General Physics Experiment

Handouts

Edited on 2022.08.30
 Table of Contents

Common Experiments ......................................................................................................................... 2

Hooke’s law and the simple pendulum ...................................................................................... 2
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Basic experiments 1-1 .......................................................................................................................... 7
Moment of inertia and angular momentum .............................................................................. 7
Basic experiments 1-2 ........................................................................................................................ 11
Friction coefficient and surface tension ................................................................................... 11
1-2-1 The friction coefficient experiments ....................................................................... 11
1-2-2 Surface tension experiments .................................................................................... 13
Basic experiments 1-3 ........................................................................................................................ 17
Instantaneous velocity and constant acceleration motion ...................................................... 17
Basic experiments 1-4 ........................................................................................................................ 22
Simple harmonic oscillation and torsion ................................................................................. 22
l Simple harmonic oscillation .................................................................................. 22
l Torsion............................................................................................................................. 26
Appendix ..................................................................................................................................... 29
Basic experiments 1-5 ........................................................................................................................ 30
Circular motion and centripetal force...................................................................................... 30

1
 Common Experiments

Hooke’s law and the simple pendulum

Edited on 2022.08.30

I. Objectives
1. Observe whether a vertically suspended spring obeys Hooke's law when extended moderately.
2. Observe the relationship of the oscillation period 𝑇 with the pendulum mass 𝑚 and the
spring length 𝑙. Be familiar with the logarithmic graph (log graph).
3. Learn the data analysis and the concept of asymptote.
4. Analyze the measurement errors.
5. Present the results properly with figures.

II. Principle
Hooke's Law of Springs
When the spring is subjected to an external force, it will cause the spring length to be extended or
shortened by x under the elastic fatigue (彈性疲乏). A restoring force F is generated with equal
magnitude against the external force. There is a proportional relationship between the restoring force
F and the spring deformation Dx, and the direction of the force is always opposite to the direction
of the spring deformation, as expressed below:
𝐹 = – 𝑘D𝑥, (1)
where 𝑘 is called the spring constant or the spring force constant that is related to the elasticity of
the spring. Equation (1) is called Hooke's law.

Pendulum
As shown in Fig. 1, a simple pendulum can be formed by using one end
of a line as a fixed point and a heavy object suspended from the other end.
If the heavy object is pulled to one side and then released, the pendulum
can smoothly swing back and forth on the same plane. When the pendulum
angle is not too large, the motion of the simple pendulum can be regarded
as a simple harmonic motion. Assume that the length of the pendulum is
𝑙, and the acceleration of gravity is g. In the case of the angle θ ≦ 5°,
the weight mg can be decomposed into a normal component of force
(mg cos θ) and a tangent component of force (mg sin θ). The tangent
component of force provides a restoring force for the pendulum, F = – kx,
which swings the pendulum back to equilibrium point O. Because the
angle is so small,

2
 d x
sin 𝜃 = ≅
l l
and
x
−mg sin 𝜃 = −mg = −kx. (2)
l
mg
This simple harmonic motion has k = , and the oscillation period is
l

m m l
𝑇 = 2π = 2π mg = 2π . (3)
k g
l
Therefore, it can be observed that the period is related only to its pendulum length 𝑙 and have
nothing to do with the mass 𝑚 of the object. From the measurements, Hooke’s law and the period
of the simple pendulum can be determined by analyzing the logarithmic graph (log graph) of the
data.

III. Instrument
1. Stand
2. Spring × 5 (0.5 N : k = 2.5 N/m | 1.0 N : k = 5.0 N/m | 2.0 N : k = 10.0 N/m |
3.0 N : k = 15.0 N/m | 5.0 N : k = 25.0 N/m)
3. Weights
4. Pendulum wire
5. Stopwatch in your mobile phone
6. Ruler

IV. Experiments
Experiment 1 Hooke's law and the spring constant

1. Hang the spring on the stand and record the initial length 𝒙𝟎 of the spring.
2. Take ten objects of different mass 𝒎 and hang them under the spring. Record the
corresponding deformation 𝜟𝒙 of the spring (※The moderate deformation of the spring
should be considered).
3. Plot the relationship between mass 𝒎 and the deformation 𝜟𝒙. Observe whether their
relationship is linear or not.
4. Plot the relationship between log 𝑚 and log 𝛥𝑥 . Find its slope, and determine the slope
between mass 𝒎 and deformation 𝜟𝒙 on the log graph. Demonstrate the Hooke's Law and
determine the spring constant 𝒌.
5. Repeat the steps 1~3 to measure the spring constants of the five springs in sequence.

3
Experiment 2 A simple pendulum
1. Hang a heavy object by a wire, as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Record the length 𝒍 of the wire and the mass 𝒎 of five different weights.
3. Pull the weight to one side and release it. The weight can swing back and forth smoothly in the
same plane. (The oscillation angle of the object should not be too large.)
4. Use the stopwatch in your mobile phone to record the time for 20 oscillations and calculate the
average period of the oscillation.
5. Plot the relationship between the period 𝑻 of the oscillation and the mass 𝒎. Observe
whether their relationship is linear.
6. Plot the relationship between the 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑻 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒎 . Find the slope and determine the
exponential relationship between the period 𝑻 and the mass 𝒎.
7. Fix the mass 𝒎 of the object and change five different oscillation amplitudes 𝒅. Record the
time of 20 oscillations back and forth, then calculate the period.
8. Plot the relationship between the period 𝑻 of the oscillation and the oscillation amplitude
𝒅, observe whether their relationship is linear or not.
9. Plot the relationship of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑻 against 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒅. Find its slope, and determine the exponential
relationship between the period 𝑻 and the oscillation amplitude 𝒅.
10. Fix the mass 𝒎 and the oscillation amplitude 𝒅 of the object. Change the length 𝒍 of five
different springs and record the time of 20 oscillations back and forth. Calculate the period.
11. Plot the relationship between the period 𝑻 of the oscillation and the length 𝒍 of the spring,
observe whether their relationship is linear or not.
12. Plot the relationship between 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑻 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒍. Find its slope, then know the exponential
relationship between the period 𝑻 and the length of the spring 𝒍.
13. Combining the above results, find the equation of the pendulum's oscillation period, i.e., Eq.
(3).

