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Teaching Aerodynamics
Objective: At the completion of this lesson, you will have an understanding of the major theoretical and practical elements of aerodynamics relevant to the flight operations/maneuvers presented.

Introduction
Giving your students a basic understanding of how an airplane flies is only the beginning. What about: knowing the techniques that help you get the most cruise airspeed from your airplane? intuitively making the right recovery efforts during a spin because you understand why an aircraft spins and the aerodynamic forces that perpetuate the motion? discovering how the parts of the airplane function together, and inspiring the desire to learn more about aircraft design?
1.6 Coefficient of Lift (CL) CLmax

1.2 Stall

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.4

-4

4 8 12 16 20 24 Angle of Attack in Degrees

Aerodynamics can be one of the most complex and important subjects you teach. When discussing this subject, you are giving your students better tools with which to fly. Your students will be more in tune with the aircraft and its limitations, and be able to operate safely within those limits. In this lesson, we'll explore lesson planning for basic aerodynamics, stability, stalls, spins, and maneuvering speed. REVIEW: Lesson Planning for Aerodynamics

Lesson Planning for Aerodynamics

By referring to 14 CFR part 61, you can determine the aeronautical knowledge areas that involve aerodynamics. You may also want to refer to the Airman Knowledge Test to review the questions the FAA will ask your students on the written exam. From these beginnings, form your lesson plan.

To determine how to approach a given aerodynamics subject, gauge the: level of knowledge demanded on the Airman Knowledge Test. need to understand how aircraft components work together. aerodynamic limitations of the airplane. students need of the information to become a safe pilot. Lesson plan review: The parts of a lesson plan may include: objective, elements, completion standards, ideas for further study, references, and notes. Start with the objective or goal for the lesson and plan your lesson from this point. Make sure the completion standards complement the objective. Consider your intended audience carefully when planning lessons on aerodynamics.

Most gulls don t bother to learn more than the simplest facts of flight how to get from shore to food and back again. Richard Bach, Jonathan Livingston Seagull

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Have you ever noticed how a bird lands on the water? The bird begins with a glide to slow down and lose altitude, similar to reducing power in an airplane. The bird then increases the angle of attack by putting its tail down. At the same time it curls its wings to change their shape or camber, as flaps do for an airplane. This gives the bird lift at slower speeds. The tail fans out like speed brakes to slow the bird further. Finally, the bird puts out its legs, like floats that skim the water, and it settles into the water at minimum speed and rate of descent. If the descent rate is too great, the bird flaps its wings to soften the touchdown, as a pilot might add power in a similar situation.

Teaching Aerodynamics

Your student, Jan, is beginning work on her private pilot certificate, and you need to introduce her to basic aerodynamic concepts. Jan is college-educated, and works as an information technology professional, so you know that she can grasp higher-order concepts. Although you don't want to overwhelm her with aerodynamic theories right away, you need to be able to delve more deeply into any topic if she understands the basics easily. Therefore, before you prepare your lesson plan, you decide to review your own aerodynamics texts to make sure you understand the material. You might begin your discussion by explaining how many components on an airplane are based on airfoils. There are really three surfaces on an airplane in addition to the wings that produce lift: the propeller, the horizontal stabilizer, and the vertical stabilizer. The prop is a moving airfoil that produces lift in a forward direction. The horizontal stabilizer is designed with a negative angle of attack, which produces a downward force, or negative lift on the tail. The same thing happens when the rudder is moved one way or the other on the vertical stabilizer. It provides a shape that causes lift to be produced on one side or the other, resulting in yaw around the vertical axis.

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Heres an example of a lesson plan you may create for an average student. If the students grasp the concepts easily, the plan allows for the expansion of several key elements.

Fundamentals of Lift Objectives: To introduce the student to the four forces as they apply to the fundamentals of flight, to introduce principles of lift production, and to incorporate these concepts with a flight lesson.

