10(a)
SOLUTION
104
Figure E9.10 (b)
a) Total admittance
b)
c) Power factor ( ( ))
d) By CDR:
EXAMPLE 9.11
a) If I is , calculate I1 and I2
b) Verify KCL at one node.
Figure E9.11(a)
105
SOLUTION
Figure E9.11(b)
a) By CDR:
b) Do as exercise.
Ladder Networks
Ladder networks were covered in detail under dc circuits. The same steps are followed only that resistance is
replaced by complex impedance. The work on this section is left for you to cover on your own.
106
POWER in ac CIRCUITS
Introduction
Consider the configure shown in figure 12.1
Figure 12.1
The voltage is given by ( )

The current is given by ( )
The impedance is given by
It is noted that
The power delivered to the load at any instant is given by
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
The first term is noted to be the average power as already derived in previous topics. The third and term terms
vary at twice the frequency of the applied voltage with peak values and respectively.
Resistive Load
For a purely resistive circuit, v and i are in phase, hence θ = 0º. The power at any instant then becomes:
( )
A sketch of the power against time is shown in figure 12.2. The power is time varying at a twice supply
frequency. All the power dissipated is dissipated as heat in the resistor and no power is returned to the source.
107
Figure 12.2
The average power dissipated in the resistor is given by:
The total energy dissipated is given by .
Inductive Load
For a purely inductive circuit, v leads i by 90º, hence θ = 90º. The power at any instant then becomes:
frequency. In one half of the cycle power is absorbed by the inductor while in the second half, it is returned to
the source so that the net power flow into the inductor over a cycle is zero and power factor is zero. No energy is
lost in the transaction.
Figure 12.3
108
The peak value of the curve VI is called the reactive power associated with the pure inductor. It is the amount of
power that is exchanged between the inductor and the source. The symbol is Q and the units are the volt-ampere
reactive (VAR). For a pure inductor, the reactive power is calculated as:
Capacitive Load
For a purely inductive circuit, v lags i by 90º, hence θ = -90º. The power at any instant then becomes:
frequency. In one half of the cycle power is absorbed by the inductor while in the second half, it is returned to
the source so that the net power flow into the inductor over a cycle is zero and power factor is zero. No energy is
lost in the transaction.
Figure 12.4
The capacitor, like the inductor is also associated with a reactive power representing the amount of power that is
exchanged between the capacitor and the source. For a pure capacitor, the reactive power is calculated as:
Apparent Power, Real Power and Reactive Power for a Load

Apparent Power
Apparent power is the product of the rms values of voltage and current of a circuit (refer to figure 12.1). The
symbol is S and the units are volt-amperes (because it’s just a product of current and voltage). This product does
not give the power associated with the circuit, hence the name apparent. The actual power dissipated depends on
the power factor of the circuit.
109
Apparent power is a power rating of significant usefulness in description and analysis of sinusoidal ac networks
and in the maximum rating of a number of electrical components and systems. In general, equipment is rated in
Vas or kVAs. Given the power rating and the supply voltage, one can get the rated current. For example a
device rated at 10kVA / 200V has a maximum current rating of .
The magnitude of apparent power can be evaluated using:
Average Power
It is power that is delivered to, and dissipated in the load. It is also called the real power. The symbol is P and
the units are watts (W). It is evaluated using:
Reactive Power
It is the power that is exchanged between a load and the source. It is associated with reactive components within
the load. The symbol is Q and the units volt-ampere reactive. It can be capacitive or inductive reactive power. It
is evaluated using:
The significance of reactive power may be explained using a consumer connected to a power utility. Figures
12.3 and 12.4. will be used. During the storage part of the cycle, the consumer in addition to the power he uses,
also takes in the power to be stored in the reactive components. This has the effect of requiring more generation
of energy from the source. As a result the consumer will also pay for energy he does not use.
Power Factor
The power factor of a circuit is the ratio of the average power to the apparent power. It is determined as:
Power factor is said to be leading when current leads voltage and lagging when current lags voltage.
For a pure resistor, power factor is unity, .
For a pure inductor, power factor is zero lagging , .
For a pure capacitor, power factor is zero leading, .
110
Other loads that have a mixture of both resistive and reactive components have power factors in the between 0
and 1 leading or lagging depending on the nature of the load.
Power factor shows how much of the apparent power is used in the load and thus is an indication of how
reactive or resistive a circuit is. Power factor is required to be as close to unity as possible so that least amount
of current is taken for maximum power. Maximum possible power of an appliance is equal to the rated apparent
power but is only achieved when power factor is unity, (otherwise equipment may be damaged). Operating at
low power factors requires more current to reach the same power (provided it does not exceed ratings).
Increased current implies higher ratings of supply equipment. Suppliers of power charge for apparent power to
reflect the equipment ratings used as well as to encourage operation at power factors close to unity.
The Power Triangle