V. Questions
1. How to calculate the errors of the data when the theoretical values are known?
2. Find the equation of Hooke's law obtained from the data and calculate the error of the spring
constant.
3. Try to compare your results with the formula for the oscillation period 𝑻 of a simple
pendulum.

4
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
1. Hooke's law and the spring constant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Object mass
Spring m (g)
1 Deformation
Dx (cm)

2. Determination of the period of a simple pendulum

Wire length： cm. Oscillation amplitude d： cm
Weight Standard
Items Time for 20 oscillations (sec) Period T (sec) Average T (sec)
mass (g) deviation
1
2
3
4
5
1

Weight mass： g. Line length： cm

Oscillation
Standard
amplitude Items Time for 20 oscillations (sec) Period T (sec) Average T (sec)
deviation
d (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
1

Weight mass： g. Oscillation amplitude d： cm

Wire
Period T Standard
length l Items Time for 20 oscillations (sec) Average T (sec)
(sec) deviation
(cm)
1
2
3
4

5
 Appendix
The log graph will be used to know the relationship between the simple pendulum
parameters. The log graph used in this experiment is a Log-Log plot, i.e., the horizontal and
vertical axes in the graph both use a logarithmic scale. Since its two axes are non-linear scales,
the function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 M will present a straight line in this coordinate system, as shown Eq. (4)
and the below right figure. Solving for the logarithm (𝑙𝑜𝑔) of both sides of the function, we
then get

log 𝑦 = log 𝑎𝑥 M = 𝑏 log 𝑥 + log 𝑎, (4)

where 𝒃 is the slope of the 𝒍𝒐𝒈 plot and 𝑎 is the point on the y value at 𝑥 = 1. If some data
fits the function above, but the parameters 𝑎 and 𝑏 are unknown, then they can be obtained by
plotting data points on a logarithmic plot.

Linear-Linear Plot Log-Log Plot

2000
1000
Y values (units)

Y values (units)

1500 100
10
1000 1
500 0.10
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0.5 1 5 10
X variable (units) X variable (units)

6
 Basic experiments 1-1

Moment of inertia and angular momentum

Edited on 2022.08.30
I. Objectives
1. Measure an object's moment of inertia
2. Compare the results with the theoretical values.

II. Principle
As shown in Fig. 1, suppose the moment O
of inertia of the rotating holder A is I1 and the h′
B
radius of its rotating axis is r. When a mass m1
A
falls from the rest to the distance h after t1
O¢ m2
seconds, we derive the speed of the object v1. m1
axis of rotation
Let the angular velocity of the rotating holder
be w1, then
v1 = rw1. (1) h
Assume the frictional force is negligible.
Figure 1
According to the law of conservation of
energy,
1 1
m1 gh = m1v12 + I 1w12 (2)
2 2
and
1
h= v1t1 . (3)
2
Substitute equations (1) and (3) into equation (2), then we get
gt12
I 1 = m1 r (
2
- 1) (4)
2h
By measuring the height (h) and time t1, the moment of inertia I1 of the rotating holder can be
calculated using equation (4).
Place object B on the rotating holder A and repeat the above measurement, we can derive the
moment of inertia (I2) of object B. Here we change the mass m1 to m2. If the falling time to fall the
distance h from the rest is t2, the following relationship can be obtained:
gt 22
I 1 + I 2 = m2 r 2 ( - 1) . (5)
2h
By measuring the height (h) and the falling time (t2), we obtain the sum of the moments of inertia of
the rotating holder (I1 + I2). Therefore, the moment of inertia (I2) of object is obtained.

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III. Instrument
1. Rotary holder (旋轉座)
2. Fixed pulley (定滑輪)
3. Weight plate and weights
4. Four objects to be tested: disc, ring, cylinder and rectangular bar
5. Photoelectric timer (can be replaced by mobile phone)
6. Ruler and screw
7. Small pieces of paper, paper clips

Figure 2

IV. Precautions
1. The weight plate should be protected from direct impact with the ground by adjusting the
cable length or laying a floor mat.
2. To avoid deformation and damage to the rotating base, do not place the object to be tested on
the rotating holder after the measurement is complete.

V. Experiments
1. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1.
2. Once the fixed pulley is mounted on the table edge, tie one end of the wire to the bottom of the
rotating holder. A weight plate should be hung after the other end has been wrapped around the
fixed pulley. The fixed pulley or rotating holder should be adjusted so that the thin wire is
parallel to the tabletop and tangent to the rotating holder.
3. Measure and record the rotation radius r.
4. Choose an appropriate weight and place it on the weight plate. Now the overall weight m1 is the
weight plus the weight plate.
5. Appropriately adjust the distance h of the weight plate and measure the falling time t1 (from the

8
 rest to the height h). Repeat the steps five times.
(Or two timer can be used as observation points and the distance between two timers is h′, as
shown in Fig. 1. Then use a paper clip to fix the small piece of paper on the thin wire and
record the time when the piece of paper starts from one of the supports and reaches the other
support after a distance of h′, as t1.)
6. Use equation (4) and find the moment of inertia I1 of the rotating holder.
7. Place the object to be measured on the rotating holder. Select the appropriate weight (plus the
weight plate m2) and the height h. Measure the falling time (t2). Repeat the steps five times.
8. Use equations (4) and (5) and find the moment of inertia I2 of the object.
9. According to the table of Useful information, calculate the theoretical values of the moment of
inertia for each object. Compare them with the measured values. Analyze the measured errors.
10. Take another two different mass m2 and repeat Steps 5 ~7. Compare the effect of different m2
on the results.

VI. Useful information

Objects Axis of rotation Moment of inertia
1
Center of the Mr 2 ，
Disc 2
circle
r is the radius of the disc.
1
M (r12 + r22 ) ，
Center of the 2
Ring
circle r1 is the radius of the inner ring of the ring.
r2 is the radius of the outer ring of the ring.
r2 l2
M ( + )，
Cylinder 4 12
Cylinder centroid
(lay horizontally) r is the cylinder radius.
l is the length of the cylinder.
a2 b2
M ( + )，
Rectangular 12 12
Rectangular bar
centroid a is the width of the rectangular bar.
b is the length of the rectangular bar.

VII. Questions
1. Analyze the error sources.
2. Does the mass m2 affect the error?
3. If the thin wire is NOT parallel to the tabletop, will it causes error?