Elements: Completion Standards: lift, drag, thrust, weight balance of forces in steady flight how lift is produced definitions of terms: airfoil, camber, chord line, center of pressure, planform, angle of attack, relative wind, flight path Newton's Relative Laws of Motion Bernoulli's Principle coefficient of lift vs. angle of attack how lift is controlled by airspeed and angle of attack

The lesson is completed when the student demonstrates understanding of the four forces of flight and the basic principles associated with the production of lift.

Further Study:

Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual (3-1 to 3-6) Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge AC 61-23C (FAA-H-8083-25) Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual (Chapter 3) Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (AC 61-23C) (FAA-H-8083-25) Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators

References:

One tool that you may find useful is an application provided on line by NASAs Glenn Research Center. FoilSim is a simulator that allows you to manipulate parameters like airfoil thickness, camber, airspeed, and angle of attack. The FoilSim presents these changes graphically to show how they affect relationships involving the production of lift. You can use this simulation to demonstrate these relationships to your students. On the same web site, youll also find several lessons that may help you find new ways to discuss these concepts. You can use the following technique to teach basic aerodynamic principles: 1. Take a flexible straw and a Ping-Pong ball. 2. Bend the straw up at a 90 angle and place one end in your mouth. 3. Hold the ball over the open end of the straw and begin to blow. 4. Slowly let go of the ball and see what it does. You can find other experiments on the National Air and Space Museum web site in their interactive presentation on How Things Fly. Though this site is designed with kids in mind, the principles of aerodynamics are explained in an approachable, logical manner that is useful to adults as well.

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Teaching Aerodynamics

You are looking for an interesting way to teach your student, Bob, about the various forms of drag, and how they interrelate. You explain the different forms of parasite drag and how it is part of the total drag created by the form or shape of airplane parts. But, induced drag is a little bit more challenging for Bob to grasp. Since Bob is working on his private pilot certificate, during the first few hours he really only needs to know that induced drag is a by-product of lift, and increases with reduced airspeed. You can give Bob a more detailed explanation later on in his training, once he has had hands-on experience from which to draw. Then, you can discuss the total drag versus the power curve, and reinforce these concepts by demonstrating slow flight. 1. Reduce power, and gradually apply back pressure on the yoke. 2. When your student reaches the desired airspeed, increase power to maintain altitude. 3. During turns, your student must coordinate pitch and power increase to maintain airspeed. 4. Have your student add full power to return to cruise flight. An important aspect of teaching is ensuring your students understand and can use the material. Asking good questions is a simple way to determine what your students have learned.

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A good question is one that: forces your students to think critically about a given situation. requires your students to apply theory and proper procedures to come up with a sound answer. can't be answered with a simple yes or no. takes thought and practice to create. Questions are especially helpful when youre ready to expound upon a given subject. For example, once you have discussed the power curve and induced drag with your students, you can ask them how these concepts help explain the behavior of an airplane flying in ground effect. This would lead to a discussion of wingtip vortices.

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For more advanced students, you can begin with a review of the power-required curve. Then, elaborate to show how thrust and power relate and taper off with airspeed, indicating the maximum level flight speed. Thrust Available and Thrust Req. (Pounds) Thrust Available 400 Thrust Required 300 Power Available and Power Req. (HP)

200

300

Maximum Level Flight Speed Power Available

100 0 40 80

200 Maximum Level Flight Speed

120 160 Power Required 200 240 Speed (KIAS) 100

40

80

120 160 Speed (KIAS)

200

240

You may use the following lesson plan as a template for designing your own session on drag basics for a student working on a private certificate. Drag Basics Objective: To introduce the student to induced and parasite drag, how drag is affected by airspeed, and to relate the concept of the power curve to a flight lesson on slow flight.

Elements: Completion Standards: parasite drag; how it varies with airspeed induced drag; function of angle of attack; how it varies with airspeed total drag; drag curve power curve

The lesson is completed when the student demonstrates understanding of how drag varies with airspeed by proper power management when transitioning through all speed regimes.

Further Study:

Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual (3-14 to 3-18) Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (AC 61-23C) (FAA-H-8083-25) Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual (Chapter 3) Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledege (AC 61-23C) (FAA-H-8083-25) Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators

References:

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Teaching Aerodynamics

Stability
Many airplanes are designed to maximize the positive elements of stability, maneuverability, and controllability. In order to teach these concepts to your students, you should first point out the axes of the airplane and then describe the stability of, or around, each axis.