Apparent power, real power and reactive power can be expressed as vector quantities, where power P is in the
positive horizontal axis, inductive real power (denoted here as QL) is in the positive vertical axis and capacitive
reactive (denoted here as QC) power is in the negative vertical axis. Figure 12.5 illustrates the idea.
Figure 12.5
The diagrams also show that S, P and Q can be related in the form of a triangle. Such a triangle is called a power
triangle. In circuits with both capacitive and inductive components, the vertical axis is the overall reactive power
found by subtracting capacitive reactive power from inductive reactive power as figure 12.6 shows.
Figure 12.6
Mathematically, from the triangle relationship:
111
The Total P,Q and S
The total number of watts, volt-ampere reactive and volt amperes of a any system can be found using the
following procedure:
1. Find the total real power and reactive power for each component of the network (add all regardless of whether
they are connected in series or parallel).
2. The total real power of the system, PT is the sum of the average power delivered components.
3. The total reactive power QT is the difference between the total of the reactive power of inductive loads and total of
reactive power of capacitive loads.
4. Total apparent power of the circuit will be given by √ .
5. The total power factor is given by .
EXAMPLE 12.1
Find the total number of watts, VARs, VAs and the power factor for the network in figure E12.1(a). Draw the
power triangle and find the current in phasor form.
Figure E12.1(a)
SOLUTION
Total real power,
Total reactive power,
Total apparent power, √ ( )
112
Power factor,
Figure E12.1(b) shows the power triangle.
Figure E12.1 (b)
The current in phasor form, ( )
EXAMPLE 12.2
Find the total number of watts, VARs, VAs and the power factor for the network in figure E12.2(a). Draw the
power triangle.
Figure E12.2(a)
SOLUTION
113
Total impedance of circuit,
Current,
Total real power,
( )
Total apparent power,
Power factor,
114
Figure E12.2 (b)
EXAMPLE 12.3
For the system shown in figure E12.3(a),
a) Find the average power, apparent power and reactive power and power factor for each branch.
b) Find the total number of watts, VARs, VAs and the power factor of the system. Sketch the power triangle.
c) Find the source current.
Figure E12.3(a)
SOLUTION
a) Bulbs:
Heating elements:
Motor:
( )
115
( )
Capacitive load:
Total impedance of branch,
Current,
( )
( )
( )
b) Total real power,

( )
Total apparent power, √
Power factor,
116
Figure E12.1 (b)
c) The source current, ( )
EXAMPLE 12.4
An electrical appliance is rated 5kVA, 100V at 0.6 power factor lagging. What is the impedance in rectangular
format?
SOLUTION
I lags V by
Hence,
Impedance,
Power Factor Correction

It has already been stated that power factor needs to be close to unity. However, most loads are inductive so that
power factor may be of low lagging value. To make power factor close to unity capacitive loads (in this case)
are added to the system so as to reduce the magnitude of the overall reactive power and in the process improving
the power factor.
The act of introducing reactive elements to bring the power factor close to unity is called power-factor
correction. As exercise, find out how the reactive elements to be added are selected (that is calculation of the
ratings of elements to be added).
117
APPENDIX A DETERMINANTS
A. 1 Introduction
In circuit analysis, simultaneous equations may result. Determinants can be used to solve simultaneous equations,
especially when their number is high. Also, determinants can be easily developed into computer algorithms that may be
used to simplify calculations. A determinant is a rectangular array of elements that can be evaluated into a single value. By
convention, the array is enclosed between two vertical lines as shown below.
| |, | |, and | |
They are respectively 2×2, 3×3 and 4×4 determinants.
A. 2 Evaluation of a 2×2 determinant