9
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
Rotation radius r =
Object Items t1 Average t1 m1 h I1
1
2
Rotary
3
holder
4
5

Objects Items t2 Average t2 m2 h I1 + I2 I2 Error

1
2
Disc 3
4
5
1
2
Ring 3
4
5
1
Cylinder 2
(lay 3
horizontally) 4
5
1
2
Rectangular
3
bar
4
5

10
 Basic experiments 1-2

Friction coefficient and surface tension

Edited on 2022.08.30
1-2-1 The friction coefficient experiments
I. Objective
To measure the static friction coefficient µs and the kinetic friction
coefficient µk between two contact surfaces.

II. Principle External force

The friction force is the interaction of the intermolecular force Figure 1
between two contact surfaces. Since the surface roughness is different,
the corresponding friction force differs as well. When the external force (tensile force, 拉力) isn’t
strong enough to break the interaction of the intermolecular force, the tensile force on the object is
equal to the magnitude of the frictional force. When the external force is strong enough to break the
interaction, the object will start to move. When the object just starts to move, the tensile force is equal
to the maximum value of the static friction coefficient, which is called maximum static friction
coefficient, as shown in Fig. (1). The maximum static friction force is proportional to the normal force
N, which is
fs,max = µsN, (1)
where µs is called static friction coefficient.
When the object starts to move, the friction force still exists, which is now called the kinetic
friction force fk,
fk = µkN, (2)
where µs is called kinetic friction coefficient. The kinetic friction force will be a little smaller than
fs,max and can be regarded as a fixed value, as shown in Fig. 1.
We connect a trolley with a spring and place it on the panel to be
tested for the friction force. Then we use a motor to drive the panel
forward. At this time, the schematic diagram of the force on the trolley
is shown in Fig. 2. Here, N is the normal force, which is the interaction
trolley
force perpendicular to the contact surface and m𝑔 is the gravitational
force on the object. When the trolley is horizontal, the magnitude of the
normal force is equal to the gravitational force on the object. f is the m
friction force, which has direction parallel to the testing panel but Figure 2
opposite to the direction of motion.
When the motor starts, the trolley will initially move forward due to the static friction force
(between two contact surfaces), until the tension of the spring overcomes the maximum static friction

11
force. The force between the two friction surfaces changes from static friction force to kinetic friction
force. At this time, there will be relative motion between the trolley and the panel.
We get the values of the static and kinetic friction from the spring scale. By changing the weight
of the trolley, the value of the normal force will be changed. We then find the relationship between the
maximum static and the kinetic friction forces with the normal force.

III. Instrument
1. Friction test bench (摩擦實驗台)
2. Motor and transformer spring scale and motor
3. Spring scale and indicator strip indicator strip
4. Friction panel
5. Trolley (臺車)
trolley friction test
6. Weight
bench
7. Rubber band
friction
IV. Precautions weight rubber band
panel
1. Put the weight slightly behind the friction panel and let the two friction surfaces contact
together exactly before starting the experiment.
2. When measuring the maximum static friction force, you can
lightly place the indicator strip against the pointer of the spring
scale, as shown in the right figure. When the spring scale
overcomes the maximum static friction force and converts to the
kinetic friction force, the indicator strip can still stay at the
maximum static friction indication.

V. Steps
1. Put the friction panel behind the test bench and put the trolley on the panel. The top of the
spring scale is hooked to a small bracket on the test bench, and the bottom of the spring is
connected to the trolley.
2. When the motor is turned ON, it drives the friction panel forward. Now the transition of the
friction forces can be observed by the spring scale.
3. Select and record the value of normal force N (which is the weight of the trolley plus the
weight on it). Measure the values of the maximum static friction force fs and the kinetic
friction force fk for ten times.
4. Change different normal force N and repeat Step 3 to find fs and fk corresponding to each
normal force. Change at least five different sets of normal force N.
5. Plot N - fs figure. Find the slope of a straight line fitting. Use this linear equation and formula
(1) to calculate µs of the friction panel.

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 6. Plot N- fk figure. Find the slope of a straight line fitting. The slope is the kinetic friction
coefficient µk in the formula (2).
7. Repeat Steps 1~6 for different friction panels.

VI. Questions
1. Briefly describe the factors affecting the coefficient of friction between two friction objects
(rubbing objects).
2. If the experimental device is not on the horizontal plane, what will cause the systematic
error?

1-2-2 Surface tension experiments

I. Objective
Measure the surface tension of different liquids.

II. Principle
If we put a needle on the surface of water, it causes a slight dent and floats on the surface, although
its density is 10 times larger than water. In addition, when we insert a capillary into water, the level of
water in the capillary increases; however, in the mercury, the level of mercury in the capillary decreases.
In these phenomena, all exist an interface between liquid and other material.
Suppose we put a wire on the liquid surface. The liquid on the left and right sides of the wire will
tend to drag the wire to themselves. As shown in Fig. 3, there is a thin metal ring and a flexible wire
ring attached to it. Put them into soapy water and then take them out. Soap film sticks to the metal ring
and the wire ring floats on the soap film freely, as shown in Fig. 3(a). If the soap film inside the wire
ring is pierced(刺穿), the wire ring then opens into a circle, as shown in Fig. 3(b). The reason is that,
when soap film fills the inside and outside of the wire ring, the pulling forces on both sides are equal.
Metal
ring
Wire ring

Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b) Figure 4

However, when the soap film inside the wire ring is pierced, a radiation-like pulling force (which is
perpendicular to the wire ring) exerts to wire ring from the soap film outside the wire ring and open it
into a circle.
Figure 4 shows another surface effect instrument. Details can be found in the Appendix. Two
arms of a U-shaped wire are equipped with a sliding horizontal wire with a slight weight W. The

13
downward pulling force F = W . If the length of the horizontal wire in Fig. 4 is L, since the liquid film
has two surfaces, the total length exerted by the surface pulling force on the horizontal wire is 2L. The
surface tension g is defined as the ratio of the surface pulling force F to the length exerted by F.
According to this definition, the surface tension in Fig. 4 is g = F/2L (N/m).
Another example is shown in Fig. 5. When a metal ring with a circumference
of L is lifted from the liquid, the ring needs to exert a pull force F to balance the
surface pull force 2gL which is exerted by liquid on both side of the ring. Once F is
measured, the surface tension g of the liquid can be calculate by the formula g = F /
2L.
We hang the ring and it is pulled up by a motor. The pulling force on the
liquid film will be reflected on the electronic scale (電子秤) as shown in Fig. 6. By
recording the electronic scale before burst (N) and after burst (N’) of the thin liquid
film, the surface tension of the liquid can be obtained by:
F N '- N Figure 5
g= = (3)
2L 2L

