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ort
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BELOW I
SASAMPLEOFATERM PAPER
 UNI
VERSI
TYOFNI
GERI
ANSUKKA
FACULTYOFSOCI
ALSCI
ENCES
DEPARTMENTOFPOLI
TICALSCI
ENCE

TOPI
C:
AREVI
EW OFI
NTERNATI
ONALTREATI
ES,
POLI
CIESAND
LAWSONCULTURALPROPERTI
ES:
ACHI
EVEMENT,
CHALLENGESANDTHEWAYFORWARD

(ANASSI
GNMENTSUBMITTEDINPARTIAL
FULFI
LLMENTOFTHECOURSEPOL102:HISTORYOF
POLI
TICALSCI
ENCE)
.

BY
CHUKWUEMEKAADEKUNLECHI
ROMA.
2023/
111111

LECTURER
DR.BARRYALLEN
 FEBRUARY,
2023.

Ti
tl
ePage:

AREVI
EW OFI
NTERNATI
ONALTREATI
ES,
POLI
CIESANDLAWSONCULTURAL

PROPERTI
ES:
ACHI
EVEMENT,
CHALLENGESANDTHEWAYFORWARD
 Dedi
cat
ion

Idedi
cat
ethi
swor
ktoMrandMr
sSamsonOnwuchekwa
 Acknowl
edgement

Cul
tur
alpr
oper
tymaybeunderser
ioust
hreati
ntheev
entofar
medconf
li
ct.I
nthe

t
went
iet
h cent
ury
,ther
e wer
e cl
eardev
elopment
sini
nter
nat
ionall
aw ai
med at

pr
event
ing and puni
shi
ng warcr
imes agai
nstcul
tur
alpr
oper
ty.Despi
tet
his,t
he

dest
ruct
ion ofcul
tur
alpr
oper
ty dur
ing ar
med conf
li
cthas cont
inued.Thi
s st
udy

t
her
efor
epr
ovi
despossi
blesol
uti
onst
othemenance.

Speci
alt
hanksgoest
oGodAl
might
yforhi
sinf
ini
temer
ciesuponourl
i
ves.
 Tabl
eofCont
ent
s

Ti
tl
ePage

Dedi
cat
ion

Pr
eface/
Acknowl
edgement

Tabl
eofCont
ent
s

Chapt
erOne

1.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion

Chapt
erTwo

2.
1.Def
ini
ti
onofTer
ms

i
.Int
ernat
ional
Treat
y/Ty
pes

i
i
.Cul
tur
alPr
oper
ti
es/
Prot
ect
ion

Chapt
erThr
ee

3.
1.Cul
tur
alPr
oper
ti
esandI
nter
nat
ional
Law

3.
2.Chal
l
engesofPr
otect
ingCul
tur
alPr
oper
ti
esi
nAr
medConf
li
ct

Chapt
erFour

4.
1.TheWay
sFor
war
d
Chapt
erFi
ve

5.
1.Concl
usi
on

Ref
erences
 Chapt
erOne

1.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion

I
ntheev
entofar
medconf
li
ct,
cul
tur
alpr
oper
tycanbeendanger
edi
nvar
iousway
s.

Thedamagecanbeuni
ntent
ional
,whencul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
sdemol
i
sheddur
inganat
tack

onami
l
itar
ytar
get(
col
l
ater
aldamage)
,forexampl
e,orwhencul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
s

negl
ect
ed.Thear
cheol
ogi
stsl
eav
ecount
ri
esatwarandsi
tesar
econsequent
lyl
eft

unpr
otect
ed.Museumsar
etempor
ari
l
ycl
osedandconser
vat
ionef
for
tsonmonument
s

ar
ehal
ted.Themai
ntenanceofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
snol
ongerapr
ior
it
y.Regr
etf
ull
y,t
he

t
hreatt
ocul
tur
alpr
oper
tycanal
sobei
ntent
ional
.Insomecases,t
hedest
ruct
ionof

cul
tur
alpr
oper
tycanbecomeanai
mini
tsel
f.I
nident
it
y-boundconf
li
cts,t
hewar
ri
ng

par
ti
escandest
royt
hesy
mbol
i
cgoodsoft
he“
other
”inor
dert
ounder
scor
ethei
r

hi
stor
iccl
aimst
othet
err
it
ory(
VanderAuwer
a2012)
.Thi
swast
hecasei
nKosov
o,f
or

exampl
e,whent
heSer
bsat
tempt
ed t
o dest
royAl
bani
anMusl
i
m her
it
ageand t
he

