CHING 5 formwork is removed, especially when the concrete surface reflects

the texture, joints, and fasteners of a board form.

Wall systems
--- Plywood forms can be smooth, or be sandblasted or wire brushed
CONCRETE COLUMNS to accentuate the grain pattern of the face ply.

--- Dowels overlap vertical bars extend down into footing or pile cap
far enough to develop adequate length for anchorage.

--- Splices may be made by lapping the ends of vertical bars orby
butting the ends of vertical bars and either connecting them with a
sleeve clamp or arc-welding the butt joint.

--- The contact surfaces of forms are coated with a parting

compound—oil, wax, or plastic—to aid in their removal
--- Fiber forms made of compressed, resin-impregnated paper have a
smooth or spiral pattern finish and are disposable.
--- Yokes are clamping devices for keeping column forms and the
tops of wall forms from spreading under the fluid pressure of newly
placed concrete.
--- Spreaders, usually of wood, space and keep the wall or forms
apart.
--- there are two basic types of form work snap ties and she bolts.
--- The color of concrete can be controlled with the use of colored
cement and aggregates.
--- Exposed aggregate finishes are produced by sandblasting, etching
with an acid, or scrubbing a concrete surface after the initial set in
order to remove the outer layer of cement paste and expose the
aggregate.
--- Bétonbrut refers to concrete that is left in its natural state after
--- The concrete surface can be sand blasted, rubbed, or ground
smooth.
--- Both smooth and textured surfaces can be bush- or jackhammered
to produce coarser textures.
--- Bush hammered finishes are coarse-textured finishes obtained by
fracturing a concrete or stone surface with a power-driven hammer
having a rectangular head with a corrugated, serrated, or toothed
face.
--- Tilt-up construction is a method of casting reinforced concrete wall
panels on site in a horizontal position, then tilting them up into their
final position.
MASONRY WALLS
--- bricks, which are heat-hardened clay units, and concrete blocks
structural clay tile, structural glass block, and natural or cast stone.
--- A wythe refers to a continuous vertical section of a wall that is one
masonry unit in thickness.
--- Reinforced masonry wall sutilize steel reinforcing bars embedded
in grout-filled joints and cavities to aid the masonry in resisting
stresses;
--- Water penetration must be controlled through the use of tooled
joints, cavity spaces, flashing, and caulking.
--- Type K mortar is a very-low-strength mortar suitable only for use in
interior nonloadbearing walls where permitted by the building code.
UNREINFORCED MASONRY WALLS
--- Wythes maybe bonded by masonry headersor by metal ties.

--- Openings maybe arched or spanned with lintels. Grouted Masonry

Mortar
--- Mortar is a plastic mixture of cement or lime, or a combination of
both, with sand and water, used as a bonding agent in masonry
construction.
--- Lime mortar is a mixture of lime, sand, and water that is rarely
used because of its slow rate of hardening and low compressive
strength.
--- Cement-lime mortar is a cement mortar to which lime is added to
increase its plasticity and water-retentivity.
Grouted masonry walls have all interior joints filled entirely with
grout as the work progresses.
Cavity Walls
Cavity walls have two advantages over other types of masonry walls:
• enhances the thermal insulation value of the wall
• The air space acts as a barrier against water penetration if the
cavity is kept clear, and if adequate weep holes and flashing
are provided.

--- Type M mortar is a high-strength mortar recommended for use in

reinforced masonry below grade or in contact with the earth,

--- Type S mortar is a medium-high-strength mortar recommended for

use in masonry where bond and lateral strength are more important
than compressive strength;

--- Type N mortar is a medium-strength mortar recommended for

general use in exposed masonry above grade where high compressive
and lateral strength are not required

--- Type O mortar is a low-strength mortar suitable for use in interior

nonloadbearing walls and partitions.
REINFORCED MASONRY WALLS
Reinforced masonry walls use steel reinforcing bars placed in
thickened joints or cavities with a fluid grout mix of portland cement,
aggregate, and water for greater strengthin carrying vertical loads
and increased resistance to buckling and lateral forces.

Reinforced Concrete Unit Masonry

--- All cells containing reinforcement are filled solidly with grout.

MASONRY ARCHES
--- Skewback is a stone or course of masonry having a sloping face
against which the end of a segmental arch rests.

--- Keystone is at the crown of an arch,

MASONRY LINTELS
EXPANSION & CONTROL JOINTS
--- Masonry materials expand and contract with changes in
temperature and moisture content.

--- Clay masonry units tend to absorb water and expand, while
concrete masonry units usually shrink as they dry after manufacture.

Expansion Joints
--- Expansion joints should provide lateral stability across the joint,

Control Joints
--- Control joints are constructed to open slightly to accommodate the
shrinkage of a concrete masonry wall as it dries after construction.
Shrinkage cracking can be also controlled by using Type 1 moisture-
controlled concrete masonry units and reinforcing horizontal joints.