Normal force Ring pulling

N force F Normal
force¢ N¢

Liquid + Glass
dish gravity

Liquid + Glass dish

gravity
重力

Figure 6(a) before burst Figure 6(b) after burst

III. Instrument
1. Elevator motor and its stand
2. Power supply (note the provided voltage!
9V or 7.5V or others)
Elevator motor and its stand Power supply
3. Elevator platform
4. Electronic scales with windshield
5. Glass dish
6. Metal ring
7. Liquid sample (water and alcohol)
Elevator platform Glass dish

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IV. Precautions
1. When measuring volatile liquid (揮發性液體, e.g., alcohol), a special transparent cover for
electronic scales can be used to reduce the volatilization.
2. Please pick up the metal ring carefully to avoid deformation which can affect the results.
3. When immersing the metal ring into the water, please adjust the hanging position to change the
center of gravity, instead of twisting the metal ring to adjust the horizontal level, to avoid the
distortion of the metal ring.
4. The button TARE on the electronic scale is to reset the scale to zero. Please reset the scale to
zero before each experiment.
V. Steps
1. Set up the equipment as Fig. 7. Put a camera (mobile phone)
to take video with both metal ring and display of electronic
scale simultaneously.
2. Set the electronic scale to zero before each measurement.
3. Put the liquid sample on glass dish and put the dish on the
electronic scale. Hang the metal ring on the hook of elevator
motor, regulate its position right above the middle of the glass
dish, then let the metal ring just contacts the surface of the
liquid sample.
4. Turn on the video camera recording function and then the
elevator motor power. Slowly raise the metal ring until the
liquid film ruptures(破裂). After that, turn off the elevator Figure 7
motor in 5 seconds. Then, turn off the video camera recording
function after the reading in the electronic scale is stable. Repeat this step 10 times.
5. Measure the perimeter L of the metal ring, and then search the reading before and after the liquid
film ruptures in the video. Take the measured 10-times values into equation (3) and calculate the
average value of the surface tension.
6. Replace different liquid samples and repeat the above steps. Calculate the average surface tension
of different liquid samples.

VI. Appendix
Reference for surface tension of water (dyne/cm)，1 N/m = 1000 dyne/cm
Temperature (℃) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 60 80
Surface tension 74.64 74.92 74.22 73.49 72.75 71.97 71.18 69.59 66.18 62.61

Reference for surface tension of various liquids (20 ℃) (dyne/cm)

Liquid Alcohol Ether Glycerol petroleum
Surface tension 22.3 16.5 63.4 26.0

15
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
The perimeter of the metal ring L = cm. Temperature: . Liquid sample:
Pulling force Average Surface tension
Items N before rupture (gw) N¢ after rupture (gw)
F (gw) Pulling force g (N/cm)
1
2
……………………………………………………………
Appendix
Figure 4 shows another surface effect instrument. Two arms of a U-shaped wire are equipped with a
sliding horizontal wire with a slight weight W1. When the device is immersed in the soap solution and
then taken out, the horizontal wire is quickly pulled by the soap film in the frame to the top of the U-
shaped wire. At this time, if another object with a slight weight W2 is hanged on the horizontal wire, a
strange situation will occur. When the downward pulling force F = W1 + W2, the horizontal wire can
rest at any position on the two arms of U-shaped wire and is independent to the area of the soap film.
In other words, the downward pulling force does not increase as the area of the soap film expands. If
the soap film is changed to a rubber film, the required downward pulling force will increase as the area
of the rubber film expands. The difference between these two is that the soap film is a liquid, the
thickness of its surface is only a few molecules thick, and the thickness of the liquid between the two
surfaces is much thicker than the surface. When the soap film is under tension, the liquid molecules in
the middle move to the surface to stretch the surface. The number of molecules on the surface of the
liquid film will increase with the expansion of the surface area, but that of molecules on the surface of
the rubber film remain unchanged.

16
 Basic experiments 1-3

Instantaneous velocity and constant acceleration motion

Edited on 2022.08.31
I. Objectives
1. Measure the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of moving objects.
2. Learn the data analysis.
3. Observe and record the energy loss of the pulley on the track.

II. Principle
If the moving objects are in one dimensional (1D) system, we describe the speed and direction of
the movement of the object in terms of velocity. Since 1D system has only two directions, it is usually
expressed in the positive and negative directions. For the description of the velocity, there is a
difference between the average velocity and the instantaneous velocity, and generally what we describe
is mostly the average velocity. However, the velocity of the object is different in each instant, so we
must use the instantaneous velocity to represent the velocity of the objects at a certain moment on the
way. Instantaneous velocity ( 𝑣W ) is defined as:
Dx
𝑣W = lim (1)
Dt ® 0 Dt

where Dx is the displacement of the object in Dt time.

If an object moves at a constant velocity, its instantaneous velocity is equal to the average velocity.
If the instantaneous velocity is different at each moment, there must be acceleration in between.
Similarly, we use the average acceleration (𝑎XYZ ) and the instantaneous acceleration (𝑎W ) to describe
the change in velocity, which is defined as

v2 - v1 Dv
aave = =
t 2 - t1 Dt (2)

𝑣[ and 𝑣\ are the instantaneous velocities of objects at 𝑡[ and 𝑡\ , respectively. And

Dv
a p = lim
Dt ®0 Dt (3)
When an object is in constant acceleration motion, its instantaneous acceleration is equal to the
average acceleration.

III. Methods
To measure the instantaneous velocity of an object at a certain moment, start with the definition
of instantaneous velocity. As shown in Fig. 1, when an object starts from point O through point P and

17
then reaches point Q, the distance Dx between points P and Q, and the time it takes as Dt . We obtain
D_
the average velocity by . When the distance between P and Q is shortened, the average velocity
D`

between them is close to the instantaneous velocity. Since the definition of instantaneous velocity is
a_
𝑣W = lim , the values of Dx and Dt are extremely small, and therefore, their measurement is
a`→c a`

extremely difficult.
However, for an object that is in constant acceleration motion, we can use the following method
to find its instantaneous velocity. As shown in Fig. 2, we change different flag ruler (i.e. different Dxd )
D_e
and record the required time Dt d from Point O to Point P. Then plot versus Dt and use the
D`e

interpolation method to extend this line to Dt = 0. The intercept of the longitudinal axis is the
instantaneous velocity 𝑣W of the Point P, as shown in Fig. 3(a).