Al
bani
an Kosov
arst
arget
ed Ser
bian Or
thodox her
it
age.Mor
eov
er,dur
ing ar
med

conf
li
cts,
archeol
ogi
calsi
tesandmuseumsar
efr
equent
lyl
oot
ed(
e.g.
,thel
oot
ingoft
he

Nat
ionalMuseum i
nBaghdadi
n2003andt
hel
oot
ingofar
cheol
ogi
calsi
tesi
nsout
her
n

I
raq)
.Dur
ing t
he ni
net
eent
h and t
went
iet
h cent
uri
es,t
he i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty

i
ntr
oducedanumberofdi
ff
erentat
tempt
stocount
ersuchact
ivi
ti
es,andi
nter
nat
ional

l
aw i
npar
ti
cul
ardev
elopedi
nthi
sregar
d.Cur
rent
ly,t
her
eisanext
ensi
vei
nter
nat
ional

l
aw sy
stem i
npl
acef
ort
hepr
otect
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tydur
ingar
medconf
li
ct.The

dest
ruct
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
ty,howev
er,cont
inuesunabat
edl
y.Exampl
essuchast
he
bombi
ngofDubr
ovni
k(1991)
,thedest
ruct
ionoft
heMost
arBr
idge(
1992)
,ort
hel
oot
ing

oft
heNat
ional
Museum i
nBaghdad(
2003)ar
eonl
ythet
ipoft
hei
ceber
g.Mor
erecent
ly,

cul
tur
alpr
oper
tyhasbeent
hreat
ened i
nEgy
pt,Li
bya,Mal
i
,and Sy
ria.Thi
sar
ti
cle

consequent
lyf
ocusesonexpl
ori
ngt
hel
acunaei
ntheexi
sti
ngi
nter
nat
ionall
awsy
stem.

I
twi
l
lel
abor
ateoncur
rentpr
obl
emsandpoi
ntsofdi
scussi
onr
elat
edt
othesest
andar
ds

andwi
l
lconcl
udebyquest
ioni
ngt
her
elev
anceoft
hedev
elopmentofanewi
nst
rument
.

Wewi
l
lli
mitour
sel
vest
orev
iewi
ngt
hei
nter
nat
ionall
awi
nst
rument
s.Ot
hermeasur
es

desi
gnedt
opr
otectcul
tur
alpr
oper
tydur
ingar
medconf
li
ct,suchasUNESCOpol
i
cies

andmeasur
es,ar
enotdi
scussedher
e(see,e.
g.,VanderAuwer
a2013)
.Thi
sar
ti
cle

concl
udes t
hatal
though t
her
e ar
e ser
ious shor
tcomi
ngs i
nthe i
nter
nat
ionall
egal

sy
stem f
orpr
otect
ingcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
ntheev
entofar
medconf
li
ct,t
hesear
ebest

addr
essed,notbyaddi
nganaddi
ti
onall
egaldocument
,butbyi
mpr
ovi
ngr
ati
fi
cat
ion,

i
mpl
ement
ati
on,
andsanct
ioni
ngmeasur
es
 Chapt
erTwo

2.
1.Def
ini
ti
onofTer
ms

I
nter
nat
ionalTr
eat
y:Underi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,at
reat
yisanyl
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngagr
eement

bet
weenst
ates(
count
ri
es)
.At
reat
ycanbecal
l
edaConv
ent
ion,aPr
otocol
,aPact
,an

Accor
d,et
c.;i
tist
hecont
entoft
heagr
eement
,noti
tsname,whi
chmakesi
tat
reat
y.

