B.

MASSIVE STAR
NSCS02G - Physical Science (Ms. Rentar)
LESSON 1: 1. Neutron Star – formed from supernova explosion. It is also
the smallest star.
Nucleosynthesis 2. Supernova – explosion of star. It releases large amount of
= Nucleo (“Nucleus”) + Synthesis (“putting together”)
energy. Because of that, elements are dispersed into the space.
p + n → D+γ
p - proton | n - neutron | D- deuterium nucleus| γ - gamma 3. Red Super Giant – A more massive main sequence star
ray (energetic photon) evolves, cools and expands faster than low mass star and will
turn into Red Super Giant star, the largest known star.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE UNIVERSE
72% - Hydrogen Star Life Cycle PROCESSES (definitions of 1 to 3 are from internet)
25% - Helium 1. Nuclear Fusion - is the process in which atomic nuclei
2% - Others
physically combine to form one or more different atomic nucleus
FORMATION OF ELEMENTS and additional sub-atomic particles such as neutrons.
1. Big Bang - It is also known as Nucleosynthesis. It formed 1.a proton-proton chain - is the chief source of the energy
the 3 light elements; Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Lithium (L) radiated by the Sun and other cool main-sequence stars.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis - formed heavy elements; Beryllium 1.b CNO Cycle - it doesn’t consume any carbon; it simply
(Be) to Iron (Fe) / 4 to 26 uses carbon as a catalyst. It is the dominant source of energy in
stars heavier than about 1.5 times the mass of the sun. provides
3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis - formed elements heavier than
Fe; Cobalt (Co) to Uranium (4) / 27 to 92 much of the energy released by hotter stars.
1.c Tri-Alpha Process - is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by
4. Trans-Uranium - Lab-created, synthetic; Neptunium (Np) to
which three helium nuclei are transformed into carbon. Here,
Oganesson (118) (93 to 118)
stars fuse together three alpha particles, creating a new particle
ISOTOPES – are atoms of the same element that have the with six protons and six neutrons.
same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. 2. Alpha Ladder - stars converted helium into heavier elements,
3. Neutron Capture – A neutron is added to a seed nucleus.
Three Isotopes of Hydrogen 3.a (Slow) S-process – When there is a slow rate of
1
H – Protium (1 Proton)
2
capturing neutron while there is a faster rate of
H – Deuterium (1 Proton, 1 Neutron)
3 radioactive decay. Hence, increasing proton by 1.
H – Tritium (1 Proton, 2 Neutron)
3.b Rapid – There is a faster rate of capturing neutron
FIRST THREE ELEMENTS: Hyrdogen | Helium | Lithium before it undergoes radioactive decay.
– from the mentioned processes above, it is
STAR LIFE CYCLE likely to generate the heaviest element.
A. AVERAGE STAR LESSON 2:
1. Red Giant – The star is unable to generate heat when it
5 Parts of an atom:
runs out of hydrogen in its core leading to contraction and
1. Electron Orbits
expansion. It cools down and glows red. The Helium is
2. Electron – neg. charged subatomic particle
fused into Carbon. The star is now Red Giant.
3. Proton – positively charged subatomic particle
2. White Dwarf – When red giant star becomes exhausted of
4. Neutron – neutrally subatomic particle
nuclear fuel, the outer material is blown off into space
5. Nucleus
leaving the inert Carbon. The remnant is known as white
dwarf.
DIFFERENTIATION
3. Nebula – giant cloud of gas and dust
Singularity – One-dimensional point which contains a huge mass
4. Protostar – It is formed from nebula due to the gravity that
in an infinitely small space, where density and gravity become
pulled Hydrogen gas together until it spins faster and faster
infinite and space-time curves infinitely, and where the laws of
and becomes ignited
physics as we know them cease to operate.
5. Main Sequence Star – it starts to form when nuclear fusion
(H,He,Li → Be to Fe → Fe to Uranium →Trans-Uranium )
occurs at the core of the star, it begins to contract, glow
and become stable. Hydrogen is converted to Helium.
Inflation – Basic homogeneity in distribution of matter n the
6. Black Dwarf – This is said to be the remain of white dwarf
universe was established as a consequence of the first phase of
that cooled down and no longer emits light and heat.
inflation.
Nucleosynthesis –was the nuclear fusion and the formation of
Chemical Evolution of the Universe:
new nuclei actions in the early stages of the expansion by the
universe. Chemical Evolution - Low mass stars synthesize ‘new’ He,C,O
Recombination – The formation of the capture of free electrons during the main sequence, RGB,HB and AGB phases
by the cations in a plasma.
Chemical Evolution II - for massive stars, equilibrium’s fusion
reactions produce elements all the way up to Fe
!!REMEMBER!!