O P Q Flag ruler
r A
x1 Dx Dxi
x2 O
r P
Figure 1 Figure 2

The graph of instantaneous velocity as a function of time is a straight line and the slope of this line is
the acceleration of the object as determined by the instantaneous velocity of the object at several points
𝑣W . The time required to move an object from the origin to each of these fixed points Δ𝑇gh . Draw
figure of 𝑣W -Δ𝑇gh and get a straight line. The slope of this straight line is the magnitude of the object's
acceleration 𝐚 as shown in Fig. 3(b).
Dx/Dt vp

vp =
y=ax+b
vp
Dt DTop
Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b)
IV. Design
From the Methods, we learn that in order to measure the instantaneous velocity of an object,
Δj
we must first measure a series of values. Using different lengths of Δ𝑥 flag rulers as moving
Δk

18
objects, as shown in Fig. 2, the right end of the flag ruler is released from Point O, and arrives at Point
P. We take the time that the flag ruler to travel from Point O to Point P. The timer starts when the flag
ruler’s front edge leaves Point O and the timer stops when the flag ruler's back edge reaches Point P.
The entire time is Dt, and the length of the flag ruler is the displacement Δ𝑥 of the object moving
forward from Point P. We use a photoelectric timer (PET) which has the time accuracy of 1 ms.
We also need to know the time ΔTop that the object goes through from the starting Point O, and
the acceleration to Point P. We use this or mode. Two timers are set at points O and P.
When the object first passes through the first timer (at Point O), the timer starts to record the timing.
When the object begins to pass through the fixed point P, the timing stops recording. The time
displayed on the timer is ΔTop.

V. Instrument
The main functions of the timer are:
(1) or Mode: When the beam controller is blocked, the timer starts to time and does not
stop until the block is removed. This mode can be used to measure Δtp.
(2) or Mode: The timer shows the time interval between two
disturbance, or the time interval at which two timer are disturbed.
The timer starts timing until another disturbance interrupts the timer,
then the timing is stopped. This mode can be used for measuring
ΔTop.
(3) Function mode: Select above-mentioned function modes.
Figure 4
(4) Reset mode: Clear the record on the display.
(5) Sensor selection (controlled by a switch): Select A or B sensors.

We use a slide rail track (滑軌軌道) with minimal friction, as shown in Fig. 5. Moving objects
called trolleys (滑車) are used and flag rulers (旗尺) are mounted on the trolley. There are two
adjustable support rods on the right side of the slide rail track to adjust the inclination of the track. The
angle of the tilt can be measured by using the mobile phone's APP software. Shock absorbers are placed
on both sides of the rail to prevent the trolley from rushing off the track due to excessive speed.

Figure 5

19
VI. Precautions
1. When the trolley is on the track, do not scratch the surface of the track. After the experiment,
remove the trolley.
2. The trolley should be carefully placed onto the track. Do not use force to avoid damaging the
track, and beware of the trolley falling to the ground.

VII. Steps
Measure the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of an object
1. Start by adjusting the level of the track followed by placing the trolley on the track and
observing its movements.
2. Once the track’s level is calibrated, adjust the support bar on the left side of the track so that
the left side of the track is tilted slightly higher. During the measurements, do not touch the
track itself or move the experimental table, so as not to change the position of the track. If
the position of the track is changed, it may cause a large error.
3. Select a position near the top of the track as the reference Point O, and then take another
Point P at 35 cm from Point O. The two timers A and B are placed at both sides of the O and
P points.
4. Place the 30 cm long flag ruler symmetrically on the top of the trolley. Align one edge of the
flag ruler at Point O. (Note: The flag ruler must be placed symmetrically so as not to tilt the
trolley to one side and rub against the track).
5. Record the time ΔTop of the flag ruler through Points O and P and the time Δtp of the entire
flag ruler through the P point. Repeat the operation five times and calculate the mean and
standard deviation of ΔTop and Δtp.
6. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 with a flag lengths (Δx) of 20, 15, 10 and 5 cm. Obtain the corresponding
Δx/Δtp values. Then plot Δx/Δtp to Δtp, as shown in Fig. 3(a). A linear fitting gives the intercept
distance of this line on the Δx/Δtp axis, which represents the instantaneous velocity 𝑣W at
Dx
point P because vp = lim .
Dt ® 0 Dt

7. Fix Point O and change the position of Point P. Repeat Steps 5 to 7 and find the instantaneous
velocity 𝑣W of the flag ruler at five different positions on the track.
8. Use the instantaneous velocity 𝑣W as the vertical axis and the flag ruler through the time ΔTop
as the horizontal axis, as shown in Fig. 3(b). The slope of the straight line fitting gives the
acceleration of the trolley.
9. Use the relationship between the acceleration of the trolley on the slope and the inclination
angle, the g-value of the local gravitational acceleration in the laboratory is obtained.

20
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
OP distance = 35, 40, 50, 60, and 65 cm
Dx = 30, 20, 15, 10, and 5 cm
Average Standard Dx ( cm )
Dx (cm) Items DTop (sec) Dtp (sec)
Dtp (sec) deviation Dt p sec
1
2
30 3
4
5
1
2
20 3
4
5
1
2
15 3
4
5
1
2
10 3
4
5
1
2
5 3
4
5

Dx
1. Plot versus Dtp. Fit the data by a linear function and obtain the intersect (𝑣W ) on the y-axis.
Dt p

2. Filling vp and average DTop the below table.

OP distance (cm) 35 40 50 60 65
vp (cm/s)
Average DTop (s)

3. Plot vp versus DTop. Derive the acceleration a from a linear function fitting.
4. From a and tilt angle of the track, derive the g-value of the local gravitational acceleration.

21
 Basic experiments 1-4

Simple harmonic oscillation and torsion

Edited on 2022.08.31
l Simple harmonic oscillation
I. Objectives
1. Observe the relationship of the oscillation period T with the pendulum mass m and the
oscillation amplitude A with the force constant k.
2. Record the oscillation period by a phone APP and calculate the decay coefficient of the
oscillation amplitude.