Thus,t
heGenev
aPr
otocolandt
heBi
ologi
calWeaponsConv
ent
ionar
ebot
htr
eat
ies

ev
ent
houghnei
therhast
hewor
d“t
reat
y”i
nit
sname.UnderU.
S.l
aw,at
reat
yis

speci
fi
cal
l
yal
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngagr
eementbet
weencount
ri
est
hatr
equi
resr
ati
fi
cat
ionand

t
he “
adv
ice and consent
”oft
he Senat
e.Al
lot
heragr
eement
s(t
reat
ies i
nthe

i
nter
nat
ionalsense)ar
e cal
l
ed Execut
ive Agr
eement
s,butar
e nonet
hel
ess l
egal
l
y

bi
ndi
ngf
ort
heU.
S.underi
nter
nat
ionall
aw. A t
reat
yisnegot
iat
edbyagr
oupof

count
ri
es,
eit
hert
hroughanor
gani
zat
ionsetupf
ort
hatspeci
fi
cpur
pose,
ort
hroughan

exi
sti
ng body such as t
he Uni
ted Nat
ions (
UN)Counci
lforDi
sar
mament
.The

negot
iat
ionpr
ocessmayt
akesev
eral
year
s,dependi
ngont
het
opi
coft
het
reat
yandt
he

numberofcount
ri
espar
ti
cipat
ing.I
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
sar
efor
malunder
standi
ngs

orcommi
tment
sbet
weent
woormor
ecount
ri
es.

Ty
pesofTr
eat
y

Bi
l
ater
alt
reat
ies:Whenat
reat
yisbet
weent
wost
ates,i
tiscal
l
edabi
l
ater
alt
reat
y.I
t
bi
ndsbot
hthest
atest
owar
dst
heobl
i
gat
ionsment
ionedt
her
einagr
eedbet
weenbot
h

oft
hem.Abi
l
ater
alt
reat
yisal
socal
l
edabi
par
ti
tet
reat
y.Themostcommonexampl
eof

t
hist
reat
yist
heCampDav
idAccor
dst
hatwer
esi
gnedi
n1978bet
weenI
sraeland

Egy
pt.Si
ncet
heAccor
dscompr
isedonl
ytwost
ates,t
her
efor
e,t
heymadeabi
l
ater
al

t
reat
y.

Mul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ies:Theyar
ethet
reat
ieswhi
char
eent
eredi
ntobyanumberofst
ates.

A si
ngl
est
atesi
gni
ngt
hesamet
reat
ysepar
atel
ywi
thmor
ethanonest
atedoesn’
t

makei
tent
eri
ntoamul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
y.Amul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
yisasi
ngl
etr
eat
ywhi
chi
s

si
gnedbymanyst
ates.(
Har
bom andWal
l
enst
een.2007)
Forexampl
e,Non-
Prol
i
fer
ati
on

Tr
eat
y(NPT)i
samul
ti
lat
eral
treat
ysi
gnedbet
ween189St
ates.TheUNCLOSi
sanot
her

i
nst
ancewhi
chi
stheUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionoft
heLawofSeaandt
her
ear
emany

mor
e.

Cul
tur
alPr
oper
ty:Al
though cul
tur
alPr
oper
tymayal
so be i
ntangi
blei
tems buti
s

commonl
yconsi
der
edt
obet
angi
ble(
phy
sical
,mat
eri
al)i
temst
hatar
epar
toft
he

cul
tur
alher
it
ageofagr
ouporsoci
ety
.Theyi
ncl
udesuchi
temsascul
tur
all
andscapes,

hi
stor
icbui
l
dings,wor
ksofar
t,ar
chaeol
ogi
calsi
tes,aswel
lascol
l
ect
ionsofl
i
brar
ies,

ar
chi
vesandmuseums.Legalpr
otect
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tycompr
isesanumberof

i
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
sandnat
ional
laws.