REVIEW: Stability
Static stability the tendency for an object to initially return to equilibrium when displaced Most airplanes are designed to demonstrate positive static stability. If an airplane displays negative static stability, we refer to it as unstable. Dynamic stability the tendency of an object to return to equilibrium over time when displaced, also referred to as damping If an airplane returns to equilibrium immediately, it displays non-oscillatory dynamic stability. If an airplane returns to equilibrium through a series of oscillations, it displays oscillatory dynamic stability. If an airplane initially returns to equilibrium, but then continues to oscillate further away, it displays negative dynamic stability, or dynamic instability. Longitudinal stability refers to stability about the lateral axis, also known as pitch stability Lateral stability refers to stability about the longitudinal axis, also known as roll stability Directional stability refers to stability about the vertical axis, also known as yaw stability.

Yaw
Bump

Pitch

Positive static, neutral dynamic stability in an oscillatory mode

Positive non-oscillatory dynamic stability

Bump

Longitudinal Axis
Bump

Roll Vertical Axis

Positive static and negative dynamic stability

Lateral Axis
Positive oscillatory dynamic stability

Bump

The machine does not isolate man from the great problems of nature but plunges him more deeply into them. Antoine de Saint Exupery, Wind, Sand, and Stars, 1939

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Your student, Ed, is learning about stability. It can be helpful to use props and other objects in your lesson that Ed can manipulate to learn these concepts. Think for a moment how you might use each of the following in a lesson: Since a hat stand, much like an airplane, is heavier at one end than the other, you can use a hat stand to show how a downward force is necessary on the tail. This points out the need to place the horizontal stabilizer in such a way as to create this downward force. From here, you can discuss how the result leads to a balance of forces. A pendulum displays positive, oscillatory dynamic stability in a simple, elegant way. When the pendulum is displaced, it returns to its starting position through a series of oscillations. A rocking chair displays both positive static and dynamic stability unless rocked past a certain distance. Then, the chair essentially crashes. You may be able to apply this similarity in stability, up to a point, to the airplane you fly with your students. A pen can be used to demonstrate positive, neutral, and negative static stability, depending on how its placed on the table. If you lay it on the table, its neutrally stable. If you stand it on one end, its unstable. And, if you balance it in the middle, on your finger perhaps, its positively stable.

You may also want to apply principles of stability to the kinds of flying your students plan on doing after they get their certificates. Lets say one of them, Karen, tells you she wants to enter an air race. Make sure you point out to her that placement of the CG can have an effect on the maximum TAS she can expect from the airplane. If she plans the weight and balance so the airplanes CG is toward the rear end of the envelope during the race, the airplane may fly a couple of knots faster. Explain to her the tradeoff will be a slightly less stable airplane than she may be used to.

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Several features incorporated into common airplanes help you demonstrate the links between stability and design. You can show how elevator trim design aids the pilot in maintaining longitudinal stability. 1. In straight-and-level flight, have your student trim the airplane to a normal cruise airspeed. 2. Then, have your student displace the nose by pitching down. 3. Tell your student to release the controls. As the airplane begins an oscillation back to equilibrium, discuss how the trim tab works to keep the airplane at a particular airspeed.

Teaching Aerodynamics

When the trimmed airplane pitches up, reduced tail-down force allows the airplane to pitch down. If the airplane pitches down, increased tail-down force raises the nose.