II. Principle
Two or more forces exerts on an object causing the object to rest at an equilibrium position of the
system. When the object is displaced from the equilibrium, a net force will exert on the object opposite
from the displacement and restore the object back to the equilibrium point. If this net force is
proportional to the displacement x and opposite to the direction of the deformation, as expressed bellow:

𝐹 = – 𝐶𝑥, (1)
where C is a constant factor. This equation is identical to the Hooke’s Law. We refer Eqs. (1) and (2)
as the object’s equation of motion:
noj
𝐹=𝑚 = – 𝐶𝑥, (2)
nk o

noj
+ 𝜔c\ = 0, (3)
nk o

where 𝜔c is a constant and is related to mass and force constant of the oscillation system. Solving
equation (3), we can get:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔c 𝑡 + 𝜃c , (4)
where 𝐴 is the maximum displacement, which is called amplitude. 𝜃c is a constant, indicating the
initial phase. The idealized motion that can be described by Eq. (4) is called the simple harmonic motion
(SHM).
A SHM is a periodic motion, and therefore, when the period of motion is T, the value of
displacement 𝑥 𝑡 at time t equals the value of displacement 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 at time 𝑡 + 𝑇. That is the
phase increase by 2𝜋 radians in a time interval of T:
𝜔c 𝑡 + 𝑇 + 𝜃c = 𝜔c 𝑡 + 𝜃c + 2𝜋,
gives
\x
𝑇= (5)
yz

22
Considering an ideal spring with length of 𝑙c and force constant k
with no mass hanging from the celling as shown in Fig. 1. Now a
block with mass M is attached to the spring. It reaches to the
l0
equilibrium position with the deformation of ∆𝑙c . The equilibrium
position is O as shown in Fig. 1(b). When the block M is raised to
above O then released, the force applied to the block in the y
direction is D l0
y
𝐹 = −𝐾𝑦. (6) O M

Thus, the block undergoes a simple harmonic oscillation according M

(a) (b) (c)
to the equilibrium position. The relation between the displacement
y and time can be expressed as Figure 1
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔c 𝑡 + 𝜃c ,
where constant 𝜔c can be related to the block’s mass M, amplitude A, and force constant k. From the
relation 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔c , we know that the period T has some relations between parameter M, A, and k.
Here we aim to find the relation between them.

III. Instrument
1. Stand
2. Spring × 3
3. Joined rubber bands
4. Weights
5. Stopwatch App in your mobile phone
6. Ruler

IV. Steps
Experiment 1 Observe the relationship of the oscillation period T with the pendulum mass M

1. Choose one spring and hang it on the bracket. Take ten different weights in order, and hang
and release them with fixed displacement. Record the oscillating period. You can measure the
time for 20 oscillations and calculate the average period.
2. Plot the relation between period T and the object mass M. Observe whether their relationship
is linear.
3. Plot the relation between 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒎 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝜟𝒙. Observe whether their relationship is linear. If
so, determine the equation of the slope, and explain the relation between period T and the
object mass M when both amplitude A and force constant k are fixed.

23
Experiment 2 Observe the relationship of the oscillation period T with the amplitude A.
1. Choose one spring and hang it on the bracket. Take an oscillating object and hang it under the
spring. Release the object with different amplitude and measure the period. Repeat for 5 times
and record the results. Calculate the average period T. Repeat the measurement with 5
different A.
2. Plot the relation between period T and amplitude A. Observe whether their relationship is
linear or not.
3. Plot the relation between log 𝑇 and log 𝐴. Observe whether their relationship is linear or not.
If so, determine the equation of the slope, and explain the relation between period T and
amplitude A when both object mass M and force constant k are fixed.

Experiment 3 Observe the relationship of the oscillation period T with the spring constant k.
1. Hang an oscillating object under different springs and measure the period required for
oscillating 20 times with a same oscillation amplitude. Repeat for 5 times and calculate the
average period T. Do 10 sets.
2. Plot the relation between period T and force constant k and observe whether their relationship
is linear.
3. Plot the relation between 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑻 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒌 and observe whether their relationship is linear. If
so, determine the equation of the slope, and explain the relation between period T and force
constant k when both object mass M and amplitude A are fixed.

Experiment 4 Record the oscillation data by a phone APP and calculate the decay coefficient of the
oscillation amplitude.
1. Hang the joined rubber bands on the bracket and hang a phone underneath.
2. Install phone APP “ Phyphox ”.
Once installed, choose the “Acceleration (without g) ” mode.
3. Pull the phone down to an sufficient distance, press the triangle button at the top of the screen
to start recording. Release the phone and observe the displacement variation and record the
data.
4. Press “stop” and finish recording. Click the top right and export the data.

V. Question
1. Find the relation of K in equation (6).
2. What should be the theoretical oscillation period T of the spring? Try to compare your results
with the formula.
3. Observe the amplitude decay coefficient recorded by the phone APP.

24
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
1. Observe the relationship of the oscillation period T with the pendulum mass M
Oscillation amplitude d： cm. Spring number：
Object mass
Time for 20 oscillations (sec) Period T (sec) Average period (sec) Standard deviation (σ)
m (kg)
1
2
3
4
5
1

2. Observe the relationship of the oscillation amplitude A with the spring constant k
Weight mass: g. Spring number:
Oscillation
amplitude Time for 20 oscillations (sec) Period T (sec) Average period (sec) Standard deviation (σ)
A (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
1

3. Observe the relationship of the oscillation period T with the spring constant k
Weight mass: g. Oscillation amplitude d: cm.
Spring
Average period
Number constant k Time for 20 oscillations(sec) Period T(sec) Standard deviation(σ)
(sec)
(N/m)
1
2

Spring 1 3
4
5

25
l Torsion
I. Objective
Observe the simple harmonic oscillation of different types and specifications metal bars under
force to obtain their "torsion constant" and "modulus of rigidity".