Pr
otect
ionofCul
tur
alPr
oper
ti
es

Humani
tar
iant
radi
ti
onhast
wodi
mensi
ons:f
ir
st,
prot
ect
ionoft
hephy
sicalwel
far
e

oft
heper
sonbypr
ovi
dinghi
m/hermedi
calai
d,f
ood,
shel
terandf
reedom f
rom t
ort
ure;

andsecond,pr
otect
ionofspi
ri
tualandemot
ionalwel
far
ebyenabl
i
ngmobi
l
ity
,fami
l
y
l
i
feandaccesst
ocul
tur
all
i
fe.Si
ncecul
tur
alpr
oper
tyconst
it
utesoneoft
hebasi
c

el
ement
s of ci
vi
li
sat
ion and nat
ional cul
tur
e,i
ts pr
otect
ion av
oids emot
ional

embi
tt
erment
,andcont
ri
but
est
owar
dsf
ort
if
icat
ionoft
hedef
enceofpeacei
nthev
ery

mi
ndsofpeopl
e(Ger
stenbl
i
th,2006)
.Thepr
eambl
etot
heHagueConv
ent
ion1954

r
eci
tes:“
Bei
ngconv
incedt
hatdamaget
ocul
tur
alpr
oper
tybel
ongi
ngt
oanypeopl
e

what
soev
ermeansdamaget
othecul
tur
alher
it
ageofal
lmanki
nd,si
nceeachpeopl
e

makesi
tscont
ri
but
iont
othecul
tur
eoft
hewor
ld;consi
der
ingt
hatt
hepr
eser
vat
ionof

t
hecul
tur
alher
it
agei
sofgr
eati
mpor
tancef
oral
lpeopl
esoft
hewor
ldandt
hatt
his

her
it
ageshal
lrecei
vei
nter
nat
ionalpr
otect
ion”
.(Hl
adi
k,2001)A si
gni
fi
cantpoi
ntof

mul
ti
cul
tur
ali
sm i
smadeouti
nthi
s.Thev
eryr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hef
actt
hateachcul
tur
e’s

phy
sicalobj
ect
s,ar
t,scul
ptur
e,monument
s and l
i
ter
atur
e add t
othe her
it
age of

manki
ndr
efl
ect
scompet
enceofeachcul
tur
algr
oupt
opar
ti
cipat
einwor
ldcul
tur
ewi
th

anequal
i
tyofoppor
tuni
tyal
ongwi
thpr
eser
vingi
tsownor
igi
nal
i
ty.Bei
ngnour
ishedby

t
hest
reamsofsev
eralcul
tur
es,t
hewor
ldcul
tur
ehasanobl
i
gat
iont
owar
dssaf
e

cont
inuat
ionofeachcul
tur
e‘sphy
sical
cont
extwhi
chi
sinext
ri
cabl
yli
nkedt
oit
sident
it
y.

ThePr
eambl
etakescogni
sanceoft
hef
actt
hatcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyhassuf
fer
edgr
ave

damagedur
ingr
ecentar
medconf
li
ctsandt
hat
,byr
easonoft
hedev
elopment
sint
he

t
echni
ques ofwar
far
e,t
her
eisi
ncr
easi
ng dangerofdest
ruct
ion.I
tbel
i
eves t
hat

pr
otect
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tycannotbeef
fect
iveunl
essbot
hnat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional

measur
eshav
ebeent
akent
oor
gani
sei
tint
imeofpeace.Thet
hrustoft
heabov
e

obj
ect
ivei
sspr
eadov
ert
heoper
ati
vepr
ovi
sionsoft
heConv
ent
ion.
 Chapt
erThr
ee

3.
1.Cul
tur
alPr
oper
ti
esandI
nter
nat
ional
Law

Asear
lyas1863,t
hepr
otect
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
ntheev
entofar
medconf
li
ct

wassetouti
ntheFr
anci
sLi
eberI
nst
ruct
ionsf
ort
heGov
ernmentofAr
miesoft
he

Uni
ted St
atesi
ntheFi
eld(
theso-
cal
l
ed Li
eberCode)
.1.TheBr
ussel
sDecl
arat
ion

(
1874)
2 and t
he Oxf
ord Manual(
1880)
3.r
efl
ecta si
mil
arappr
oach.The Hague

Conv
ent
ionsof1899and1907wer
ebasedont
heset
ext
s,andr
esul
tedi
nteral
i
aint
he