Atomic number – the number of protons in an atom Chemical Evolution III - equilibrium fusion reactions of light
Dmitri Mendeleev – Created a classification of elements based elements don’t proceed past Fe because of Fe’s location at the
on their atomic weight. peak of the curve of binding energy
Transuranium elements – Elements with atomic numbers
Superheavy elements - elements with more than 100 proton in
greater than 92.
nucleus
Particle Accelerator – Used to synthesize new elements.
5. Marie Curie – discovered polonium and radium
MEET THE DIFFERENT SCIENTISTS Polonium – first naturally occurring unstable element that was
1. Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley isolated by Marie Curie and Pierre
- researcher at Rutherford’s’ Laboratory
- English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number
LESSON 3: POLARITY OF MOLECULES
of protons determines the most of the properties of an
Atom – basic building block of chemistry
element.
Octet Rule (8 VALENCE Rule) – to make an element stable; The
- His experiment demonstrated that the major properties of an
octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have
element are determined by the atomic number
eight electrons in the valence shell.
- square root → frequency → spectroscopy
Valence – represents number of atoms which an element can
X-ray Spectroscopy - as the name suggests, X-ray spectroscopy
combine. The combining capacity of an element is known as its
is based on the detection and measurement of particles with
valency.
wavelengths that fall in the X-ray region of the electromagnetic
Electronegativity – ability to attract a shared electron
spectrum (0.01-10 nm). (Definition from internet)
Electronegativity trend – it shows how electronegativity
increases from bottom to top in groups, and increases from left
DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
to right across periods. (definition from internet)
Nuclear Transmutation - is the conversion of one chemical to
Fluorine - most electronegative element (from net)
another chemical or isotope by using a nuclear reaction or
Cesium & Francium - least electronegative elements. (from net)
method of radioactive decay (definition from internet)

2. Ernest Rutherford – successfully carried out a POLARITY OF MOLECULES

nuclear transmutation 1. Covalent bond
3. James Chadwick – discovered the neutron in 1932, as a 2. Metallic bonding
previously unknown neutral particle 3. Triple bond
4. Ionic bond
DISCOVERY OF MISSING ELEMENTS 5. Polar covalent bond
4. Ernest Lawrence – synthesized elements with atomic number
43 using a linear particle accelerator Nonmetal - B, Si, As, Te, At AND above
Particle Accelerator – Produce and accelerate beams of charged Metal - BELOW B, Si, As, Te At
particles (electron, proton,..)
Cyclotron – (Definition from internet) Invented by Ernest, t is a TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS:
type of particle accelerator which repeatedly propels a beam of 1. Covalent Bond – 2 nonmetal atoms share electrons
charged particles (protons) in a circular path. – (nm + nm) (Example: P – Cl, H2C)
1.a Polar Covalent - electrons are shared unequally shared
Synthesis of elements: by two atoms in a compound.
a. Bigbang nucleosynthesis/ primordial nucleosynthetsis 1.b Non-Polar Covalent - electrons are equally shared
b. Stellar nucleosynthesis between two atoms.
2. Ionic Bond – (non-metal+ metal) (Example: Na – Cl, Mg – O) BOND DISSOCIATION ENERGY - energy needed to pull atoms
– the metal loses electrons to become a positively apart
charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons ~ LIKE dissolves LIKE
to become a negatively charged anion. ~ Polar + Polar = dissolve
– exists when there is a transfer of one or more ~ Polar + Non-Polar = mix
valence electrons from one atom to another.
SOLUBILITY - ability of solid substance to be dissolved in given
3. Hydrogen Bond – (water molecule to water molecule) amount of solvent (Solid + Liquid)
– Hydrogen attracts an atom electrostatically. Examples: Milk + water = soluble, Rocks + water = insoluble
4. Metallic Bond – (m + m) MISCIBILITY - ability of 2 liquids to combine/mix in all proportions
– positive metal ions attract conductors of electricity creating homogeneous mixture (Liquid + Liquid)
Examples: Oil + water = immiscible, Vinegar + soy = miscible
PAULING ELECTRONEGATIVITY VALUES
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION - chemical bonds
Type of Bond Electronegativity Difference (△EN)
holding atoms together in molecules. (Metallic bond, ionic,
Ionic ≥ 1.7
covalent, metallic, hydrogen bond)
Polar Covalent 0.5 to 1.6
Non-Polar Covalent ≤ 0.4 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION (IEMFA) -
electrostatic attractions between molecules. It is much weaker
1. Ca & Cl 1.0 – 3.0 = 2.00 → Ionic than the intramolecular one.
2. Cl & Cl 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 → Non-Polar Covalent TYPES OF IEMFA (weakest - strongest) Interacting substance / definition
3. H & Cl 2.1 – 3.0 = 0.9 → Polar Covalent 1. Ion-Dipole ion(cation, anion) and
4. S & O 2.5 – 3.5 = 1.0 → Polar Covalent polar molecule
5. C & N 2.5 – 3.0 = 0.5 → Polar Covalent 2. Hydrogen Bonding polar molecule and N, O, F
3. Dipole-dipole polar (partially pos. |
LEWIS STRUCTURE – simplified representation of the valence partially neg.)