II. Principle
Applying a torsion on an elastic object will cause it to deform. Once the torsion is removed, the
object will return to its original shape and size. The Hooke’s Law can also be applied to describe this
phenomenon. When an object encounters a force within its elastic limit, the torque produced by the
torsion should be proportional to the angle of twist along its direction of torque.
𝜏 = 𝐾′𝜃, (7)
where K’ is a constant, so called torsion constant.
When a shearing force (剪力) is applied to the top and bottom of the object, it will cause the
object to deform. According to the theory of elasticity, this elasticity property of the object can be
defined as n, shown as:
†‡ˆ‰Šd‹Œ •`Šˆ•• 剪切應力 f
𝑛 modulus of rigidity ＝ ＝ . (8)
†‡ˆ‰Šd‹Œ •`Š‰d‹ 剪切應變 γ
Modulus of rigidity is also called the Shear modulus of elasticity (切變彈性係數). In the formula, the
shearing stress f = F /A, shearing strain g = x / y = tan f @ f. Therefore the modulus of rigidity n (剛性
係數) can also be written as
Ž/•
𝑛＝ . (9)
f

When we apply this definition to a cylindrical object under torsion (as shown in Fig. 2), the modulus
of rigidity n of the object can be derived as
A
2 l K'
n= . (10)
p R4 t
Measuring the torsion constant of a metal bar is to twist it to a certain
l
angle (within the elastic limit) and then release it. The metal bar will f

behave in a simple harmonic motion due to a restoring torsion opposite t

the angle of torsion. From Eq. (7) and the motion formula, we can get R
B q
dq2
t = - K 'q = Ia = I , (11) B¢
dt 2
where I is the moment of inertia. After the calculation, we get Figure 2

d 2q K '
+ q = 0, (12)
dt 2 I
which describes the equation of motion of the simple harmonic motion. K¢/I equals to square of angular

2p K'
frequency w, which is w = = , and T is the oscillation period. We then derive
T I

26
 4p 2 I x
K'= (13)
T2 F
A

f y
Figure 3 F
III. Instrument 3

Right angle clamp

Support
rod

Disk weight×2
Spring balance
Base
1N, 5N
Crossbar

Stopwatch
Angle plate

Meatal bar
Steel: l=500 mm, d=2 mm
Al: l=500 mm, d=2 mm
Al: l=400 mm, d=2 mm
Al: l=300 mm, d=2 mm
Al: l=500 mm, d=3 mm
Al: l=500 mm, d=4 mm
Brass: l=500 mm, d=2 mm
Cu: l=500 mm, d=2 mm

Figure 4

IV. Precautions
1. The metal bars used in this experiment are easily deformed. Please use them carefully.
2. To avoid permanent deformation due to the elastic fatigue(彈性疲乏). Please do not twist the
metal bars over 30 degrees.

27
 3. When twisting the metal rod, please apply the torque to the cross bar, not the angle indicator
pin (fixed to the disk weight) to avoid the damage of indicator pin. 勿施力於指示針！

V. Steps
1. Choose one aluminum bar and measure its length and radius, then set up the instrument as
shown in Fig. 4. Note that the aluminum bar must be perpendicular to the crossbar and not tilt.
2. Since the moment of inertia of the aluminum bar is too small, its oscillation period will be too
short to measure. So it is necessary to clamp two weights on both sides of the crossbar in a
symmetrically to increase the system’s moment of inertia in order to prolong the oscillation
period.
3. Record the mass m of the weight and the distance r from the weight to the center. Use I = mr2
to calculate the moment of inertia of the system.
4. Measure the oscillation period T of the aluminum bar system four times (twice in the clockwise
and counterclockwise directions) in the case of the amplitude under 10 degrees. Get the average
value and use Eq. (13) to calculate the torsion constant K¢ of the metal bar.
5. Use Eq. (10) to calculate the modulus of rigidity. Compare it with the reference in Appendix.
Calculate the error.
6. Change the aluminum bar to other metal bars and repeat Steps 1~5.

VI. Questions
1. During the experiment, are the torsion constants the same as we use different metal bars? If so,
why?
2. When using Eq. (13) to calculate the torsion constant of the metal rod. In addition to the
moment inertia of the weight, what other objects moment of inertia should be included in I?
How to correct it? Why can they be ignored in this experiment?
3. What is the error of your measured modulus of rigidity? Where is the main error from?

28
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
Length of Radius of Oscillation Average Mass of Distant System’s Modulus of
metal bar metal bar period T (s) of T (s) weight from the moment Torsion rigidity n
Materials l (m) (m) M (kg) weight to of inertia constant K¢
the center I (kg×m2) (N´m/rad)
R (m)

Aluminum

…………………………………………………………………….

Appendix
Modulus of rigidity
l Aluminum, n = 2.61×1011 dyne - cm-2
l Iron, n = 7.9 ~ 8.9×1011 dyne - cm-2
l Copper, n = 4.83×1011 dyne - cm-2
l Brass(黃銅), n = 3.5×1011 dyne - cm-2
l Bronze(青銅), n = 3.43×1011 dyne - cm-2
Objects Axis of rotation Moment of inertia
1
Center of the Mr 2 ，
Disc 2
circle
r is the radius of the disc.
1
M (r12 + r22 ) ，
Center of the 2
Ring
circle r1 is the radius of the inner ring of the ring.
r2 is the radius of the outer ring of the ring.
r2 l2
M ( + )，
Cylinder 4 12
Cylinder centroid
(lay horizontally) r is the cylinder radius.
l is the length of the cylinder.
a2 b2
M ( + )，
Rectangular 12 12
Rectangular bar
centroid a is the width of the rectangular bar.
b is the length of the rectangular bar.

29
 Basic experiments 1-5

Circular motion and centripetal force

Edited on 2022.08.31
I. Objective
Discuss the relationship between the centripetal force, velocity, mass, and rotation radius of the
object when it goes under circular motion.
II. Phenomenon
In this universe, the trajectory of the earth orbiting the sun is approximated to a circle. Based on
the Newton’s 1st law, an object will be stable or move straight with its velocity invariant if there’s no
external force working on it. Therefore, it’s reasonable to judge that there is some sort of forces on the
earth making it move in a circular motion. Researchers found out that everything going through circular
motion must always receive a force pointing to the center of the circle, which is called the centripetal
force. For example, a rope ties a rock and makes it move in a circular motion. Here, the centripetal
force comes from the tension of the rope. The faster the rock goes, the required centripetal force
becomes larger. Another ordinary case is that when one spins an opened umbrella, the raindrops fly
away in the peripheral direction. The faster the umbrella spins, the more raindrops will be launched.
On the other hand, when spinning the umbrella slowly, the raindrops on the edge of the surface shoot
out immediately as they lack sufficient centripetal force. While the ones on the surface closer to the
center will be able to spin along the motion because they spin slower compared to the ones on the edge
and the adhesive force provides centripetal force for them. For the fast umbrella spin, the adhesive
force would be insufficient and so the raindrops on the surface start to fly out. It’s not hard to realize
that the centripetal force of an object has some relationship with its spinning velocity and radius after
knowing the phenomena above. What are the connections? So that’s exactly what this experiment is
meant for.