There are four common design features that influence lateral stability: weight distribution dihedral sweepback keel effect You may have no control over the design features that help maintain lateral stability, but you can show your student how to control the distribution of weight and improve lateral stability. For example, most training airplanes have two fuel tanks, one inside each wing. By using fuel from only one tank, your student will soon notice that the airplane wants to roll toward the wing with the full tank. The distribution of weight is uneven and lateral stability is affected. Discussing proper fuel management with your student by switching tanks, can prevent the lateral imbalance caused by a significant difference in weight between fuel tanks. The training airplane you use may have a certain amount of dihedral built in to increase its lateral stability. You may want to go out to the airplane with your students as you discuss how an airplane with dihedral behaves in a sideslip. It may be easier for them to understand how the lower, upwind wing creates more lift from the relative wind if they have the actual wing in front of them. Sweepback, which is more commonly used on corporate jet aircraft, has a lateral stabilizing effect. Lateral stability also is provided by the vertical fin and side area of the fuselage reacting to the airflow very much like the keel of a ship. Keel effect is the steadying influence exerted by the side area of the fuselage and vertical stabilizer.
Relative Wind

Roll Force Yaw Force

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You may also find it easier to discuss the weathervaning tendency built into many airplanes if you are out on the ramp. Show how the greater surface area of fuselage and vertical stabilizer behind the vertical axis increase the directional stability. Weathervaning can be demonstrated nicely on final approach in a crosswind.

Stalls
A student pilot may simply need to know how stalls occur and how to recognize and recover from them, or avoid them altogether. However, a CFI student must become more intimately familiar with stalls in order to teach them in a way that promotes a high level of stall awareness.

REVIEW: Stalls
Private pilot aeronautical knowledge stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery techniques for the airplane and glider category ratings Flight instructor aeronautical knowledge the aeronautical knowledge areas for a recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificate applicable to the aircraft category for which flight instructor privileges are sought

Keep the aeroplane in such an attitude that the air pressure is always directly in the pilot s face. Horatio C. Barber, 1916

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Andy has started lessons again after several years. He mentions that his first instructor introduced stalls to him on the first lesson. After some questions, you find out that this instructor didn't spend much time on the ground explaining stalls to Andy, and so his grasp of the concepts involved was poor from the beginning. You get the feeling stalls startled Andy, and that may be why he didnt solo. However, hes obviously excited about learning to fly. The way you introduce stalls to students affects not only the way they view stalls, but how often they practice them before the test, and whether they continue to stay current in stall recovery after they become certificated. Therefore, its important to give them the details about stall aerodynamics before you get in the airplane.

1. During stall practice, your student will pitch the nose of the airplane above the horizon to induce a stall. Be sure to point out that stalls can occur at any attitude. 2. To recover, your student needs to release back pressure to reduce the angle of attack. 3. If a wing drops, your student can pick up the dropped wing using the rudder. Demonstrate how the ailerons may not be effective in recovering from a wing drop. You can use the following as a template for your own lesson plan on stalls. This lesson plan can easily be adapted for any level of student, from private to commercial. Be sure to emphasize that the nose does not have to be above the horizon in order for an airplane to stall. You will need to add some additional points to cover stalls for a CFI student.

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Teaching Aerodynamics

Stalls Objective: To familiarize the student with the aerodynamic properties, the causes of, and the proper recovery procedures for stalls; to incorporate this information with a flight lesson which introduces stalls and stall recovery.

Elements: Completion Standards: coefficient of lift vs. angle of attack; critical angle of attack independent of airspeed, attitude airflow; flow separation aircraft reaction; sensory inputs recovery: angle of attack, power, flight controls

The lesson is completed when the student demonstrates understanding of the cause of stalls and proper recovery techniques.

Further Study:

Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual (3-36 to 3-38) Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (AC 61-23C) (FAA-H-8083-25) Airplane Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-3 (5-2 to 5-11) Jeppesen Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Manual (Chapter 3) Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators

References:

Rather than just teaching your students how to recover from stalls, you should also teach them how to avoid stalls by recognizing common situations that lead to their development. Here are three exercises you may conduct with your students to ensure they develop good stall avoidance skills. Wing Pick-Ups 1. Have your students start at or above 2,000 feet AGL to ensure you recover from any unintentional stall above 1,500 feet AGL. 2. Establish a typical approach speed for the training airplane. 3. Set the flaps in the same position as for a short-field takeoff. 4. Lower the right wing with the ailerons to a 30 bank. 5. Pick the wing up using the left rudder. 6. Have your students practice until they can smoothly bring the wings level with the horizon.