Conv
ent
ion(
IV)r
espect
ingt
heLawsandCust
omsofWaronLandandi
tsannex,4.

whi
chpr
ohi
bitt
hedest
ruct
ionandsei
zur
eofcul
tur
alpr
oper
ty.Howev
er,
thebombi
ngof

t
heCat
hedr
alofRhei
ms,t
hebur
ningoft
heLeuv
enUni
ver
sit
yLi
brar
ydur
ingt
heFi
rst

Wor
ldWar
,andt
hebombi
ngofDr
esdeni
ntheSecondWor
ldWarhi
ghl
i
ght
edt
he

i
nsuf
fi
ciencyoft
heexi
sti
ngpr
ovi
sions. (
Mer
on,2005)
.TheDut
chgov
ernmentand

UNESCOdeci
dedt
oor
gani
zeadi
plomat
icconf
erenceont
hemat
terand,i
n1954,t
he

Conv
ent
ionont
hePr
otect
ionofCul
tur
alPr
oper
tydur
ingAr
medConf
li
ct5wasadopt
ed.

Thet
reat
ygener
all
ypr
ohi
bit
sthedest
ruct
ionandsei
zur
eofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyandi
tsuse
f
ormi
l
itar
ypur
poses,exceptwhenmi
l
itar
ynecessi
tydi
ctat
esot
her
wise.Mor
eov
er,

somemor
especi
fi
cmeasur
eswer
eest
abl
i
shed,
suchas:

(
1)st
atepar
ti
es“
under
taket
opr
epar
eint
imeofpeacef
ort
hesaf
eguar
dingofcul
tur
al

pr
oper
tysi
tuat
edwi
thi
nthei
rownt
err
it
oryagai
nstt
hef
oreseeabl
eef
fect
sofanar
med

conf
li
ct,
byt
aki
ngsuchmeasur
esast
heyconsi
derappr
opr
iat
e”.

(
2)“
cul
tur
alpr
oper
tymaybearadi
sti
nct
iveembl
em soast
ofaci
l
itat
eit
srecogni
ti
on”

t
heso-
cal
l
edBl
ueShi
eld;

(
3)pr
ovi
si
onst
omeett
heai
msoft
heconv
ent
ionhav
etobef
oreseeni
nmi
l
itar
y

gui
del
i
nes and def
ense f
orces hav
eto est
abl
i
sh ser
vices orat
tr
actspeci
ali
zed

per
sonnel
;and

(
4)cul
tur
alpr
oper
tyof“
ver
ygr
eati
mpor
tance”canr
ecei
vemor
especi
fi
cpr
otect
ion

wheni
tshostst
ateappl
i
esf
orspeci
alpr
otect
ion.

3.
2.TheChal
l
engesofPr
otect
ingCul
tur
alPr
oper
ti
esi
nAr
medConf
li
ct

Thel
oot
inganddest
ruct
ionofcul
tur
alher
it
agehasbeenaf
eat
ureofar
med

conf
li
ctf
oral
mostasl
ongwehav
erecor
dsofconf
li
ct.Fort
housandsofy
ear
sitwas

per
cei
vedast
her
ightoft
hev
ict
ort
otakeanenemy
’spr
oper
tyanddest
roywhatcoul
d

notbet
aken.Assy
rianr
eli
efsshow t
hesackoft
empl
esandt
her
emov
aloft
hegods;

t
hecol
osseum i
nRomewasbui
l
twi
thspoi
l
stakenf
rom t
hesackofJer
usal
em;

cent
repi
ecesofmanyEur
opean nat
ionalmuseum col
l
ect
ions,i
ncl
udi
ng t
heBr
it
ish

Museum andt
heLouv
re,
wer
eacqui
reddur
ingcampai
gnsabr
oad.
 Assy
rianWal
lrel
i
eff
rom Ni
mrud,I
raq,showi
ngt
her
emov
alofcapt
uredgods.

Br
it
ishMuseum number118931.Copy
rightTr
ust
eesoft
heBr
it
ishMuseum.Yetf
or

mi
l
lenni
a,at
tempt
shav
ebeenmadet
oli
mitwar
,andsetst
andar
dsf
ort
roopconduct
.

