Chemical bonds are usually classified as either covalent or ionic.

A covalent bond occurs when atoms share electrons. The resulting cluster of atoms is called a molecule, and the
compound is considered to be molecular.

An ionic bond results from a transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another. This creates oppositely
charged ions that group together into large macroscopic lattices as opposed to small clusters. For this reason,
ionic compounds are not considered to be molecular.

Generally, covalent bonds occur between two nonmetal atoms, whereas ionic bonds occur between a metal and
a nonmetal atom.

IONIC: metal & nonmetal or contains polyatomic ions

Metallic: metals only
Network Covalent: diamond, graphite, SiO2, SiC, Si, Ge
Molecular/Covalent: nonmetal + nonmetal that is not network covalent

1 – mono
2 – di
3 – tri
4 – tetra
5 – penta
6 – hexa
7 – hepta
8 – octa
9 – non
10- dec

The use of the prefixes mono, di, and tri is also a sign that those compounds contain covalent bonds.
Those prefixes are not used in ionic compounds to specify the number of anions in the formula. However, there
are a few polyatomic anions that have prefixes in their name, such as dichromate.
How many grams are in 1.80 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Please express the answer in grams and a
breakdown of how the answer was derived.

Problem:

There are 105.192 grams in 1.80 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

To find out how many grams are in 1.80 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl), you'll need to use the molar mass of
NaCl. Here's the

1. Find the molar mass of NaCl:

- Molar mass of Sodium (Na) = 22.99 g/mol
- Molar mass of Chlorine (Cl) = 35.45 g/mol
- Molar mass of NaCl = (22.99 + 35.45) g/mol = 58.44 g/mol
2. Use the given number of moles (1.80 mol) and the molar mass of NaCl to calculate the mass in grams:
- Mass = (number of moles) × (molar mass)
- Mass = (1.80 mol) × (58.44 g/mol)
3. Calculate the mass:
- Mass = 105.192 g in 1.80 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
To find out how many grams are in 1.80 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl), you'll need to use the molar mass of
NaCl. Here's the

1. Find the molar mass of NaCl:

- Molar mass of Sodium (Na) = 22.99 g/mol

- Molar mass of Chlorine (Cl) = 35.45 g/mol
- Molar mass of NaCl = (22.99 + 35.45) g/mol = 58.44 g/mol

2. Use the given number of moles (1.80 mol) and the molar mass of NaCl to calculate the mass in grams:

- Mass = (number of moles) × (molar mass)

- Mass = (1.80 mol) × (58.44 g/mol)

3. Calculate the mass:

- Mass = 105.192 g

So, there are 105.192 grams in 1.80 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl). Learn more about the Sodium
Chloride here.

Problem:

How many water molecules are in a block of ice containing 2.25 mol of water (H2O)?
Express the number of molecules numerically.

As we know, one mole of each substance contains NA = 6.022×10^23 molecules (avogadro’s)

So, 2.25 moles of water will have N=2.5×6.022×10^23 =13.5×10^23 molecules

Problem:

How many formula units make up 27.4 g of magnesium chloride (MgCl2)?

A formula unit is the empirical formula used to communicate the chemical formula of ionic compounds. As
ionic compounds form giant lattice structures instead of molecules like molecular covalent compounds, we
represent their composition by the lowest ratio between the ions.

We are asked how many formula units make up 27.4 g of MgCl^2. To calculate this, we first convert the mass
of MgCl^2 to moles:

n = m/M

n = moles
m = mass
M = molar mass
The molar mass of MgCl^2 is obtained by adding the atomic molar masses of each atom. The atomic molar
masses are obtained from the periodic table:

M = (24.31 g/mol) + (2 x 35.45 g/mol) = 95.21 g/mol

Now we can substitute the values in and solve:

n = m/M
n = 27.4 g / 95.21 g/mol
n = 0.288 mol

We can now convert the moles of MgCl^2 to formula units using Avogadro's number:

Number of formula units = n x NA

n = moles
NA = Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 10^23 formula units / mol)

Substituting the values gives us:

Number of particles = n x NA

= (0.288 mol) (6.022 x 10^23 formula units/mol)

= 1.73 x 10^23 formula units of MgCl2

To learn how to convert grams to moles and to use the mole to find the number of atoms in a sample.
The mole (abbreviated mol) is a counting unit used to simplify calculations that would otherwise involve very
large numbers. The mole is equivalent to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12g of isotopically pure 12C,
or 6.02×1023. This number is known as Avogadro's number in honor of Amedeo Avogadro.