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Some may recognize the next maneuver as Dutch rolls. Coordination Maneuver 1. Have your students start above 1,500 feet AGL. 2. Establish a typical approach speed for the training airplane. 3. Put the nose of the airplane on a point near the horizon. 4. Bank the airplane left and right, using smooth and prompt rudder inputs to keep the nose on the point. 5. Have your students start with shallow banks; steeper banks are harder to coordinate through the maneuver.

Realistic Distractions This is a structured way of covering the use of realistic distractions mentioned in the Practical Test Standards. 1. Have your students start at or above 2,000 feet AGL to ensure you recover from any unintentional stall above 1,500 feet AGL. 2. Establish an airspeed 10 - 15% below a normal approach airspeed. 3. Begin a 20 banked turn, as though turning from base to final. 4. Tell your students an aircraft just called on final and have them look over their shoulder. 5. Return to straight-and-level flight at the initial airspeed. 6. Have your students change the radio frequency, as though the tower handed them off to an alte nate tower frequency. 7. Return to straight-and-level flight at the initial airspeed. 8. Instruct your students to reset the heading indicator, as though they forgot to check the compass until after they passed the outer marker on an approach. 9. Return to straight-and-level flight at the initial airspeed. 10. Tell your students to reach back and grab a chart or A/FD out of the back seat to check the pattern altitude. 11. Recover to normal cruise airspeed, and straight-and-level flight.

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Teaching Aerodynamics

Spins
No matter what level your students are, they need to understand spin entries, how spins develop, and the proper recovery procedures. However, many training airplanes are not approved for spins. Many students mistakenly believe that some normal and all utility category airplanes are acceptable for spin training. This concept is false. No normal category airplane is approved for spins, and an airplane certificated in the utility category is not necessarily approved for spins. This is another good reason to always review the AFM or POH prior to conducting spin training in a particular airplane.

REVIEW: Spins
Spin entries and spins are taught on the aeronautical knowledge level to those applying for recreational, private, and commercial certificates. This training normally is conducted in a classroom. CFI applicants must show a logbook entry attesting that they possess instructional proficiency in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery and have completed this training competently with an authorized instructor. Unless the CFI applicant fails any portion of the practical test relating to stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery, the endorsement is normally accepted in lieu of performing spins on the checkride. According to 14 CFR 91.307, a parachute is not required when performing spins and other flight maneuvers required by the regulations for any certificate or rating.

Do not spin this aircraft. If the aircraft does enter a spin it will return to earth without further attention on the part of the aeronaut. first handbook issued with the Curtis-Wright flyer

Randy is a private pilot. On one of his recent cross-country flights, he ended up returning later than he expected, after sunset. Although he was in VFR conditions, he became disoriented and put the airplane into an unusual attitude before regaining control. He approaches you, shaken by the experience, and he asks if you would be willing to give him practice in more unusual attitude recoveries, including spins. You have a Cessna 172 available in which you can perform spins if it's loaded within the utility portion of the envelope. If you start Randys spin training by going out to the practice area and putting the airplane into a two-turn spin with no preparation, you may only frighten Randy more. Begin the training with a ground discussion on spin entries and recovery procedures. You should add to this some discussion of spin aerodynamics as well, depending on how long it has been since Randy received his private certificate. When Randy has a clear understanding of spin entry, spins and spin recovery techniques, start the flight with slow flight and power-on and power-off stalls before progressing to incipient spins, and finally, fully developed spins. Do not wait until evening to simulate the conditions Randy encountered on his recent flight. Even though he may gain some benefit from flying again in similar conditions, actual spin practice at night, though legal, may not be prudent. A progression from known to unknown maneuvers builds upon the knowledge that Randy already has and lays a solid foundation for skill development.