shell electrons in a molecule 4. Dipole induced dipole Polar & Non-Polar
(new charge, gets charge sa
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY – 3 dimensional structure of atoms kabila, induced, transient)
Application: (# of circles excluding the center) 5. London Forces Non-Polar & Noble Gas
a) Linear (1,2)
b) Trigonal planar (3) Examples:
c) Bent or angular (4 short) Na+Cl- + Water (ps. water is polar) = ion-dipole
d) Tetrahedral (4 long) Ca+Cl- + Vinegar (ps. vinegar is polar = ion-dipole
e) Trigonal pyramidal ( 4 short and long) Water + N-A+3 = Hydrogen Bonding
f) Trigonal Bipyramidal (5) Vinegar + Methanol = Hydrogen Bonding
O2 + N2 = London forces
g) Octahedral (6)
POLARITY ON MOLECULE BASED ON MOLECULAR SHAPES: Collision Theory - states that for a chemical reaction to occur, the
reacting particles must collide with one another (definition from
- nonpolar = all atoms are bonded to central atom, shape net)
symmetrical 3d Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
- Polar = opposite of nonpolar (NOs) 1. Contact = activation energy
2. Increasing the temperature
Note: You must think about a molecule in 3-D according to 3. Concentration
VSEPR Theory 4. Surface Area (Square Units)
5. Nature of the Reactants / Particle Size (?)
LESSON 3: POLARITY OF MOLECULES (Part 2) 6. Addition of a catalyst (from net)
Identify whether Polar or Non-Polar
1. Water – Polar 2. Chloroform – Non-Polar ~ Surface Area & Particle Size – connected
3. Vinegar – Polar 4. Acetone – Polar Transition State - A transition state is a very short-lived
5. Toluene – Non-Polar 6. Carbon Tetrachloride – Non-Polar configuration of atoms at a local energy maximum in a reaction-
energy diagram (aka reaction coordinate). (from net)
~The activation energy is marked on the Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution with a green line. (from net)
~Catalyst – speeds up – reaction left unchanged
Stoichiometry - in chemistry, the determination of the
proportions in which elements or compounds react with one
another. (definition from net)
Boiling point - temp which vapor pressure and atmospheric
pressure of a liquid substance are equal
- The stronger the IMFA, the higher the BP
Salt – lowers the boiling point
Melting point - temp which solid > liquid
Surface tension - Measured as energy required increasing the
surface area of a liquid by a unit of area
Viscosity - resistance of fluid to flow
Vapor pressure - pressure exerted by substance in its gaseous
state
Volatility - measures rate of which substance vaporizes
_______________________________________________
SUPPLEMENTAL PART
Excess reagent - Reactant or reagent that is left after
chemical reaction is complete. Substance that is not wholly
consumed/entirely reacted
Limiting reagent - reactant that will be consumed completely.
No more reactant, reaction cannot proceed.
Renewable sources - from sources that do not deplete/ can
be replenished within human’s life time
1. Geothermal - Utilizes heat from earth’s crust. Less
environmental hazard than fossil fuel
2. Hydroelectric (hydropower) - Energy of falling/ moving
water to generate electricity
3. Wind power - Electric fan Uses electricity to produce wind.
Wind turbine uses wind to produce electricity
4. solar cells - Source that is dependent on the cycle of the
sun
5. Biomass - Organic matter from plants and animals
QUIZ PART
1. James Chadwick discovered the NEUTRON in 1932.
2. A catalyst is a substance that can be added to
areaction to increase the reaction rate without getting
consumed in the process. - TRUE
3. Raising the temperature of the reaction increases the
rate of the reaction by increasing the energy of the
collisions between reacting particles.
An increase in temperature typically increases the rate
of reaction. An increase intemperature will raise the
average kinetic energy of the reactant molecules.
Therefore, a greater proportion of molecules will have
the minimum energy necessary for an effective collision
4. Increasing the concentration of a substance increases
the kinetic energy of the particles that make up the
substance. - TRUE
5. Decreasing the concentration of reactantsincreases
the collision frequency between reacting particles. -
TRUE
6. Collisions only result in a reaction if the particles
collide with a certain maximum energy call the
activation energy of the reaction. - TRUE
7. The S-process happens when there is a slow rateof
capturing neutron while there is a faster rate of
radioactive decay, hence increasing the proton by 1. -
TRUE