Avogadro's number can be used as a conversion factor between moles and atoms, as shown here:

6.02×10^23 atoms / 1 mole of atoms

The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of a substance and is written in units of grams per mole.
The molar mass of an atom is equivalent to its atomic mass, whereas the molar mass of a substance is
equivalent to its formula weight.
Problem:

How many moles are in 3.00 g of 13C?

(a) Calculate the number of atoms in this amount of 13C.

Molar Mass Applications:

The concept of molar mass is essential in Chemistry. The molar mass can be used to convert various quantities
such as the mass, moles, and number of atoms in an element or compound. Converting one quantity to another
is done via dimensional analysis with the molar mass used as the conversion factor. When dealing with atoms or
molecules, Avogadro's number is used where 1 mole of the element or compound is equal to atoms or
molecules.

How many electrons?

(3 g) (1/13) (6.022 x 10^23 atoms) (6) = 8.34 x 10^23 electrons

How many neutrons?

(3 g) (1/13) (6.022 x 10^23 atoms) (7) = 9.72 x 10^23 neutrons

To understand what an empirical formula is and to learn the procedure for finding empirical formulas.

An empirical formula expresses the simplest ratio of the atoms involved. The compound P4O10 has a P:O ratio
of 4:10. However, this ratio can be simplified to 2:5. Therefore, the empirical formula for P4O10 is P2O5.

Another example is hydrogen peroxide, which has the formula H2O2 and an empirical formula of HO.

One way that chemists analyze new or unknown compounds is to determine the percentage composition of
elements experimentally, which yields the empirical formula.

What is the empirical formula for the compound P4O6? (GCF) --- P2O3

A compound is 80.0% carbon and 20.0% hydrogen by mass. Assume a 100.- g sample of this compound.

How many grams of each element are in this sample?

Carbon = 80.0 g
Hydrogen = 20.0 g

How many moles of each element are in this sample?

(80.0 g C) (1 mol C / 12.01 g C) = 6.66 mol (smallest)

(20.0 g H) (1 mol C / 1.008 g H) = 19.84 mol

6.66 / 6.66 = 1 C
19.84 / 6.66 = 3 H

Empirical Formula: C1H3

To use combustion analysis data to determine an empirical formula

A molecular formula expresses the number of each kind of atom in a molecule. For example, the molecular
formula for propene, C3H6, indicates three carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms per molecule. This also
means that one mole of propene contains three moles of carbon and six moles of hydrogen. An empirical
formula expresses the mole ratio of the elements. The empirical formula for propene is CH2, indicating twice as
much hydrogen as carbon. When analyzing unknown compounds in a lab, it is often possible to identify the
mole ratios, and, thus, the empirical formula, but not the molecular formula.
Notice that the molecular mass of propene, 3(12) + 6(1) = 42 amu, is a multiple of the empirical formula mass,
1(12) + 2(1) = 14 amu.
An unknown compound contains only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CxHyOz). Combustion of 5.50 g of this
compound produced 8.07 g of carbon dioxide and 3.30 g of water.

How many moles of carbon, C, were in the original sample?

How many moles of hydrogen, H, were in the original sample?

c. If 5.50 g of the unknown compound contained 0.183 mol of C and 0.367 mol of H, how many moles of
oxygen, O, were in the sample?

0.183 mol

d. What is the empirical formula of a substance that contains 0.183 mol of carbon, 0.367 mol of hydrogen, and
0.183 mol of oxygen?

(find smallest)

C = 0.183/0.183 = 1
H = 0.367/0.183 = 2
O = 0.183/0.183 = 1
Answer: CH2O

e. Determine the molecular formula for the unknown if the molecular mass is 60.0 amu, and the empirical
formula is CH2O? Express as a chemical formula, please help with the steps.

The empirical formula given is CH2O, which represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in the
compound.