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As you teach spins, much of your emphasis should be on spin avoidance. Unintentional spins may occur because the pilot is distracted from flying the airplane that is, failing to pay attention to the airplanes attitude and airspeed. Most of these occur in the base to final turn. Pilots will attempt to recover from an overshoot of the extended runway centerline with the rudder. When the airplane begins to overbank as a result of the use of the rudder, the pilot reacts with opposite aileron. When the nose drops as a result of these actions, the pilot reacts with back elevator. The result: a crossed-control, stall-spin accident that is usually fatal due to the airplanes proximity to the ground. Because a stall must occur before a spin develops, many of the same distraction exercises used for stall-avoidance training can be used in spin-avoidance training. The following step-by-step procedure can serve as your basis for demonstrating the aerodynamic principles of slow flight to your students. 1. Assign a heading and an altitude. Have your student reduce power and slow to an airspeed just above the stall speed, using trim as necessary. 2. Have your student maintain heading and altitude with the stall warning device activated. 3. Demonstrate the effect of elevator trim, using neutral and full nose-up settings, and rudder trim. 4. Point out the left-turning tendency and rudder effectiveness. 5. Emphasize how right rudder pressure is necessary to center the ball in the turn coordinator and maintain heading. 6. Release the rudder and advise the student to observe the left yaw. 7. While at the low airspeed, have your student enter left and right turns without using the rudder pedals, to demonstrate adverse yaw. 8. Demonstrate flap extension and retraction, and point out the changes in stall speed. According to Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67C), spin avoidance training should consist of stalls and maneuvering during slow flight using realistic distractions. Performance is unsatisfactory if you must take control of the aircraft in order to avoid a fully developed spin. Several scenarios for providing realistic distractions to your students have been covered in this lesson. For more ideas, consult AC 61-67C.

"Where would you land if the engine failed?"

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Your student, Jenny, asks you why the airplane she flies isn't approved for spins, but a similar one that a friend flies is approved. You decide this is a great opening to discuss how airplanes are designed for different purposes, as well as how minor differences in design can have a great impact on why one airplane can recover predictably from spins, and others cannot. Most Cessna 172s may be used for spin training if certain conditions exist. The airplane must be loaded so that its CG falls within the envelope reserved for operations in the utility category. The airplane typically must be loaded so there are no passengers in the rear seat, or baggage in the aft compartment. Pitts are widely known as high-performance aerobatic airplanes. Various Pitts are available from the factory, or as home-built kits. Both are the result of a long history of growth from Curtis Pitts original designs in the 1940s. Incredibly light power loading (6.4 lbs./hp.) and a sturdy biplane configuration, combined with symmetrical airfoil wings and inverted oil systems, make this airplane capable of performing complex aerobatic maneuvers.

Teaching Aerodynamics

The Cirrus SR20 has not been tested or certified for spins or spin recovery characteristics, nor has it been certified as spin-resistant. However, the stall characteristics of the SR20 make accidental entry into a spin extremely unlikely. The CAPS (Cirrus Aircraft Parachute System) was used for certification to FAR part 23 as an Equivalent Level of Safety.

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If you listen to pilots hangar fly, you may hear a number of different stories regarding how to recover from a spin. If you look in an airplane's POH, you'll find a definitive answer. In the absence of a manufacturer's recommended procedure, the FAA has outlined a basic spin recovery procedure that can be followed. The FAA recovery procedure is: 1. Reduce the throttle to idle. 2. Position the ailerons to neutral. 3. Apply full opposite rudder against the rotation. 4. When the rotation slows, briskly move the elevator forward to approximately the neutral position. 5. After the spin rotation stops, neutralize the rudder. 6. Begin applying back-elevator pressure to raise the nose to level flight. Exercise caution when applying aft elevator pressure during the recovery, to avoid a secondary stall. Also, be careful to avoid excessive airspeed buildup which could cause you to exceed the design limit load factor during recovery. All of these steps have their basis in how an airplane tends to react to certain control inputs during a spin. Full power, for example, may bring the nose up and flatten the spin. In general, using opposite aileron also flattens the spin, while aileron into the turn tends to tighten the spin. Full rudder deflection should be used, and the airplane may not stop rotating for a couple of turns. Recovery from the stalled condition occurs last, as elevator input before this point may also tighten the spin.