III. Principle
For the situation as shown in Fig. 1, an object with its
r
mass of m going in a circular motion by the centripetal force.
m
While the speed of the object maintains the same, it’s
actually moving in variable accelerated motion due to its
direction of velocity constantly changing. The direction of
F = Mg
the acceleration points always to the center of the circle,
which is therefore called centripetal acceleration (denoted as M 圖一1
Figure
a). The relationship between the value of acceleration (a),
speed (v), and radius (r) is defined as:
Yo
𝑎= . (1)
•

30
 Based on the Newton’s law, an object must have some net force doing on it if it is accelerating.
The direction of the net force (denoted as F) will be the same as the one of the centripetal acceleration
(a). Since the force always points to the center of the circle, it’s called the centripetal force. The
relationship between the centripetal force (F), mass (m), speed (v), period of circular motion (T), radius
(r), and angular velocity (𝜔) is defined as:
‘Y o
𝐹= = 𝑚𝑟𝜔\ . (2)
•

Also,
\x•
𝑣= = 𝑟𝜔. (3)
“

We can derive the relationship between the centripetal force (F) and the period of motion (T) by
substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) as follows:
”xo ‘•
𝐹= . (4)
“o

In Eq. (4), the parameters like centripetal force (F), the velocity of the circular motion (v), and the
radius (r) can be adjusted freely. First, set different centripetal forces to make the object with mass m
do the uniform circular motion with the same radius. Second, set different velocities with constant F
to observe the relationship between r and v. Last but not least, students can observe the relationship
between 𝑚 and 𝑣 by fixing the value of F and r.

IV. Instrument

No. Name of instruments number

1 Platform 1
2 Fixed pulley (定滑輪) 1
Spinning plate
3 1
(Diameter 6 cm/ 8 cm/ 10 cm)
4 Rotating holder (aluminum) 1
Timer holder (replaced by mobile
5 1
phone)
6 U-shaped metal weight holder 1
7 Copper weight (20 g) 5
8 Fishing line (width 0.4 mm) 1
Experimental frame of centripetal
9 1
force
10 Pointer of centripetal force 1
11 DC motor driver 1
12 Weights (160 g/ 115 g/ 78 g) 1

Figure 2

31
V. Precautions
1. The output voltage of the DC power supply can’t exceed 15 V.
2. After each test, students need to take off the rubber band before correcting or changing the weights.
3. Notice the hooks of both sides when hanging the weights. The position of the U-shaped weight
hangs needs to make the fishing line stay horizontal, as shown in Fig. 2.
4. To avoid elastic fatigue, don’t make the maximum stretching length of the spring overpass the
marker on the frame.
5. Reset the knobs to zero before turning on or off the DC power supply.

VI. Settlements of instruments

1. Connect the motor and the spinning plate with the rubber band.
2. Connect the power supply and the motor with wires and adjust the power supply to DC mode. DO
NOT TURN ON THE POWER.
3. Fix the weights to the U-shaped weight holder and connect it to the weight with the fishing line.
Then connect the copper ring on the fishing line attached to the spring to another side of the weight.
4. The finished settings should be the same as Fig. 2.

VII. Steps
(1) Observing the relationship between the centripetal force (F) and the velocity of spinning (𝒗)
1. Adjust the balancing weight on the horizontal rod to make the rotator holder level.
2. Fix the weights to the U-shaped weight holder and record its total weight. Then connect it to one
side of the weight. Put the pointer of centripetal force to the bottom of the spring and fix it.
3. Take off the U-shaped weight holder and start observing, as shown in Fig. 4.

圖三 3
Figure 圖四 4
Figure

4. Turn on the power supply and rise the spinning speed of the motor by gradually increasing the
output voltage. Pay attention to the spring. Stabilize the output when the spring reaches the pointer
of centripetal force and record the time it spins for ten rounds.
5. Change the weights on the U-shaped weight holder and repeat the measurement.

32
(2) Observing the relationship between the spinning radius (r) and the spinning velocity (𝒗))
1. Settings remain the same to (1).
2. Fix F and weight (m).
3. Turn on the power supply and rise the spinning speed of the motor by gradually increasing the
output voltage. Pay attention to the spring. Stabilize the output when the spring reaches the pointer
of centripetal force and record the time it spins ten rounds.
4. Change the spinning radius (r) and repeat the measurement.
(3) Observing the relationship between the mass (m) and the spinning velocity (𝒗))
1. Experiment settings remain the same to (1).
2. Fix F and spinning radius (r).
3. Turn on the power supply and rise the spinning speed of the motor by gradually increasing the
output voltage. Pay attention to the spring. Stabilize the output when the spring reaches the pointer
of centripetal force and record the time it spins ten rounds.
4. Change the weight (m) and repeat the measurement.

VIII. Question
1. Try to plot 𝐹 − 𝑣, 𝑟 − 𝑣, and 𝑚 − 𝑣 figures. Is their relationship a linear function?
2. Try to plot 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐹 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣, and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣 figures. Is their relationship a linear
function? Try to calculate the linear equation if the relationship is linear.
3. What should we plot the data in log graph?
4. Conclude the relationship of 𝑣 = 𝑓 𝐹, 𝑟, 𝑚 based on the results above.
5. Discuss the difference between the experimental result and the theory 𝑣 \ = 𝐹𝑟 𝑚.

33
 Tables (make the tables before experiments)
(1) Derive the relationship between the centripetal force (F) and the spinning velocity (v)：
r = ____________cm
Weight F (g )
Period T (sec)
Velocity v(m / sec)

(2) Derive the relationship between the spinning radius (r) and the spinning velocity (v)：
F = __________ _ g
Radius r (cm)
Period T (sec)
Velocity v(m / sec)

(5) Derive the relationship between the mass (m) and the spinning velocity (v)：

r = _________cm . F = __________ _ g .

Mass m(g )
Period T (sec)
Velocity v(m / sec)

34