Explanation:

The molar masses of the individual elements are approximately:

Carbon (C): 12 g/mol
Hydrogen (H): 1 g/mol
Oxygen (O): 16 g/mol

Now, let's calculate the molar mass of the empirical formula CH2O:

Molar mass of CH2O = (1 x 12 g/mol) + (2 x 1 g/mol) + (1 x 16 g/mol)

Molar mass of CH2O = 12 g/mol + 2 g/mol + 16 g/mol
Molar mass of CH2O = 30 g/mol

The given molecular mass is 60.0 amu. To find the multiple of the empirical formula that gives us this
molecular mass, we divide the given molecular mass by the molar mass of the empirical formula:

Multiple = molecular mass / molar mass of the empirical formula

Multiple = 60/30 = 2

CH2O

C = 1 x 2 = C2
H = 2 x 2 = H4
O = 1 x 2 = O2

So, the molecular formula for the unknown compound is: C2H4O2
A. When a chemical reaction occurs, atoms rearrange to form new compounds, but no new atoms are created
nor are any destroyed. This concept is called conservation of mass. Mass conservation can be seen in a balanced
chemical equation, where the numbers of each kind of atom are the same on both sides of the reaction arrow.

4A + 6B2 ----- 4AB3 (but find the smallest ratio)

ANSWER: 2A + 3B2 ----- 2AB3

Balancing equations with polyatomic ions. When balancing chemical equations with polyatomic ions, it may
help to balance the ion as a whole. For example, the ion PO43− can be treated as a unit and balanced in both the
reactants and the product, or you can break it down and balance each atom separately.

B. Phosphoric acid reacts with magnesium hydroxide to produce magnesium phosphate and water via the
following reaction:

?H3PO4+?Mg(OH)2→?Mg3(PO4)2+?H2O

Balance the equation, then enter the coefficients, in order, in the answer box. (2,3,1,6)

C. You carefully weigh out 19.00 g of CaCO3 powder and add it to 76.95 g of HCl solution. You notice
bubbles as a reaction takes place. You then weigh the resulting solution and find that it has a mass of 88.16 g.
The relevant equation is:

CaCO3(s)+2HCl(aq)→H2O(l)+CO2(g)+CaCl2(aq)
Assuming no other reactions take place, what mass of CO2 was produced in this reaction? (answer next page)

Percent composition refers to the mass percent of each element in a compound:

mass percent = mass of element/mass of compound × 100%

For example, the percent composition of water, H2O, is 11.2% hydrogen and 88.8% oxygen. Therefore, a 100-g
sample of water contains 11.2 g of hydrogen atoms and 88.8 g of oxygen atoms.

The periodic table will be useful when doing this problem. You can access a periodic table by clicking the
"Tools" link in the upper right corner of this page.

a. A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains mostly carbon and hydrogen. Calculate the percent composition
(by mass) of the following hydrocarbon: C6H14

Given Hydrocarbon: C6H14

To calculate the percent composition of a hydrocarbon, we determine the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the
compound and then calculate the percentage of each element. The molecular formula of the hydrocarbon
indicates that it contains 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms.

To calculate the mass of carbon in the compound:

Mass of carbon=12.01 g/mol

Mass of carbon = Atomic mass of carbon × Number of carbon atoms
Mass of carbon = 12.01 g/mol x 6 = 72.06 g

Mass of hydrogen=1.008 g/mol

Mass of H = Atomic mass of carbon × Number of carbon atoms
Mass of H = 1.008 g/mol x 14 = 14.112 g

Total mass of the compound

= mass of C + mass of H
= 86.118 g

Percentage of C = Mass of carbon / Total mass of the compound) × 100

= (72.06/86.118) x 100 = 83.68%

Percentage of H = Mass of H / Total mass of the compound) × 100

= (14.112/86.118) x 100 = 16.39%

Explanation:
Percentage means a number, or a ratio represented in the form of fractions of 100.

b. A certain metal hydroxide, M(OH)2, contains 32.8 % oxygen by mass. What is the identity of the metal M?
Hydrates are solid compounds that contain water molecules. When hydrates are heated, the water molecules
evaporate, producing the anhydrous form of the compound. The formula of a hydrate may be written in two
different ways. For example, aluminum chloride hexahydrate can be written as [Al(H2O)6]Cl3 or as
AlCl3⋅6H2O. The first formula more accurately shows the bonding arrangement, whereas the second formula
makes it easier to see that the anhydrous form of the compound is aluminum chloride.

a. Name the hydrate MgSO4⋅7H2O

Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, MgSO4⋅7H2O, is also called epsom salt. Epsom salt is often used in bath
salts as well as in gardening.

b. If 15.0 g of MgSO4⋅7H2O is thoroughly heated, what mass of anhydrous magnesium sulfate will remain?
Express your answer to three significant figures and include the appropriate units.