The formulae is
| |
Example
| |
| | ( ) ( )
| |
It should be noted that if any row or column contains zeros only, the determinant is zero.
A. 3 Evaluation of a 3×3 determinant

For any determinant, each element in a determinant has an associated sign. Beginning with a positive at the first row, first
column position, the signs alternate between positive and negative as shown below going along the rows.
| |, | |, and | |
For a 3×3 matrix the determinant is then evaluated as follows

1. Take any row or column.
2. For each element position in the row or column, delete the row and column containing the element position and
evaluate the resulting 2×2 determinant.
3. Multiply each 2×2 determinant by the element in that position and then the result by the associated sign.
4. Sum up the products to get the value of the 3×3 determinant.
Example A1
In the examples, the first row is used as follows:
| | ( )| | ( )| | ( )| |
118
| | ( )| | ( )| | ( )| |
Note that if a row with some zeros is chosen, the amount of working is reduced as any zero element results in a zero
product for the particular element position.
A. 4 Determination of higher order determinants

The same procedure as for 3×3 determinants is followed. For example, in a 4×4 determinant, 3×3 determinants are obtained
for each element in a row or column, multiplied by the element and the associated sign as shown below.
| | | | | | | | | |
The 3×3 determinants are evaluated as already described.
With higher orders, thus, the determinant is broken down into lower and lower order determinants till it is made up of 2×2
determinants only that are easy to evaluate.
A. 5 Use of Determinants to solve Simultaneous Equations

Arrange the equations so that the same unknowns are in the same column viz for three unknowns:
The following equations can then be used to evaluate the unknowns
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Note that the denominator is a determinant formed from the coefficients of the unknowns and the numerator is the
determinant of coefficients but the corresponding column of the unknown has been replaced by the constants. The idea can
be relevantly applied to equations with more than three elements.
Example A2
Solve for x, y and z in the following simultaneous equations.
119
Rearranging equations gives
The solutions are then:

| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
120

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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FUCULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

TEE1103 Electrical Engineering Circuit Analysis Course Outline

1 Introduction and a Review of Electricity

Basics of circuit analyses (dc)

Methods of Circuit Analysis (dc)

Network Theorems (dc)

1.1. Measurements and System of Units

1.1.1 Scientific Notation

1.1.2 Engineering Notation

Scientific calculators make conversions to engineering or scientific form quite easy.

1.1.3 Notes on using formulae

1.2. Understanding Electricity

1.1.4 Review of Atomic Structure

Neutrons are neutral; electrons carry a negative charge Protons and

1.1.5 Static Electricity

1.1.6 Current Electricity

Figure 1.2 Current electricity

1.1.7 Direct Current and Alternating Current

1.1.8 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

1A is equivalent to a charge flow of 1C/s thus: 1A = 1C/s.

A number of terms are applied to this subject matter. These are:

ρ is a characteristic of the material called the resistivity. It

Figure 1.4 Resistance of a materaial.

1.4.1 Temperature Effects

1.4.3 Conductance and Conductivity

, where σ is conductivity. Conductivity is the reciprocal/inverse of resistivity. The

1.5 DC Electrical Supplies

1.5.1 Voltage Source

i. Ideal Voltage Source

ii. Practical Voltage Source

1.5.2 Current Source

i. Ideal Current Source

ii. Practical Current Source

1.5.3 Source Conversions

b) Source resistance of the corresponding voltage source,

1.6 Ohm’s Law

1.6.1 Plotting Ohm’s Law

For electrical circuits, work, hence:

Power delivered by an electrical energy source is given by:

Similarly, substituting for I using gives:

Figure 1.9 Efficiency

Efficiency of such a device is defined as:

Figure 1.10 Efficiency of cascaded blocks.

Voltage Sources and Ground

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.5 An example of a circuit with branches.

RT1 RT2 For branch containing R5 and R6,

Using Ohm’s Law, voltage across R3,

Power dissipated in R2,

Voltage Sources in Series

In figure 2.6 (a), In figure 2.6 (b),

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Figure 2.7 Application of KVL.

Mathematically, KVL is expressed as: ∑

Applying KVL to loop 2:

Interchanging Series Elements

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)