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CG location is also important in spin recovery. An accident involving a Beech Baron is a good example. The Baron was loaded four inches aft of the CG limit. When the Baron's pilot flew into heavy turbulence at altitude, the airplane stalled and spun in. Investigators theorized the pilot could not recover from the flat spin that developed due to the aircraft loading.

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Teaching Aerodynamics

Maneuvering Speed
You can build in basic concepts to help your students understand maneuvering speed (VA) and apply it to flight operations. Maneuvering speed (VA) is often poorly understood. To help ease the learning process, you may want to begin by covering the basics of load factor then segue into a discussion of how it relates to maneuvering speed. Below is an example of how you can model your lesson:

REVIEW: Maneuvering Speed

Design maneuvering speed (VA) the maximum speed at which you can use full, abrupt control movement without overstressing the airframe Maneuvering speed is based on the aircrafts gross weight. Generally, VA indicated in the POH is for the aircrafts maximum gross weight, and the value decreases as aircraft weight decreases. A full, abrupt control movement at VA generates the maximum amount of lift possible without exceeding the limit load factor. The aircraft stalls rather than incurring structural damage.

Have your students consider an airplane fly Though VA is not marked on the airspeed indicator, youll ing in straight-and-level flight at 97 knots. find it on a placard in the cockpit, or listed in the POH. Then ask the students what would happen if the pilot abruptly pulled back on the yoke and induced a severe load on the airframe. Your students should note that as the load increases so does the stall speed, and as the load approaches two Gs, the airplane nears a stall.

The course of the flight up and down was exceedingly erratic, partly due to the irregularity of the air, and partly due to lack of experience in handling this machine. Orville Wright

5 4 Load Factor ( G's ) 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 Speed ( kts ) Stall Region Maneuvering Speed (VA) Negative Limit Load Factor Stall Region Positive Limit Load Factor

Ask them what would happen if the load were increased further. If they do not know, show them how the airplane would stall causing the load to decrease, and allowing the airplane to unload itself. The stall would prevent the pilot from inducing a load greater than two Gs. Now, take the discussion one step further. Talk about the maximum structural limits for airplanes, and have your students consider an airplane with a maximum load of four Gs. Ask them if it would be possible for the airplane flying at 97 knots to exceed the four-G load limit. Because the airplane would stall at two Gs, they should note that the load limit could not be exceeded at this air-

speed. Many students get confused when considering how maneuvering speed varies with aircraft weight. Point out that the above discussion was based on the published stall speed of the airplane, which is given at maximum certificated weight. If an airplane weighs less, it will stall at a lower than published stall speed and thus have a lower maneuvering speed. One relationship that you need to thoroughly explain to your students is that between gross weight and maneuvering speed. Though some of your students will easily digest this relationship by studying the formulas involved, many students have difficulty with math. For them, you can describe the theory using non-mathematical concepts and examples. These students may understand the mathematical processes better if they can visualize that the more an aircraft weighs, the higher its stall speed, and, therefore, the higher its maneuvering speed.

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An airplanes stall speed varies according to its weight. First find the ratio of the aircraft's current weight to its maximum gross weight. If max gross weight is 2,400 lbs., and youre flying at a weight of 1,800 lbs., youre at 75% of max gross weight. Stall speed is equal to the published VS multiplied by the square root of the current weight's ratio to max gross weight. For example, if your C-172 has a VS of 51 knots, multiply 51 by the square root of .75 to get the new stall speed at the given weight. In this case, the stall speed is 44.2 knots. Maneuvering speed equals this stall speed multiplied by the square root of the limit load factor. If you take 44.2 knots, and multiply it by the square root of 3.8, which is 1.95, this equals 86.2 knots, which is the maneuvering speed for the C-172 at 1,800 lbs. You may also take the square root of the weight ratio and multiply it by the published VA. Though you may introduce maneuvering speed as a speed for turbulence penetration, as well as one for performing maneuvers, you may find some pilots have forgotten this concept. They may remember maneuvering speed as a factor only in performing maneuvers for the practical test. Therefore, it may be worthwhile to review other situations where this airspeed is important, and help them make their flights safer and more comfortable. The application of VA for turbulence penetration is to: 1. Disconnect the autopilot. 2. Slow to below VA. 3. Maintain a level flight attitude to the extent possible. Max is flying his airplane IFR through an area where there have been reports of embedded thunderstorm activity. Though he has lightning detection and radar equipment on board, he still manages to find himself inside a cell. At this point, he could panic, and lock himself on the controls, fighting to stay upright. Or, he can prevent a control input which might overstress the airplane, by keeping the controls unloaded. Simply reacting to unusual attitudes by forcing the airplane immediately in the other direction can impose structural loads severe enough to cause damage or airframe failure if maneuvering speed is exceeded. However, most airplanes can survive encounters with severe and even extreme turbulence, but this depends, in part, on the actions of the pilot.