Mi
l
itar
ytheor
ist
sfr
om SunTzui
n6t
hcent
uryBC Chi
nat
ovonCl
ausewi
tzi
n19t
h

cent
uryEur
opehav
ear
guedt
hatdamagi
nganddest
roy
ingt
hecul
tur
alher
it
ageof

v
anqui
shedenemi
esi
sbadmi
l
itar
ypr
act
ice(
O’Keef
e,2006)
.Li
eber
’scodi
fi
cat
ionoft
he

Ar
ti
clesofWari
n1863–par
tofanat
temptt
opr
ovi
deet
hicalgui
dancedur
ingabi
tt
er

ci
vi
lwar-i
ncl
udedcl
ausesspeci
fi
cal
l
ypr
otect
ingmuseum col
l
ect
ionsandl
i
brar
ies.

Thesecl
auseswer
erepeat
edanddev
elopedi
ntheensui
ngHagueConv
ent
ionsonl
and

war
far
eof1899and1907.Howev
er,
itwasnotunt
ilaf
tert
hewi
despr
eaddest
ruct
ionof

cul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
ntheSecondWor
ldWart
hatnew i
nter
nat
ionall
awswer
ewr
it
ten,

f
ocussi
ngexcl
usi
vel
yont
hepr
otect
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
nar
medconf
li
ct–t
he1954

HagueConv
ent
ionf
ort
hePr
otect
ionofCul
tur
alPr
oper
tyi
ntheEv
entofAr
medConf
li
ct,

andi
tsFi
rstPr
otocol
(1954)
.

Acl
oser
eadi
ngoft
he1954HagueConv
ent
ionandi
tsPr
otocoldemonst
rat
est
hat

t
heywer
ebasedont
heexper
iencesdur
ingWor
ldWarI
I.Ther
equi
rementi
nMi
l
itar
y

measur
est
oest
abl
i
sh“
speci
ali
stper
sonnel
whosepur
posewi
l
lbet
osecur
erespectf
or

cul
tur
alpr
oper
ty”i
sacl
earr
efer
encet
otheMonument
s,Fi
neAr
tsandAr
chi
vesuni
t

(
MFAA)
,bet
terknownast
heMonument
sMen,whoser
vedt
hroughoutEur
opeandt
he

FarEastandwhower
eresponsi
blef
orsav
ingt
housandsofar
twor
ksandbui
l
dings.

Fol
l
owi
ngt
hewar
,theuni
twasdi
sbanded,pr
esumabl
ybasedont
heexpect
ati
ont
hat

eachcount
rywoul
dgoont
oest
abl
i
shi
tsownuni
t,asr
ecommendedbyt
henew

l
egi
slat
ion.
 manyway
s,t
her
eis no cl
ear
erdemonst
rat
ion oft
he i
mpor
tance ofcul
tur
al

pr
oper
typr
otect
ioni
nar
medconf
li
ctt
hant
he1954HagueConv
ent
ion.TheGener
al

Conf
erenceofUNESCOacknowl
edgedt
heneedf
orsuchl
egi
slat
ionandest
abl
i
sheda

commi
tt
eet
odr
afti
tin1951,j
ustsev
eny
ear
saf
tert
heendofWor
ldWarI
I.56St
ates

wer
eul
ti
mat
elyi
nvol
vedi
ndr
aft
ingi
t(Pet
erson,
2007)

Chapt
erFour

4.
1.TheWayFor
war
d

Cul
tur
alPr
oper
tyi
sal
sounderser
ioust
hreatdur
inganyar
medconf
li
ct,i
tmaybe

at
tackeddel
i
ber
atel
ybecausei
trepr
esent
sasy
mboloft
heenemyandi
tsi
dent
it
y,bei
t

hi
stor
ical
,cul
tur
alorr
eli
gious.I
tmaybesubj
ectt
opi
l
lageort
hef
tforpr
ofi
t.Ori
tmay

si
mpl
ysuf
feri
nci
dent
aldamagedur
inghost
il
it
ies,t
her
efor
e,publ
i
cawar
enessshoul
d

ber
aisedwi
thr
egar
dtot
hecul
tur
alPr
oper
tybot
hint
hecount
ryandabr
oad.Secondl
y,

Dev
elopt
rai
ningcour
sesf
orl
awenf
orcementser
vices,
cust
omsandj
udi
cial
aut
hor
it
ies,

wi
tht
he suppor
tofcul
tur
ali
nst
it
uti
ons.As wel
las t
he r
e-or
ient
ati
on ofmi
l
itar
y

per
sonnel
sandsanct
ioni
ngbr
eaker
sofi
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
.