--- Control joints should be sealed to prevent the passage of air and
water and interlock to prevent out-of-plane movement. Joint
reinforcement should be interrupted to allow in-plane movement.

MASONRY BONDING
 --- LBX Grade: loadbearing structural clay tile suitable for masonry
walls exposed to weathering or frost action.

--- Structural facing tile is structural clay tile having a glazed surface
and used for facing walls and partitions, especially in areas subject to
heavy wear, moisture problems, and strict sanitation requirements.

--- FTS Grade: structural facing tile suitable for exposed exterior and
interior masonry walls and partitions where moderate absorption

--- FTX Grade: smooth structural facing tile suitable for exposed
exterior and interior masonry walls and partitions where low
absorption and stain resistance are required, and where a high
degree of mechanical perfection,

GLASS BLOCK
--- Glass block may be used in nonloadbearing exterior and interior
walls, and in conventionally framed window openings. The glass block
units are laid in Type S or Type N mortar

--- Curved wall panels should have expansion joints at each change of
direction.

ADOBE AND RAMMED-EARTH CONSTRUCTION

--- Adobe and rammed-earth construction both use unfired, stabilized
earth as the primary building material.

--- Adobe is sun-dried clay masonry, traditionally used in countries

with little rainfall.
STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE
--- rammed-earth is essentially a stiff mixture of clay, silt, sand, and
--- Structural clay tile is hollow tile of fired clay having parallel cells or water that is compressed and dried within forms as a wall
cores and used typically in constructing walls and partitions. construction.

--- LB Grade: loadbearing structural clay tile suitable for masonry walls
STONE MASONRY
not exposed to frost action
--- Natural stone is a durable, weather-resistant construction material
--- Natural stone may be bonded with mortar and laid up in the
traditional manner as a double- faced loadbearing wall.
--- More often, however, stone is used as a facing veneer tied to a
concrete or masonry backup wall. To prevent discoloration of the
stone, only non-staining cement and noncorrosive ties, anchors, and
flashing should be used.
--- Quoin refers to an exterior angle of a masonry wall,
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING
--- Conventional steel-framed structures are constructed of hot-rolled
beams and columns, open-web joists, and metal decking.
--- Orient the webs of columns parallel to the short axis of the
structural frame or the direction along which the structure is most
susceptible to lateral forces.
--- Resistance to lateral wind and seismic forces requires the use of
shear planes, diagonal bracing, or rigid framing with moment-resisting
connections.
--- The most frequently used section for columns is the wide-flange
(W) shape. It is suitable for connections to beams in two directions
--- The allowable load on a steel column depends on its cross-
sectional area and its slenderness ratio (L/r), where (L) is the
unsupported length of the column in inches and (r) is the least radius
of gyration for the cross section of the column. --- Built-up columns maybe glue- laminated or mechanically fastened.

LIGHT-GAUGE STEEL STUDS --- Spaced columns consist of two or more members separated at
their ends and middle points by blocking
--- lightweight, noncombustible, and dampproof. Metal stud walls
may be used as nonloadbearing partitions or as bearing walls WOOD POST-AND-BEAM FRAMING
supporting light-gauge steel joists.
--- Post-and-beam framing may qualify as heavy timber construction if
BALLOON FRAMING the plank-and-beam floor and roof structures are supported by
noncombustible, fire-resistive exterior walls and the wood members
--- Balloon framing utilizes studs that rise the full height of the frame and decking meet the minimum size requirements specified in the
from the sill plate to the roof plate, building code.
--- minimal vertical shrinkage it affords may be desirable for brick
veneer and stucco finishes. WOOD POST-BEAM CONNECTIONS
--- The strength of a post-and-beam connection depends on:
PLATFORM FRAMING
• The species and grade of lumber used
--- Platform framing is a light wood frame having studs only one story
• The thickness of the wood members
high,
• The angle of the resisting force relative to the grain of the
--- Above openings oversized header may be used to eliminate short wood
cripples. • The size and number of bolts or timber connectors used

--- Generally, greater efficiency is achieved with a few large bolts

STUD WALL SHEATHING rather than with smaller ones.
• Rated Panel Sheathing
• Gypsum Sheathing
Timber Connectors
• Fiberboard Sheathing
--- If there is insufficient surface contact area to accommodate the
• Rigid Foam Plastic Sheathing required number of bolts, timber connectors can be used.
--- Because the foam plastic is an effective vapor barrier, the wall --- Timber connectors are more efficient than bolts or lag screws used
assembly must be properly vented. alone because they enlarge the area of wood over which a load is
distributed and develop higher stresses per unit of bearing.
WOOD COLUMNS
--- Wood columns may be solid, built-up, or spaced.
WOOD POST-BEAM CONNECTIONS