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Brenda is taking some friends on their first ride in a small airplane. One of them expresses some anxiety about turbulence. Brenda tells them that the afternoon is warm, and the ride might get a little rough. She could plan, however, on cruising at a reduced speed, such as maneuvering speed. You can teach your students to slow the airplane to give passengers a smoother ride. If you have them imagine the airplane as a boat, and the air they fly through as a body of water, they can visualize how slowing the airplane down can cause them to ride the air with fewer jolts.

Teaching Aerodynamics

Summary
You can accomplish this goal by having well-developed lesson plans and a variety of examples in your repertoire to engage your students. By applying concepts immediately to the flying they do every day, you can help them gain insight into why they are learning about aerodynamics.

Aeronautics was neither an industry nor a science. It was a miracle.

Igor I. Sikorsky

Activities
I. Select the choice(s) that complete the sentence or answer the question for the following items: 1. A good question is one that: A. requires a simple yes or no answer. B. forces your student to think critically about a given situation. C. should not take much thought and practice to create. D. requires your student to apply theory and proper procedures to come up with a good answer.

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2. What factors affect lateral stability? A. Dihedral B. Keel effect C. Horizontal stabilizer D. Weight distribution 3. Under what conditions should you not exceed VA? A. Turbulent air penetration B. Steep turns C. Takeoff D. Chandelles 4. What surfaces on an airplane, in addition to the wings, produce lift? A. Propeller B. Spoilers C. Horizontal stabilizer D. Vertical stabilizer II. 5. Indicate the correct order the procedure for recovering from a spin. A. When the rotation slows, briskly move the elevator forward to approximately the neutral position. B. Begin applying back-elevator pressure to raise the nose to level flight. C. Reduce the throttle to idle. D. Apply the full opposite rudder against the rotation. E. After the spin rotation stops, neutralize the rudder. F. Position the ailerons to neutral. III. 6. Which realistic distraction might you use that could cause your student to stall the airplane while on the departure leg of the traffic pattern? A. Have your student call for a weather briefing. B. Have your student change the radio frequency, as though he was just called by the tower. 7. Which realistic distraction might you use that could cause your student to stall the airplane while on the crosswind leg of the traffic pattern? A. Instruct your student to reset the DG. B. Instruct your student to reprogram the GPS waypoints. 8. Which realistic distraction might you use that could cause your student to stall the airplane while on the downwind leg of the traffic pattern? A. Tell your student to reach back and grab the A/FD to check pattern altitude. B. Tell your student to reach back and check the A/FD to see what airport you're on downwind for. 9. Which realistic distraction might you use that could cause your student to stall the airplane while on the base leg of the traffic pattern? A. Instruct your student to perform the final landing checklist. B. Instruct your student to grab the airplanes landing distance performance chart. 10. Which realistic distraction might you use that could cause your student to stall the airplane while on the final approach leg of the traffic pattern? A. Let your student know theyre on final. B. Have him identify an aircraft on the taxiway.

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Teaching Aerodynamics

The Exam
Log in to CFI Renewal Online and review the lesson. Complete online the exercises that you just studied here. Then, you can take the exam for Teaching Aerodynamics. Make sure you are familiar with these requirements before taking the exam.

Activity Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. B, D A, B, D A, B, D A, C, D C, F, D, A, E, B B A A. A B