Att
henat
ionall
evel
,ther
eshoul
dbecr
eat
ionanat
ionaldat
abaseconnect
edt
o
I
NTERPOL’
sSt
olenWor
ksofAr
tDat
abase.Dev
elopandenhancenat
ionall
egi
slat
iont
o

pr
otectcul
tur
alher
it
ageandr
egul
atet
hear
tmar
ket(
UNESCO Dat
abaseofNat
ional

Cul
tur
alHer
it
ageLaws)
.

Pr
epar
ati
onofi
nvent
ori
esofpubl
i
ccol
l
ect
ionsusi
ngst
andar
dswhi
chwi
l
lmakei
t

possi
blet
oci
rcul
atei
nfor
mat
ioni
ntheev
entoft
hef
t.Dev
elopacomput
eri
zeddat
abase

al
ongt
hel
i
nesoft
hosecur
rent
lyi
nuse,
toav
oiddupl
i
cat
ionofef
for
t(Smi
th,
1986)
.

Ci
rcul
ati
onofi
nfor
mat
ionont
hef
tsasr
api
dlyaspossi
ble.Usageandcont
ri
but
ion

t
otheI
NTERPOL’
sSt
olenWor
ksofAr
tdat
abasebyshar
ingi
nfor
mat
ionr
egar
ding

st
olenwor
ksofar
t.Becomi
ngapar
tyt
oint
ernat
ionalconv
ent
ionssuchast
he1970

UNESCOConv
ent
ionandt
he1995UNI
DROI
TConv
ent
ion.Assessmentoft
hepot
ent
ial

useoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
iononTr
ansnat
ionalOr
gani
zedCr
ime(
UNTOC)t
o

f
ighti
l
li
citt
raf
fi
cki
ngofcul
tur
alpr
oper
ty;

Chapt
erFi
ve

5.
1.Concl
usi
on

The mai
nthr
eat
sto cul
tur
alpr
oper
tycome f
rom del
i
ber
ate at
tack,i
nci
dent
al

damage,pi
l
lageandt
hef
t.
138Thei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyhasr
espondedt
othese

t
hreat
sbypr
ovi
dingal
egalf
ramewor
kfort
hepr
otect
ionofcul
tur
alpr
oper
ty.Pr
iort
o

1999,t
heHagueConv
ent
ionandPr
otocol
scont
ainedmanyl
i
mit
ati
onsbutt
oagr
eat

ext
entt
hesehav
enow beenr
ect
if
ied.Howev
er,manycount
ri
esar
enotpar
ti
est
othe

HagueConv
ent
ion1954andi
tsl
aterPr
otocol
sandt
her
efor
ear
eonl
ysubj
ectt
oli
mit
ed

i
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionscont
ainedi
not
hert
reat
ies.Al
lcount
ri
esshoul
dnow adopt

t
hesel
aws.Whencul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
sdamagedordest
roy
edt
heef
fect
ivenessoft
hese
l
awsi
sof
tencal
l
edi
ntoquest
ion.Howev
er,
arguabl
yiti
smor
eappr
opr
iat
etobl
amet
he

par
ti
esdi
rect
lyengagedi
nconf
li
ctf
ort
hei
rlackofr
esponsi
bil
i
tyandr
espect
.Ascanbe

i
l
lust
rat
ed byt
he l
oss oft
he Bami
yan St
atues,t
he damage t
othe By
blos Wor
ld

Her
it
age139 si
te and mor
erecent
lyt
he at
tacksneart
he Monast
eryofDecanii
n

Kosov
o,140t
her
eisl
i
ttl
ethatt
hel
awcandot
opr
otectcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyf
rom del
i
ber
ate

andwi
l
fuldest
ruct
ion.(
Wil
l
iams,2011)Onl
yachangei
ngl
obalat
ti
tudesandi
ncr
eased

r
espectf
orourdi
ff
eri
ngcul
tur
escanpr
otectsuchi
tems.Eachandev
erycount
ryhasa

r
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
opubl
i
clyeducat
enotonl
ythosei
nvol
vedi
nthemi
l
itar
yanddef
ence

f
orcesbutal
soi
tsci
ti
zens,
thatcul
tur
alpr
oper
tyshoul
dbepr
otect
edf
ort
hef
utur
eofal
l

peopl
e.141Cul
tur
alpr
oper
tyi
spar
toft
hei
nher
it
anceofhumanki
ndandshoul
dnev
er

be del
i
ber
atel
y at
tacked as a sy
mbol
i
c gest
ure ofpowernorsuf
ferpr
event
abl
e

i
nci
dent
all
oss.I
tsdest
ruct
ioni
nti
mesofar
medconf
li
cti
snoti
nev
itabl
epr
ovi
dedt
he

i
nter
nat
ional
legal
regi
mef
ori
tspr
otect
ioni
sef
fect
ivel
yimpl
ement
ed.

Ref
erences

Ger
stenbl
i
th,
Pat
ty(
2006)
.“TheCasef
orChangei
nInt
ernat
ional
Lawi
ntheAf
ter
mat
h

oft
he

2003Gul
fWar
.”Conf
erenceonPr
otect
ingCul
tur
alHer
it
age:
Int
ernat
ional
Law

af
tert
he

Wari
nIr
aq.Chi
cago.ht
tp:
//cul
tur
alpol
i
cy.
uchi
cago.
edu/
paper
s/2006-
prot
ect
ing-

her
it
age/
Ger
stenbl
i
th.
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Har
bom,
L.andP.Wal
l
enst
een.(
2007)
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medConf
li
ct:
1989–2006.
”Jour
nal
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623–634.

Hl
adi
k,J.(
2001)
.“Pr
otect
ionofCul
tur
alHer
it
agedur
ingHost
il
it
ies.
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I
nter
nat
ional

53(
3):
65–66.

Mer
on,
T.(
2005)
.“ThePr
otect
ionofCul
tur
alPr
oper
tyi
ntheEv
entofAr
medConf
li
ct

wi
thi
ntheCaseLawoft
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cri
minal
Tri
bunal
oft
heFor
mer

Yugosl
avi
a.”

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nter
nat
ional
57(
4):
41–60.

O’
Keef
e,R.(
2006)
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otect
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tur
alPr
oper
tyi
nAr
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li
ct.Cambr
idge:

Cambr
idgeUni
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sit
yPr
ess.

Pet
erson,
Kri
sti
nE.(
2007)
.“Cul
tur
alApocal
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TheLossoft
heI
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NewPr
oposal
fort
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ti
mePr
otect
ionofMuseums.
”Mi
nnesot
aJour
nal
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I
nter
nat
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ngh,
J.P.2011.Uni
tedNat
ionsEducat
ional
,

Sci
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if
ic

andCul
tur
alOr
gani
zat
ion(
UNESCO)
:Cr
eat
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msf
oraCompl
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Yor
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Rout
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Smi
th,
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1986)
.“Conf
li
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l
ect
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dent
it
y:Cl
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nter
nat
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li
ctResol
uti
on:
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yandPr
act
ice.edi
tedbyE.AzarandJ.
W.

Bur
ton,
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a,S.(
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ati
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otect
ionofCul
tur
alPr
oper
ty

dur
ing

andaf
terAr
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ct.
”Int
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VanderAuwer
a,S.(
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.“Cont
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li
ct,
Nat
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i
sm,
andt
heDest
ruct
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Cul
tur
alPr
oper
tyDur
ingAr
medConf
li
ct:
ATheor
eti
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amewor
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ct

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Wi
l
li
ams,
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.“TheCur
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